X-Planes: Ryan X-13 Vertijet
Filed under: aerospace, history, engineering
The Ryan X-13 Vertijet did everything it was asked to do and it changed nothing. On 11 April 1957, in the Smithsonian record’s account, it rose vertically from a hook on the back of a lorry, tilted over into wingborne flight, flew, tilted back, hovered, and hung itself on the same hook. Nothing before it had completed that cycle on jet thrust alone, and no crewed jet tail-sitter has completed it since, the French Coléoptère of 1959 having never made the transition to level flight in the record of tail-sitter aircraft. This article is the fourteenth in the X-Planes series, following the X-1, the X-2, the X-3, the X-4, the X-5, the X-6, the X-7, the X-8, the X-9, the X-10, the X-11, and the X-12.
It also ends a run. The X-8, X-9, X-10, X-11, and X-12 were sounding rockets, missiles, and ballistic weapon articles, none of them a research aircraft in the sense the X-1 established. The X-13 is a research aircraft again, built by one company in two examples to answer one question, and the question is a good one. The standard inventory entry remains Jenkins Landis and Miller 2003 American X-Vehicles, An Inventory X-1 to X-50, Miller 2001 The X-Planes, X-1 to X-45 compiles the vehicles, and Rogers 1989 VTOL, Military Research Aircraft supplies the wider vertical take-off context.
The Research Question
An aeroplane is controlled by moving air over surfaces. At zero airspeed there is no air moving over anything, so a machine that intends to hover must be controlled by something else, and at some point in between the something else must hand over.
Two Systems Whose Authority Scales Differently
The moment available from a control surface is proportional to dynamic pressure,
\[M_{\text{aero}} = q \, S \, \bar{c} \, \Delta C_{m}, \qquad q = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho V^{2}\]so it vanishes as the square of the speed and is exactly zero in a hover. The moment available from deflecting the thrust of the engine does not depend on airspeed at all,
\[M_{\text{thrust}} = T \, \ell \sin \theta\]where $\ell$ is the distance from the nozzle to the centre of mass and $\theta$ is the deflection. One term is quadratic in speed and the other is constant, so they cross exactly once, at
\[V_{\text{equal}} = \sqrt{\frac{T \ell \sin \theta}{\tfrac{1}{2} \rho S \bar{c} \, \Delta C_{m}}}\]and the airframe must be adequately controlled on both sides of that crossing and at it.
Two different crossings will appear below, and they should be separated now. One is the speed at which the aerodynamic surfaces produce as much moment as the deflected thrust does, which is where the two curves meet. The other is the speed at which the aerodynamic surfaces produce enough moment to meet the control-power criterion, which happens earlier because the criterion asks for less than the thrust can supply. Only the second matters, since a vehicle needs adequate control and not maximal control, and the first turns out to lie above the speed at which the aircraft is flying normally anyway.
Here lies the X-13’s research question, and the previous five articles could not have asked it. The X-11 was a mass-fraction problem and the X-12 a terminal-velocity problem. Neither vehicle was ever required to hover, because neither was at zero airspeed while airborne for longer than the instant of lift-off. Campbell 1962, the period’s standard treatment, states the problem generally for this class of aircraft, with the conference record in Conference on V/Stol Aircraft 1960 and NASA 1960, NASA Conference on V/STOL Aircraft.
What Adequate Means
Control authority is judged against an angular acceleration the pilot can use. The hovering and low-speed visual flight experiments of Garren et al 1965 put the lower limit of satisfactory control power at about half a radian per second squared in pitch and three quarters in roll, and this article adopts half in pitch and one in roll for a hovering aircraft. The X-13’s mass at the gross weight of 6,730 pounds that a compilation gives is
\[m = 3053 \, \text{kg}\]and its pitching moment of inertia need not be estimated. The Langley spin-tunnel programme tabulated the airplane’s full-scale mass characteristics, and Bowman 1957 gives 4,042 slug square feet in pitch for the normal loading with full fuel and the landing hook, at 6,696 pounds. Converting at 1.3558 kilogramme square metres to the slug square foot,
\[I_{yy} = 4042 \times 1.3558 = 5480 \, \text{kg m}^{2}\]which is a radius of gyration of $\sqrt{I_{yy}/m} = 1.34$ metres, or 0.19 of the 7.14 metre length, so the required pitching moment is
\[M_{\text{req}} = I_{yy} \, \dot{q}_{\text{req}} = 5480 \times 0.50 = 2740 \, \text{N m}\]The criterion is an estimate and is identified as such in the Epistemic State. The criteria themselves were being established experimentally at this moment, and the aircraft that established them was the next one in this series, in Drinkwater and Rolls 1962 using the variable-stability X-14A, with the visual-flight investigation in Garren et al 1965.
Three Axes, Three Different Answers
The crossing is not a single event, because the three axes are controlled by different things and hand over at different speeds.
Pitch is deflected thrust against elevons, and both act about the same axis with comparable arms. Yaw is deflected thrust against a rudder, and on a tail-sitter the rudder is on a fin that is short because the fuselage is short. The Smithsonian record gives elevons and a rudder for conventional flight and a vectorable exhaust nozzle for the hover. Roll cannot use deflected thrust at all, and the reason is geometric rather than a matter of degree. The moment of a force applied at a position is
\[\mathbf{M} = \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{F}\]and for a nozzle on the longitudinal axis the position vector is parallel to that axis, so
\[\mathbf{M} \cdot \hat{\mathbf{x}} = (\mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{F}) \cdot \hat{\mathbf{x}} = 0\]for any $\mathbf{F}$ whatever. The rolling moment from the nozzle is identically zero and not merely small, so a separate device is required that a conventional aeroplane does not carry.
That asymmetry explains why a tail-sitting jet looks the way it does. The roll axis forces a design decision, and the puffer jets that a compilation places outboard of the X-13’s wingtip endplates exist to serve it. Friend 1964 studies systematically what a jet vertical take-off aircraft needs by way of reaction control, and Hoffman 1971 quantifies the cost of providing it.
Where They Cross
With the wing area of 191 square feet and span of 21 feet that Bowman 1957 tabulates for the airplane, a mean chord taken as area over span,
\[\bar{c} = \frac{S}{b} = \frac{17.74}{6.40} = 2.77 \, \text{m}\]and an elevon pitching-moment increment of 0.10 at full deflection, the aerodynamic moment is
\[M_{\text{aero}} = \tfrac{1}{2} \times 1.225 \times 17.74 \times 2.77 \times 0.10 \, V^{2} = 3.013 \, V^{2}\]Setting that equal to the requirement gives the speed below which the control surfaces cannot do the job,
\[V_{\text{cross}} = \sqrt{\frac{2740}{3.013}} = 30.2 \, \text{m/s} = 59 \, \text{knots}\]The vectored thrust, meanwhile, is ample everywhere. A ten degree deflection of 10,000 pounds of thrust at an assumed 3.5 metre arm gives
\[M_{\text{thrust}} = 44{,}482 \times 3.50 \times \sin 10^{\circ} = 27{,}035 \, \text{N m}\]which is
\[\frac{M_{\text{thrust}}}{M_{\text{req}}} = \frac{27{,}035}{2740} = 9.87\]Evaluating the equal-authority crossing introduced above gives
\[V_{\text{equal}} = \sqrt{\frac{27{,}035}{3.013}} = 94.7 \, \text{m/s}\]so the two curves do not meet until well beyond the speed at which the aircraft is flying normally, and the elevons never dominate within the transition. The fraction of the available authority that is aerodynamic,
\[\lambda(V) = \frac{M_{\text{aero}}(V)}{M_{\text{aero}}(V) + M_{\text{thrust}}}\]is therefore small throughout.
| Speed | Aerodynamic share of available authority |
|---|---|
| 0 m/s | 0.000 |
| 20 m/s | 0.043 |
| 30.2 m/s | 0.092 |
| 40 m/s | 0.151 |
| 60 m/s | 0.286 |
At the speed where the elevons first become adequate they still supply only about a tenth of what is available, and the nozzle is doing the rest. The handover is more gradual than a single crossover speed suggests.
The vectored thrust supplies nearly ten times what is needed. The criteria this is measured against were assembled over the following decade, in Tapscott 1960 on primary handling qualities for hovering and transition, Anderson 1960 examining the criteria themselves, Clark 1964, and later by moving-base simulation in McCormick 1969 and by task performance measurement in Harper and Sardanowsky 1969. So the handover is not a struggle between two marginal systems. The thrust vectoring is comfortable from zero airspeed upward, and the aerodynamic surfaces become comfortable at 30 metres per second. That speed means little until it is set against the speed at which the wing starts to fly.
Controls Before the Wing
The wing begins carrying the aircraft at its stall speed. At a gross weight of 29,935 newtons over 17.74 square metres, with a maximum lift coefficient of 1.0 for a thin delta without high-lift devices,
\[V_{\text{stall}} = \sqrt{\frac{2W}{\rho S C_{L\max}}} = \sqrt{\frac{2 \times 29{,}935}{1.225 \times 17.74 \times 1.0}} = 52.5 \, \text{m/s}\]so
\[\frac{V_{\text{cross}}}{V_{\text{stall}}} = \frac{30.2}{52.5} = 0.575\]The control surfaces become adequate at well under three fifths of the speed at which the wing starts flying. The controls come alive before the wing does, and without that ordering a tail-sitting jet would not be possible at all. Had the crossover come at twice the stall speed the aircraft would have had a band of speeds in which it was flying on its wing and could not be pointed, a condition that cannot be survived.
The ordering is not luck. Both quantities scale with $W/S$ and with the same dynamic pressure, so their ratio depends on the ratio of the control-moment coefficient to the lift coefficient and on the geometry, and not on the size or weight of the aircraft. A tail-sitting jet works because the same air that lifts a wing also works its controls, and both start at once. Aoyagi and Tolhurst 1964 and Spencer 1962 describe the low-speed characteristics that set the wing side of it. A control surface too small would break it, and weight would not, so later sections return repeatedly to this design margin.
Writing the ratio out makes the independence explicit. Both speeds come from setting a moment equal to a requirement,
\[V_{\text{cross}}^{2} = \frac{I_{yy} \dot{q}_{\text{req}}}{\tfrac{1}{2} \rho S \bar{c} \, \Delta C_{m}}, \qquad V_{\text{stall}}^{2} = \frac{2W}{\rho S C_{L\max}}\]so their ratio is
\[\left( \frac{V_{\text{cross}}}{V_{\text{stall}}} \right)^{2} = \frac{I_{yy} \, \dot{q}_{\text{req}} \, C_{L\max}}{W \bar{c} \, \Delta C_{m}}\]The wing area has cancelled and the air density has cancelled. What remains is the pitch inertia divided by the weight, which for a given shape scales as a length, divided by the mean chord, which is also a length. The ratio is therefore a function of proportions and of the required angular acceleration, and not of scale, which is why a one-fifth-scale model of this aircraft can demonstrate the same handover. It also made the requirement the variable of interest, and Johnston and Friend 1965 and Johnston et al 1965 studied directly whether the control power a hovering aircraft needs depends on its size.
Programme Origin
A Navy Question From 1947
The line begins with the Navy. In 1947 the Bureau of Aeronautics awarded Ryan a contract to investigate a vertically launched jet fighter, as part of an evaluation of submarine-based aircraft, according to the National Air and Space Museum’s record of the aircraft, and a compilation gives the original designation as F3R. The motivation was that a vertically launched fighter needs no runway, and so could operate from a small ship, from a clearing, or from a submarine. Ryan’s starting point was the FR-1 Fireball, a mixed-power fighter the company had already built, whose thrust-to-weight ratio reached one at low fuel quantities.
A jet test rig preceded the aeroplane. The same record describes an unmanned demonstrator powered by an Allison J33 that first flew on 20 October 1950 and was controlled in the hover by a ball-mounted nozzle, and a manned conversion of it in which Peter Girard made the first manned hovering flight in a jet aircraft on 24 November 1953.
The Navy pursued the same idea with propellers and got there first. The Convair XFY-1 and the Lockheed XFV-1 were turboprop tail-sitters flown from 1954, and the XFY-1 made its first conversion to horizontal flight and back in November 1954. Their development generated the research literature this article rests on, in Lovell et al 1953, Lovell 1954, Queijo et al 1953, Johnson 1954, Smith and Lovell 1954, Schade et al 1954, Kelly and Smaus 1952, Sutton and Buell 1952, and Kirby 1954. The X-13 exists because the Air Force wanted the same demonstration on pure jet thrust, and after the Navy’s funding ran out it contracted Ryan in July 1954 for two demonstrators, according to the Smithsonian record. Compilations, among them the standard reference entry, give 1953 instead. A stand-on configuration had already been flown as a model in McKinney 1954, and rocket-boosted and windmilling-propeller variants of the XFY-1 case are Hastings and Mitcham 1954 and Hollinger and Mitcham 1955.
The mid-1950s also saw the configuration space surveyed at once. Comparative studies weighed tail-sitters against tilt-wings, deflected slipstream, and lift engines, in Irvin and Swan 1956 on performance and weight estimates for six vertical take-off aircraft, Boeing Co Morton Pa Vertol Div 1956, and McCormick 1956, the last of which, a transition analysis, is the nearest thing in the accessible literature to a general treatment of this article’s keystone. The propeller configurations of the same comparison are treated across the class in Kirby 1961 and measured on a deflected-slipstream model in Kuhn and Grunwald 1960.
Why the Propeller Version Was Easier
A turboprop tail-sitter hovers inside its own slipstream. The propeller pushes air over the wing and tail even at zero forward speed, so the control surfaces work in the hover. A turbojet tail-sitter exhausts aft of everything and its wing sees nothing at all.
Quantifying it settles the design difference completely. A propeller disc supporting a weight $W$ over area $A$ produces a slipstream of
\[v_{s} = \sqrt{\frac{2 (W/A)}{\rho}}\]and for a disc loading of 1,500 pascals, which is conservative for the class, since the gross weight of 14,250 pounds and the 16 foot propellers that a compilation gives for the XFY-1 come to about 3,400 pascals,
\[v_{s} = \sqrt{\frac{2 \times 1500}{1.225}} = 49.5 \, \text{m/s}\]The slipstream puts a dynamic pressure of 1,500 pascals over the inboard wing, against 1,687 pascals at the X-13’s stall. A turboprop tail-sitter hovers with something close to stall-speed dynamic pressure already on its control surfaces, and a turbojet tail-sitter hovers with none. The propeller side of that statement is measured in Sutton and Buell 1952 and treated across the class in Kirby 1961. The propeller aircraft therefore needed no reaction control system and the jet aircraft could not do without one, and that single ratio explains why the two configurations look so different despite answering the same question.
Sizing From First Principles
Thrust Greater Than Weight
A hovering aircraft must produce more thrust than it weighs. The Rolls-Royce Avon gave 10,000 pounds of thrust, in the figures of the National Museum of the United States Air Force and of the Smithsonian record, which identifies it as an RA.28-49, against a gross weight of 6,730 pounds in compilations. The primary weights differ among themselves. The spin-tunnel table of Bowman 1957 gives 6,696 pounds with full fuel and the landing hook and 6,958 pounds with full fuel and wheels, the Smithsonian record a gross of 7,313 pounds, and the Air Force museum a maximum of 7,200. The 6,730 pounds used throughout lies within about half a percent of the hook loading. The condition defines the configuration class, and Denning 1962, Przedpelski 1965, and Brown 1965 map the surrounding design space, from lift fans through lift-plus-thrust arrangements to low-disc-loading rotorcraft, with the conference records in Scientific and Technical Information Division 1966 and the period’s standard book in Campbell 1962. Taking the ratio,
\[\frac{T}{W} = \frac{44{,}482}{29{,}935} = 1.486\]and at the maximum weight of 7,200 pounds it is still 1.389. The vertical acceleration available is
\[a = g \left( \frac{T}{W} - 1 \right) = 9.807 \times 0.486 = 4.76 \, \text{m/s}^{2}\]so the aircraft leaves the trailer at about half a gravity and reaches thirty metres in
\[t = \sqrt{\frac{2h}{a}} = \sqrt{\frac{60}{4.76}} = 3.55 \, \text{s}\]arriving at 16.9 metres per second. This condition comes to mind first and matters least, because an Avon in a small airframe satisfied it with room to spare. The heaviest the aircraft could be and still hover is 10,000 pounds, which is 3,270 pounds above its gross weight.
Hovering Is the Expensive Part
The condition that did bind is fuel. A turbojet producing thrust at a specific fuel consumption $c$ burns
\[\dot{m}_{f} = c \, T\]and to hover it must produce thrust equal to weight, so the fuel flow in a hover is fixed by the aircraft’s weight and nothing else. At an assumed 0.93 pounds per pound of thrust per hour, which is the dry figure an engine compilation quotes for the later Avon Mk.301 and is adopted here as an estimate,
\[\dot{m}_{f} = 0.93 \times 6730 = 6259 \, \text{lb/hr} = 104.3 \, \text{lb/min}\]The fuel load follows from the spin-tunnel table of loadings in Bowman 1957, which gives the airplane with its hook at 6,696 pounds with full fuel, 5,646 pounds with a quarter of it, and 5,366 pounds with a twentieth. The differences are three quarters and nineteen twentieths of the full load, so
\[m_{f} = \frac{6696 - 5646}{0.75} = \frac{6696 - 5366}{0.95} = 1400 \, \text{lb}\]and the wheeled loadings in the same table return the same 1,400 pounds. That gives
\[t_{\text{hover}} = \frac{1400}{104.3} = 13.4 \, \text{min}\]The entire fuel load is about thirteen minutes of hovering. The rest of the article turns on this number. Put more harshly, one minute of hovering at each end of a flight spends about fifteen percent of the fuel before the machine has gone anywhere.
The same table checks the compilations’ weights. Removing the fuel from the wheeled loading leaves
\[6958 - 1400 - 5334 = 224 \, \text{lb}\]above the 5,334 pound empty weight that compilations quote, which is about what a pilot and his equipment weigh, so the published empty weight appears to describe the aircraft on wheels.
The relation generalises and the generalisation is unkind. Hover endurance is
\[t_{\text{hover}} = \frac{m_{f}}{c \, W} = \frac{1}{c} \cdot \frac{m_{f}}{W}\]so it depends only on the fuel fraction and the specific fuel consumption, and not at all on the size of the aircraft or the thrust of its engine. A larger tail-sitter with a larger engine hovers for exactly as long as a smaller one at the same fuel fraction. No scale exists at which the problem improves. That sets this constraint apart from most aircraft design constraints, and it explains why the comparative studies of the period kept returning verdicts against the configuration for transport work, in Boeing Co Morton Pa Vertol Div 1956 and McCormick 1956, with the weight bookkeeping behind those verdicts in Irvin and Swan 1956.
A rotorcraft escapes the same arithmetic because it does not produce its lift as thrust from a jet. Hovering efficiency is measured by the power needed per unit of lift, which for an actuator disc is
\[\frac{P}{T} = \sqrt{\frac{T/A}{2 \rho}}\]and therefore improves as the disc grows. A jet has the smallest possible disc and pays the largest possible price, and the disc-loading comparison computed later in this article is the same fact seen from the ground rather than from the fuel gauge. Michaelsen 1971 later measured that comparison across the three configurations, and Irvin and Swan 1956 carries its consequences into the weight estimates.
Roll Control at Zero Airspeed
Pitch and yaw were handled by deflecting the engine exhaust. Roll could not be, because rolling the aircraft about the thrust line produces no moment however the nozzle is aimed. A tail-sitting jet therefore needs a separate roll control that works at zero airspeed, and the X-13 carried compressed-air jets at the wingtips, outboard of the endplates, which a compilation describes together with the vectored pitch and yaw control.
Sizing them is a short calculation. The spin-tunnel table of Bowman 1957 gives the rolling moment of inertia as 1,543 slug square feet, so
\[I_{xx} = 1543 \times 1.3558 = 2092 \, \text{kg m}^{2}\]and at a criterion of one radian per second squared the couple required is 2,092 newton metres. The one-fifth-scale model of Smith 1958, whose roll nozzles use engine bleed air, places them 24.375 inches from the centreline, which is 10.16 feet or 3.10 metres at full scale, so the opposed jets act on an arm of $d = 6.19$ metres and the force each must produce is
\[F = \frac{M}{d} = \frac{2092}{6.19} = 338 \, \text{N} = 76 \, \text{lbf}\]which is 1.5 percent of the engine’s thrust taken as a couple. At an assumed bleed velocity of 500 metres per second that is a mass flow of
\[\dot{m} = \frac{2F}{v} = \frac{676}{500} = 1.35 \, \text{kg/s}\]or about 1.9 percent of an Avon’s air. A roll control that costs two percent of the engine is affordable and not negligible, and the propeller tail-sitters did not pay it at all. Baxter and Finvold 1958 takes up the design problem of arranging engine control and attitude control together in a vertical-attitude aircraft and comes closer than any other accessible document to stating this vehicle’s control philosophy, with the reaction control criteria worked systematically in Friend 1964.
What lateral control needs to feel like in a hovering jet-lift aircraft was measured directly, in Drinkwater et al 1965, the nearest experiment in the literature to the X-13’s roll problem, which postdates it by eight years. Hegarty et al 1965 describes the variable-stability apparatus that made such measurements possible for a deflected-jet aircraft, and Corliss et al 1977 simulated competing hover control concepts in flight. Cross-coupling between axes, which a reaction control system introduces and an aerodynamic one largely does not, is the subject of Garren 1961, and the augmentation that later removed the problem from the pilot came in Clark et al 1963 and Hartmann et al 1979.
The ailerons take over earlier than the elevons do. At a rolling-moment coefficient of 0.05 the aerodynamic couple reaches the same criterion at
\[V = \sqrt{\frac{M}{\tfrac{1}{2} \rho S b \, \Delta C_{l}}} = 24.5 \, \text{m/s}\]which is 0.47 of the stall speed, so roll hands over from the puffers to the ailerons well before pitch hands over from the nozzle to the elevons. The two axes do not cross at the same moment, and a pilot flying the transition manages a control system whose character changes progressively rather than all at once.
Yaw, and the Order of the Handover
Yaw has been mentioned and not sized, and sizing it completes the picture. The spin-tunnel table of Bowman 1957 gives the yawing moment of inertia as 4,833 slug square feet, or
\[I_{zz} = 4833 \times 1.3558 = 6553 \, \text{kg m}^{2}\]which is 1.20 times the pitch inertia, and at a criterion of 0.3 radians per second squared the required moment is 1,966 newton metres. The nozzle supplies that at a deflection of
\[\theta = \arcsin \frac{M}{T \ell} = \arcsin \frac{1966}{44{,}482 \times 3.50} = 0.72^{\circ}\]Under one degree. Yaw is the axis nobody had to think about, because the same nozzle that handles pitch handles yaw with a fraction of the deflection and the criterion is lower.
The rudder takes over early as well. At a yawing-moment increment of 0.06 the aerodynamic moment reaches the criterion at
\[V = \sqrt{\frac{M}{\tfrac{1}{2} \rho S b \, \Delta C_{n}}} = 21.7 \, \text{m/s}\]which is 0.41 of the stall speed. The same deflection relation puts the pitch criterion at $\arcsin (2740 / 155{,}687) = 1.01$ degrees of nozzle. Collecting the three axes gives the article’s structural result about the transition.
| Axis | Reaction or vectored device | Aerodynamic device takes over at | As a fraction of stall speed |
|---|---|---|---|
| Yaw | nozzle, 0.7 degrees | 21.7 m/s | 0.41 |
| Roll | wingtip jets, 338 N each | 24.5 m/s | 0.47 |
| Pitch | nozzle, 1.0 degree | 30.2 m/s | 0.57 |
The three axes do not hand over together. They hand over in sequence, and the sequence runs from the cheapest axis to the dearest. The derivatives that would settle the aerodynamic side of each were measured for this configuration class in Queijo et al 1953, Queijo et al 1953, and Queijo et al 1953, and for the jet-powered vertical-attitude model in Shanks and Smith 1959 and Shanks and Smith 1960. A pilot accelerating through the transition therefore feels the aircraft become a conventional aeroplane one axis at a time, first in yaw, then in roll, and last in pitch, and for a band of about six metres per second, between 24.5 and 30.2, he is flying a machine that is aerodynamic in two axes and reactive in the third. Only a calculation of all three axes reveals this, and it says more than a single crossover speed can.
The Cost of the Transition
Set against the hover, the transition itself is almost free. In the manoeuvre the aircraft tilts by an angle $\phi$ from the vertical, and the thrust must still support the weight,
\[T \cos \phi \geq W\]so the steepest available tilt is
\[\phi_{\max} = \arccos \frac{W}{T} = \arccos 0.6730 = 47.7^{\circ}\]At that attitude the horizontal acceleration, neglecting drag, is
\[a_{h} = g \frac{T}{W} \sin \phi_{\max} = 9.807 \times 1.486 \times 0.7396 = 10.78 \, \text{m/s}^{2}\]which is 1.10 gravities. Reaching the stall speed takes
\[t = \frac{V_{\text{stall}}}{a_{h}} = \frac{52.5}{10.78} = 4.9 \, \text{s}\]over a distance of
\[s = \tfrac{1}{2} a_{h} t^{2} = 128 \, \text{m}\]and consumes, at full thrust,
\[m_{f} = \frac{10{,}000 \times 0.93 \times 4.9}{3600} = 12.6 \, \text{lb}\]Twelve pounds of fuel and five seconds. The manoeuvre the entire programme existed to demonstrate costs about one percent of the fuel, and the hovering that brackets it costs everything else. Flying at a gentler tilt is slower and therefore more expensive.
| Tilt from vertical | Horizontal acceleration | Vertical acceleration | Time to stall speed |
|---|---|---|---|
| 20 degrees | 4.98 m/s² | +3.89 m/s² | 10.5 s |
| 30 degrees | 7.29 m/s² | +2.81 m/s² | 7.2 s |
| 40 degrees | 9.36 m/s² | +1.36 m/s² | 5.6 s |
| 47.7 degrees | 10.78 m/s² | 0.00 m/s² | 4.9 s |
McCormick 1956 analyses the transition for the configuration class. Model flight tests flew the manoeuvre in Smith 1958 for the X-13 itself and in Smith 1958 and Smith 1961 for the closely related jet-powered vertical-attitude model, whose lateral derivatives were measured in Shanks and Smith 1959 and Shanks and Smith 1960.
The vertical column is the constraint that makes the table interesting. At every tilt shallower than 47.7 degrees the aircraft is still climbing while it accelerates, which is comfortable but slow. At exactly 47.7 degrees it holds altitude and accelerates hardest. Beyond it the aircraft descends, and doing that near the ground with a wing not yet flying is the condition the transition exists to avoid.
What Control Power Costs
Reaction control is not free and its price is paid in the same currency as everything else. A puffer system sized to the criterion above bleeds about 1.9 percent of the engine’s air, and bleeding air from a turbojet costs thrust roughly in proportion, so holding the roll criterion in a hover costs
\[\Delta T \approx 0.0193 \, T = 859 \, \text{N} = 193 \, \text{lbf}\]against a hover margin of 3,270 pounds. Roll control alone consumes about six percent of the thrust margin, before pitch and yaw are considered and before any allowance for gusts. That figure is an estimate resting on the assumed bleed velocity, and Hoffman 1971 gives the general accounting of what control power costs a vertical take-off aircraft.
Whether the cost is worth paying against the alternatives is a question the field answered much later and in the opposite direction, since Lallman 1985 builds a lateral-directional control system deliberately around thrust vectoring. What the X-13 treated as a penalty is now sometimes the point, because an aircraft that can point its thrust can be flown at attitudes a conventional one cannot.
The consequence is a design spiral of the ordinary kind. More control power needs more bleed, which needs more thrust, which needs a larger engine, which needs a larger airframe, which has more inertia and therefore needs more of it. The spiral has a direction and it can be written down. The required moment scales with inertia,
\[M_{\text{req}} = I \dot{\omega} \propto m L^{2}\]while the available moment scales with thrust times a moment arm, and at a fixed thrust-to-weight ratio the thrust scales with the mass,
\[M_{\text{av}} = T \ell \sin \theta \propto m L\]so the ratio of what is needed to what is there grows linearly with size,
\[\frac{M_{\text{req}}}{M_{\text{av}}} \propto L\]| Linear scale | Mass | Control power as a fraction of the engine |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 1 | 1.9 percent |
| 2 | 8 | 3.9 percent |
| 3 | 27 | 5.8 percent |
Doubling the length doubles the fraction of the engine that attitude control consumes. The spiral therefore converges only for a small aircraft, and the X-13 is small. This is a different and stronger statement than the earlier one that the crossover ratio is independent of scale, and both are true. The speed at which the controls become adequate does not care about size. The cost of making them adequate does. Johnston et al 1965 and Johnston and Friend 1965 ask whether the requirement should depend on size.
What an Operational Version Would Have Cost
The programme was a demonstration and never carried a weapon, but the arithmetic of what it would have meant operationally is short and bears directly on why the idea stopped. The fuel fraction is
\[\zeta = \frac{1400}{6730} = 0.208\]and the Breguet range for a jet is
\[R = \frac{V}{c} \frac{L}{D} \ln \frac{1}{1 - \zeta}\]with $c$ the thrust specific fuel consumption expressed as a reciprocal time, which for 0.93 pounds per pound-hour is $2.583 \times 10^{-4}$ per second. At a cruise speed of 200 metres per second and a lift-to-drag ratio of six,
\[R = \frac{200}{2.583 \times 10^{-4}} \times 6 \times \ln \frac{1}{0.792} = 1083 \, \text{km}\]giving a radius of 542 kilometres if every pound of fuel went to cruising. It does not.
| Total hover time | Fuel spent hovering | Radius | Radius forgone |
|---|---|---|---|
| 60 s | 104.3 lb | 497 km | 45 km, 8.3 percent |
| 120 s | 208.6 lb | 453 km | 89 km, 16.5 percent |
| 180 s | 312.9 lb | 409 km | 133 km, 24.5 percent |
One minute of hovering at each end of the flight costs a sixth of the radius. The period kept its weight and performance bookkeeping for this class in Irvin and Swan 1956, with the configuration comparison in Boeing Co Morton Pa Vertol Div 1956 and Campbell 1962. The same arithmetic was run for civil operations and returned the same verdict, in Spillman 1965 on short-range vertical take-off jet airliners, where a route short enough to suit the aircraft is also short enough that the hover fuel dominates the sortie. And one minute is optimistic for a vertical landing onto a hook, for the reasons the Dependent Systems section quantifies.
| Hover discipline | Take-off and landing | Fuel spent | Fraction of fuel |
|---|---|---|---|
| Brisk | 0.5 and 1.0 minutes | 156 lb | 11.2 percent |
| Realistic | 1.0 and 2.0 minutes | 313 lb | 22.4 percent |
| Cautious | 2.0 and 4.0 minutes | 626 lb | 44.7 percent |
A cautious pilot spends nearly half the fuel without leaving the airfield. And the Dependent Systems section shows that the pilot has every reason to be cautious, since he is flying a third-order loop by proxy through a man on the ground toward a hook he cannot see. The vertical take-off and landing capability is therefore not free and not cheap. It is paid for in the currency the aircraft has least of, and the payment is made twice on every sortie.
Dependent Systems
The Engine
The Smithsonian record describes the engine as an Avon RA.28-49 axial-flow turbojet of 10,000 pounds of thrust, while the spin-tunnel tests of Bowman 1957 simulated the rotating parts of an Avon R.A. 14 at 8,000 revolutions per minute, and the documents available do not say whether the designation changed between the model tests and the flights. In an airframe with an empty weight of 5,334 pounds the engine is a large fraction of the whole, and it is better understood as an engine with a wing attached than as an aeroplane with an engine in it. Every dimension of the X-13 follows from wrapping the smallest possible airframe around an Avon, which is why the span is 21 feet, the length 23.445 feet, or 23 feet 5 inches, in the dimensional table of Bowman 1957, and the aspect ratio
\[AR = \frac{b^{2}}{S} = \frac{6.40^{2}}{17.74} = 2.31\]A wing of aspect ratio 2.31 is a poor lifting device and a good structural one, and on an aircraft that spends its critical moments not using the wing at all, that is the correct trade.
Installing a jet engine in an aircraft that must hover creates aerodynamic problems the engine does not have on a test stand, and Kuhn and McKinney 1965 gives NASA’s account of its research on them. The inlet is the acute case, since in the transition it is asked to swallow air arriving from every direction in turn, as Grahame 1968 and Grahame 1969 examine. Evans et al 1974 traces what that does to the compressor, with the distortion statistics in Jacocks and Kneile 1975 and the full-scale testing technique in Palko 1973. The powerplant experience the period accumulated on a jet vertical take-off aircraft was written up for the next aircraft in this series, in Rolls 1965.
The Nozzle
Pitch and yaw came from deflecting the exhaust, in a compilation’s description of the hover controls. The relation derived above puts the required deflection in context, since a ten degree deflection delivers nearly ten times the pitching moment the criterion asks for, so the nozzle need not be large-angle and the deflection can be modest. The penalty is a loss of axial thrust,
\[\frac{T_{\text{axial}}}{T} = \cos \theta = \cos 10^{\circ} = 0.985\]so a ten degree deflection costs 1.5 percent of the thrust, which against a thrust-to-weight ratio of 1.486 is affordable. At thirty degrees it would cost 13.4 percent, which is not, and this is the quantitative reason a vectoring system for attitude control is a small-angle device while one for propulsion is not.
| Deflection | Axial thrust retained | Moment produced | Angular acceleration |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5 degrees | 99.6 percent | 13,569 N m | 2.48 rad/s² |
| 10 degrees | 98.5 percent | 27,035 N m | 4.93 rad/s² |
| 15 degrees | 96.6 percent | 40,295 N m | 7.35 rad/s² |
The two quantities move in opposite directions with deflection, since
\[M(\theta) = T \ell \sin \theta, \qquad \frac{T_{\text{axial}}}{T} = \cos \theta\]so the moment grows almost linearly at small angles while the thrust loss grows quadratically,
\[1 - \cos \theta \approx \frac{\theta^{2}}{2}\]which is why small-angle vectoring is nearly free and large-angle vectoring is not.
The mechanisms available for turning a jet were an active subject and remained one, in Erwin et al 1964 on tandem cascade vectoring, Eatough 1971 on jet tabs, and Shandor and Walker 1962 on fluid injection, with the measurement problem of establishing where a nozzle’s thrust vector actually points in Davis and Spicer 1965 and Holdhusen and Perusse 1965.
The Puffer Jets
The wingtip jets sized above are the aircraft’s only roll control below 25 metres per second. Their placement outboard of the wingtip endplates is a moment-arm decision and the arithmetic is direct, since the required force varies inversely with the arm,
\[F = \frac{I_{xx} \dot{p}}{d}\]so halving the arm would double the force and therefore double the bleed. A tail-sitting jet wants a wide span for roll control and a small span for everything else, and that tension is visible in the aircraft’s proportions.
The Wing
A wing of aspect ratio 2.31 with a sharp leading edge is a poor subsonic lifting surface and its low-speed behaviour is dominated by leading-edge vortices rather than by attached flow. The adopted maximum lift coefficient of 1.0 reflects that, and the sensitivity matters because the article’s central ratio depends on it.
| Maximum lift coefficient | Stall speed | Ratio of crossover to stall |
|---|---|---|
| 0.8 | 58.7 m/s | 0.514 |
| 1.0 | 52.5 m/s | 0.575 |
| 1.2 | 47.9 m/s | 0.629 |
The relation behind the table is the ratio derived earlier,
\[\frac{V_{\text{cross}}}{V_{\text{stall}}} = \sqrt{\frac{I_{yy} \dot{q}_{\text{req}} \, C_{L\max}}{W \bar{c} \, \Delta C_{m}}}\]which grows as the square root of the maximum lift coefficient, because a wing that stalls later gives the elevons less time to catch up.
Even at a lift coefficient of 1.2 the crossover stays well below the stall speed, at 0.63 of it, so the reading that the controls come alive before the wing does survives a large error in a coefficient that has been assumed rather than measured. The ratio reaches one only when the maximum lift coefficient exceeds $1.0 / 0.575^{2} = 3.0$, far beyond any figure considered here. The low-speed aerodynamics of slender deltas at high incidence are Spencer 1962 and Wentz 1972, with the same high incidences at Mach numbers from 2 to 8 in Clark and Spurlin 1962, and White and Innis 1959 and Huff 1949 report what a tailless delta fighter is like to fly slowly.
The reason such a wing does not behave like a conventional one was explained only after the X-13 flew. The lift of a sharp-edged delta at incidence comes largely from the vortex that forms along the leading edge rather than from attached flow, and Polhamus 1966 supplied the analogy that made it calculable, extended in Polhamus 1968 and Polhamus 1969. Roy 1966 and Li and Polak 1966 describe the structure of the vortex, and the practical consequence, that a rounded planform behaves better at low speed, appears in Rolls 1965 and Drinkwater and Rolls 1965. A maximum lift coefficient of 1.0 assumed for this wing is therefore a vortex-lift number and not an attached-flow one, and much of the article rests on it.
Hovering Is a Position Loop With Nothing Holding It Still
The article has treated hovering as a control-power problem, which it is, and that understates it. A hovering airframe has no aerodynamic restoring moment in any axis, so an attitude disturbance does not decay, and attitude is what produces horizontal acceleration,
\[\ddot{x} = g \sin \theta\]Position is therefore the double integral of attitude, and attitude is the integral of whatever the control does, so the pilot is closing a third-order loop by eye with no natural damping anywhere in it. Evaluating the first integral makes the tolerance visible.
| Tilt held | Horizontal acceleration | Drift in five seconds |
|---|---|---|
| 0.5 degrees | 0.086 m/s² | 1.07 m |
| 1.0 degrees | 0.171 m/s² | 2.14 m |
| 2.0 degrees | 0.342 m/s² | 4.28 m |
| 5.0 degrees | 0.855 m/s² | 10.68 m |
Holding position to within a metre over five seconds requires holding the mean tilt below half a degree. Holding that tilt is the real task, and it makes hovering difficult in a way that the control-power criteria do not capture. Harper and Sardanowsky 1969 set out to measure task performance rather than control power, with the visual side in Garren et al 1965 and the loop closure itself observed in Lollar and Matous 1963. The instability is not a defect of the aircraft but of the flight condition, and the same difficulty appears in every hovering machine, including the helicopter work of McCaskill 1953 and Warsett 1953 and, much later, the near-hover control of a helicopter carrying a swinging load in Gupta and Bryson 1976. The criteria say the pilot can command an angular acceleration. They do not say he can hold an attitude to half a degree while looking sideways.
The Wind Is a Position Problem, Not an Attitude Problem
Standing vertically, the airframe presents its whole length to a crosswind. Taking a side area of ten square metres and a drag coefficient of 0.8, both estimates,
\[F = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho V^{2} A C_{d}\]| Crosswind | Side force | Acceleration | Uncorrected drift in 30 s |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5 m/s | 122 N | 0.040 m/s² | 18 m |
| 10 m/s | 490 N | 0.160 m/s² | 72 m |
| 15 m/s | 1102 N | 0.361 m/s² | 163 m |
The moment such a wind produces is small, at 17.9 percent of the pitch requirement in a ten metre per second wind with the side-area centroid a metre from the centre of mass. So the wind does not threaten control and it does threaten station-keeping.
The conflict can be made exact. To hold station the aircraft must tilt into the wind until the horizontal component of thrust balances the side force,
\[g \sin \theta_{w} = \frac{\tfrac{1}{2} \rho V^{2} A C_{d}}{m}\]| Crosswind | Steady tilt needed to hold station | As a multiple of the drift budget |
|---|---|---|
| 5 m/s | 0.23 degrees | 0.50 |
| 10 m/s | 0.94 degrees | 2.00 |
| 15 m/s | 2.11 degrees | 4.49 |
The drift budget derived above was a mean tilt below 0.47 degrees. In a ten metre per second wind the tilt required merely to stay still is twice that budget, so the pilot is holding a steady attitude error of about a degree while trying to keep the fluctuating part below half of one. The two tasks use the same actuator and they conflict, which is the coupling Tapscott 1960 and Anderson 1960 were trying to write criteria around. The conflict was eventually measured rather than argued, in Whitaker et al 1977 on how hover stability affects the hover control task, and the loop the pilot is closing was characterised as early as Lollar and Matous 1963, which observes the pilot-vehicle loop closure for hovering aircraft directly. No paper in the literature comes closer to the analysis this article has just performed, and it postdates the X-13’s last flight by six years.
The Asymmetry of Height Control
Vertical control is a throttle problem and it is asymmetric. A vertical acceleration $a$ requires a thrust change of $m a$, so
| Vertical acceleration | Thrust change | As a fraction of thrust |
|---|---|---|
| 0.5 m/s² | 1,526 N | 3.4 percent |
| 1.0 m/s² | 3,053 N | 6.9 percent |
| 2.0 m/s² | 6,106 N | 13.7 percent |
The relation is simply Newton’s second law applied to the vertical axis,
\[\Delta T = m a\]and the bounds are asymmetric. Upward,
\[a_{\max} = \frac{T - W}{m} = 4.76 \, \text{m/s}^{2}\]and downward there is no bound at all, because the pilot can always close the throttle and let the aircraft fall. A descent is easier to start than to stop.
Stopping one costs engine response time and then stopping distance, so the height lost recovering from a sink rate $v$ with an engine lag $\tau$ is roughly
\[\Delta h \approx v \tau + \frac{v^{2}}{2 a_{\max}}\]| Sink rate | Height lost at a one second lag |
|---|---|
| 0.5 m/s | 0.53 m |
| 1.0 m/s | 1.11 m |
| 2.0 m/s | 2.42 m |
A one metre per second sink costs a metre before the aircraft is going up again, and against a hook tolerance of a third of a metre that is the whole budget spent on a sink rate a pilot would barely notice.
The vertical axis turns out to be a distinct control problem with its own requirements rather than a trivial one, and the field later said so, in Gerdes 1964 on a piloted simulator investigation of height-control requirements and, two decades later, Stevens and Roskam 1985 on the vertical axis control power a landing vertical take-off aircraft needs. Ostheimer and Giguere 1963 treats flight path control as a system problem. The engine is the actuator, so the problem is a propulsion problem as much as a flight control one, and Sellers and Szuch 1973 concerns the control of lift engines for this purpose. A vertical velocity command system, which removes the pilot from the throttle loop altogether, is the obvious answer.
Making the engine respond faster is the other half of the answer and it is a control problem in its own right. Turbine engine control synthesis is Ryan et al 1975, Stone et al 1975, and Beale and Miller 1975, Swick and Skarvan 1967 addresses coordination when a hovering aircraft has more than one engine, and the reliability of the fuel control that all of it depends on is Burnell et al 1973 and Zagranski et al 1974. Douglass 1963 and Harris 1969 address engine diagnosis. A 1957 hydromechanical fuel control was not a fast actuator, and every one of those documents is part of the reason it later became one.
The Ground Observer Was Part of the Control Loop
The arrangement the Smithsonian record describes, constant radio communication with a ground observer who talked the pilot into position because the pilot could not see the trailer, is usually recorded as an operational inconvenience. It is better understood as a sensor with a transport delay inserted into a third-order loop that has no damping.
The hook tolerance is taken here to be of order a third of a metre. At a closure rate of one metre per second, a loop delay $\tau$ introduces a position uncertainty of
\[\delta x = V \tau\]so a delay of 0.3 seconds consumes the entire tolerance, and 0.3 seconds is optimistic for a human observer speaking over a radio to a pilot who must then move a control. The X-13 hooked on repeatedly, so the loop clearly closed, in practice on a rope between two towers and then on the trailer, both in the Smithsonian record, and the arithmetic says it closed with very little margin and only because the closure rate was kept low. What a pilot can and cannot do with a delayed and partial view of a landing point is Behan and Siciliani 1965, Behan and Siciliani 1967, and Rhoads 1967. Keeping the closure rate low costs hover time, and hover time is the fuel.
The Trailer, the Wire, and the Hook
In its vertical configuration the X-13 had no undercarriage in the ordinary sense, and flat bumpers replaced the main wheels of its fixed gear to protect the fuselage if it swung against the trailer bed. It hung from a cable suspended between two arms at the top of a trailer bed, which raised to the vertical for launch and recovery and lowered to the horizontal to move the aircraft. A partially retractable hook on the nose engaged the cable, and a folding pole about twenty feet long with marked gradations, attached to the top of the trailer, gave the pilot a distance reference. All of this is from the Smithsonian record.
The arrangement removes weight from the aircraft and puts it on the ground. Written as a bookkeeping identity, the launch system’s mass is simply moved out of the term that has to be lifted,
\[m_{\text{lifted}} = m_{\text{empty}} + m_{\text{fuel}} + m_{\text{payload}}, \qquad m_{\text{trailer}} \notin m_{\text{lifted}}\]Moving mass out of the lifted term is the oldest trick in vertical take-off design and it recurs in every generation, from the flying platform of Sissingh 1956 through the ground-effect machines of Walker et al 1965 and Davidson et al 1972 to the air cushion landing systems of Leland and Thompson 1975. What distinguishes the X-13 is that the mass was moved onto a vehicle which then had to be present at the landing point.
Deleting the wheels is the correct decision for an aircraft whose thrust margin is 3,270 pounds and whose wheels cost a few hundred. It also makes the aircraft dependent on a specific piece of ground equipment for every landing, which is the opposite of the operational freedom the vertical take-off concept was supposed to buy, and the tension between those two facts is the deepest problem in the programme. The same tension appears from the other direction in Butler and Thomas 1964, which is about preparing sites rather than about not needing them.
The Undercarriage That Was Not Carried
The trailer looks like an eccentricity and it is a weight decision. A retractable undercarriage for a machine of this class is taken here to cost something in the region of three to five percent of gross weight, so
| Gear weight as a fraction of gross | Weight | As a fraction of the fuel load |
|---|---|---|
| 3 percent | 202 lb | 14.4 percent |
| 4 percent | 269 lb | 19.2 percent |
| 5 percent | 336 lb | 24.0 percent |
Converting the saving into the currency the aircraft lacks gives
\[\Delta t_{\text{hover}} = \frac{w_{g}}{c \, W}\]| Gear weight | Extra hover time | Endurance gained |
|---|---|---|
| 202 lb | 1.94 min | 14.4 percent |
| 269 lb | 2.58 min | 19.2 percent |
| 336 lb | 3.22 min | 24.0 percent |
The spin-tunnel table measures the saving directly. Its full-fuel loading is 6,958 pounds with wheels and 6,696 pounds with the hook in Bowman 1957, so the wheels cost
\[6958 - 6696 = 262 \, \text{lb}\]net of the hook, which is 3.8 percent of the wheeled weight, inside the range assumed above, and worth $262 / 104.3 = 2.51$ minutes of hovering. Deleting the undercarriage bought about two and a half minutes of hovering, which against a thirteen and a half minute endurance is about a fifth more, and by the radius table above some tens of kilometres. Irvin and Swan 1956 keeps weight accounts of this kind across the configuration options. On an aircraft this tightly bounded that is not a small saving, and it explains why a design that looks like a stunt is the obvious answer once the fuel arithmetic is admitted.
The structural side reinforces it. Hanging from a hook at the nose puts the entire weight into the airframe as a tension, while standing on a tail puts the same load in as a compression on a slender body. A tension member is lighter than a column of equal strength, so the hook arrangement is structurally as well as operationally cheaper than legs would have been. Chaloff et al 1974 and Marchinski 1974 estimate what airframe structure weighs, which is how such a trade is settled in practice, and Yang 1970 examines the control problems of a conventional gear.
The arrival itself is gentle. At a closure rate $v$ arrested over a stroke $d$ the mean deceleration is
\[a = \frac{v^{2}}{2d}\]so a one metre per second arrival stopped in 0.3 metres is
\[a = \frac{1.0}{0.6} = 1.67 \, \text{m/s}^{2} = 0.17 g\]A vertical landing on a wire is a very soft landing, softer than a conventional arrival on a runway, however violent the arrangement looks. Leland and Thompson 1975 treats landing impact as a designed problem in the form it takes when the undercarriage is unconventional. The difficulty of the landing was never the impact. It was arriving at the right place with the right speed while unable to see.
The Cockpit and the Pilot’s View
The pilot’s seat pivoted forty-five degrees toward the vertical for the landing, so that he was not lying flat on his back during vertical flight [Smithsonian record]. Forty-five degrees is a compromise and it leaves the problem half-solved, because his line of sight remains
\[90^{\circ} - 45^{\circ} = 45^{\circ}\]away from the direction the aircraft is travelling during a vertical descent. Writing the geometry down shows why the compromise cannot be improved. Let $\beta$ be the angle between the pilot’s line of sight and the direction the aircraft is travelling during the descent. For a seat pivoted by $\sigma$ from the body axis,
\[\beta = 90^{\circ} - \sigma\]| Seat pivot | Angle between sight line and direction of travel |
|---|---|
| 0 degrees | 90 degrees |
| 45 degrees | 45 degrees |
| 90 degrees | 0 degrees |
Driving $\beta$ to zero means laying the pilot flat on his back facing the tail, which is not a position from which to fly an aeroplane that is about to become horizontal. Forty-five degrees is the compromise, and it leaves the fuselage between the pilot and the target.
The reported and decisive difficulty is that the underside of the fuselage sits between the pilot and the trailer he is trying to land on. The Smithsonian record calls the obscured view the concept’s greatest flaw. He approached the recovery point without being able to see it and depended on a ground observer to talk him down.
That is not a detail. The vertical landing is a closed-loop position-control task with an assumed tolerance of about a third of a metre on a hook, executed by a pilot who cannot see the target, in an aircraft with thirteen minutes of fuel, in ground effect. The visual requirements for this class of task were being measured at the time in Garren et al 1965 and Behan and Siciliani 1965, and Behan and Siciliani 1967 and Rhoads 1967 take up the general problem of a pilot’s acceptance of a landing display.
A pilot’s performance without visual cues later became a measured quantity, in Howard 1976, with the related question of how much an imperfect instrument substitute costs in Howard 1975. The answers the field arrived at were all forms of giving the information back rather than improving the view. Vallerie 1967 describes peripheral vision displays, a head-up display for a tilt-wing vertical take-off aircraft is Gold and Walchli 1974, and the mature control and display combinations for instrument approach and shipboard landing are Merrick 1981, Merrick 1984, and Farris et al 1983. Every one of those is a way of telling the pilot what he cannot see, and the X-13 had none of them, its only aid besides the ground observer being the graduated pole on its trailer. Grether 1973 adds windshield optics as a contributor to the same problem.
Spin and Tumble
A tail-sitter with a low aspect ratio and a large fuselage volume is a candidate for departure modes that a conventional aeroplane does not have, and the X-13 was tested for them in the Langley spin tunnel before it flew. No other part of the programme has a complete surviving primary record, in Bowman 1955 on free-spinning and recovery, Bowman 1955 on the parachute needed for emergency recovery during demonstration spins, which it sets at a stable parachute 12.73 feet in diameter, and Bowman 1957 as the concluding report covering spinning, tumbling, and recovery together. The equivalent studies for the propeller tail-sitters are Lee 1952 and Lee 1953, with the spin tunnel applied to conventional fighters for comparison in Lee and Libbey 1961 and the deep-stall descent, which is the nearest conventional analogue to a tumble, in Blanchard 1981. Bennett 1947 and Healy 1958 report earlier free-spinning investigations in the same facility, and Bihrle and Bowman 1980 supplied the rotational-flow aerodynamics that later explained what the tunnel had been measuring.
Tumbling was the mode the Air Force asked about, because an aircraft pointed vertically with no forward speed has no aerodynamic restoring moment in pitch. The model did not tumble. Bowman 1957 reports that the airplane will not tumble end over end but may instead enter a wild gyrating motion, a roll with simultaneous yaw and pitch from which recovery is doubtful, and it attributes the motion primarily to the gyroscopic moment of a large engine in a small airframe.
Arresting a pitch rotation with the engine running is an angular momentum problem. A rotation at rate $\omega$ carries
\[H = I_{yy} \omega\]and the nozzle removes it at a rate equal to the moment it produces, so the time to stop is
\[t = \frac{I_{yy} \omega}{T \ell \sin \theta}\]| Pitch rate | Angular momentum | Time to stop | Arc swept |
|---|---|---|---|
| 0.5 rad/s | 2,740 kg m²/s | 0.10 s | 1.5 degrees |
| 1.0 rad/s | 5,480 kg m²/s | 0.20 s | 5.8 degrees |
| 2.0 rad/s | 10,960 kg m²/s | 0.41 s | 23.2 degrees |
With the engine running a pitch rotation is stopped in under half a second. The engine that makes this possible is also the source of the trouble, because its rotor carries angular momentum of its own. Smith 1958 represented it on the one-fifth model with a flywheel of 39,500 pound square inches per second, which it describes as approximately the correctly scaled value. Under Froude scaling angular momentum grows as the four and a half power of length, so the full-scale engine carries about
\[H_{e} = 39{,}500 \times 5^{4.5} \, \text{lb in}^{2}/\text{s} = 1.62 \times 10^{4} \, \text{kg m}^{2}/\text{s}\]which is about three times the airframe’s own angular momentum at one radian per second in pitch. Any pitch rate $\Omega$ then produces a yawing moment
\[M_{g} = H_{e} \, \Omega\]and a pitch rate of only 0.1 radians per second produces 1,615 newton metres, which is 82 percent of the yaw criterion computed above. This is why the model could not be hovered without dampers. Smith reports that with the engine’s gyroscopic effect represented the pilots found the model completely uncontrollable in the hover, that pitch and yaw dampers made it easy to fly, and that every transition was flown with them. The full-scale aircraft carried dampers too. The Smithsonian record states that dampers were installed after the conventional flights revealed oscillation problems and that a stability augmentation system blended the conventional and hovering controls.
With the engine out there is no nozzle and no reaction control, because both are powered by it. Bowman simulated a power failure in the hover by dropping the model from rest in a nose-up attitude. It fell tail first, nosed over at up to 130 degrees per second, and was yawed by the engine’s gyroscopic moment into what appeared to be a right spin, from which the report expects recovery with rudder and aileron once the engine has run down. It puts the minimum altitude for a belly landing after a power failure in the hover at
\[h_{\min} = 900 + 800 + 2500 = 4200 \, \text{ft}\]the sum of the fall before the spin, the spin recovery, and a pull-out distance assumed from a similar configuration. The report describes the first term as a free fall over the time to spin entry and gives that time as about 6.5 seconds, which in free fall is
\[h = \tfrac{1}{2} g t^{2} = \tfrac{1}{2} \times 32.17 \times 6.5^{2} = 680 \, \text{ft}\]so its two figures are not mutually consistent, and 900 feet corresponds to about 7.5 seconds. Either way every vertical take-off and landing was necessarily flown far below the height from which a flame-out could be survived, and the parachute of Bowman 1955 was sized for demonstration spins at altitude rather than for that case. It is the sharpest illustration in the article of what it means to control an aircraft with its propulsion.
Ground Effect and the Pad
The exhaust the aircraft sits on is a small, fast, hot jet. Taking an engine mass flow of 70 kilogrammes per second, the exit velocity implied by the thrust is
\[v_{e} = \frac{T}{\dot{m}} = \frac{44{,}482}{70} = 635 \, \text{m/s}\]and at an assumed exhaust density of 0.35 kilogrammes per cubic metre the dynamic pressure in the jet is
\[q_{e} = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho_{e} v_{e}^{2} = 70.7 \, \text{kPa} = 10.2 \, \text{psi}\]The implied nozzle area is 0.315 square metres, so the disc loading is
\[\frac{T}{A} = 141 \, \text{kPa}\]against what a rotor of the same 6.40 metre span would need,
\[\frac{T}{A_{\text{rotor}}} = \frac{44{,}482}{\pi (3.20)^{2}} = 1382 \, \text{Pa}\]a ratio of
\[\frac{141{,}000}{1382} = 102\]A hovering jet loads the ground about a hundred times more heavily than a helicopter of the same span. The ratio explains why a tail-sitting jet needs a prepared surface and a helicopter does not, and it gives a second reason why the operational freedom the concept promised was not available. George et al 1964 sets out the impingement problem and its design criteria, with the dust-ingestion consequence in Hafer and Skinner 1960 and the analogous problem on another surface entirely in Roberts 1964.
The downwash impingement problem generated its own multi-year study programme, in White et al 1960, Morse and Newhouse 1960, and Morse and Newhouse 1961, with erosion specifically for jet-lift aircraft in Dent 1966 and the spray a vertical take-off aircraft throws in Kuhn 1979. The fluid mechanics underneath is Strand 1967 on the impingement of a jet on a plane, Donaldson et al 1966 and Donaldson et al 1971 on the turbulent structure of a free jet meeting a surface, and Binion 1970 on the recirculation region such a flow creates.
The aerodynamic penalty is separate from the erosion and is called suckdown, since the entrained flow between the jet and the ground reduces the aircraft’s lift. Gentry and Margason 1966 treats it, with the later modelling in Kotansky and Bower 1977 and Kotansky 1982 and a large-scale investigation in Christiansen 1984.
The comparison the article makes between a jet and a rotor was made directly and by measurement, in Michaelsen 1971, which compares the outflows from a helicopter, a tilt-wing aircraft, and a jet-lift aircraft. That paper supplies the empirical form of the hundred-to-one disc loading ratio computed above. The operational answer was to prepare the ground, and the fact that somebody wrote a document called rapid site preparation for turbojet vertical take-off aircraft, in Butler and Thomas 1964, is the clearest possible statement that the runway had not been eliminated but relocated and renamed. Hay 1970 concerns surface bearing capacity under aircraft loads, and the jet in ground effect as an aerodynamic problem is Lissaman 1967, Foltz 1962, and Carmichael and McNay 1961.
The Flight Test Record
Two aircraft were built, serial numbers 54-1619 and 54-1620, under the Ryan company designation Model 69 that a compilation gives. Both survived the programme, as NASA’s inventory of X-vehicles records, which for a first-of-type vertical take-off aircraft is a notable result on its own.
| Date | Event | Aircraft |
|---|---|---|
| 1955-12-10 | First conventional flight, temporary tricycle landing gear | 54-1619 |
| 1956-05-28 | First vertical take-off and landing, on a temporary tail rig, and first flight of the second aircraft | both |
| 1956-11-28 | First transition from horizontal to vertical flight and back | not stated |
| 1957-04-11 | First complete cycle, from the trailer to the trailer | 54-1620 |
| 1957-07-30 | Demonstration at the Pentagon | 54-1620 |
| 1957-09-30 | Last flight | not stated |
The dates are those of the Smithsonian record. The Air Force museum confirms the conventional first flight in December 1955, the first hovering in May 1956, and the full cycle by the second X-13, the aircraft it now displays, at Edwards Air Force Base in April 1957. The sources disagree about the end. NASA’s inventory gives the last flight as 30 July 1957 and the number of flights as unknown, and a compilation dates the Washington demonstration 28 and 29 July.
The sequence reads as a decomposition. The programme separated the problem into the two halves that could be tested independently and only then joined them. The value of doing so is that a joint first attempt confounds the failures. If the wing, the hover, and the join each work with probability $p$, a single all-up attempt returns an unambiguous result only with probability
\[p^{3}\]which for $p = 0.8$ is 0.51, while testing in sequence identifies which of the three failed with certainty. The first aircraft flew conventionally on temporary undercarriage to establish that it was an aeroplane, then took off and landed vertically on a temporary steel-tube tail rig with castering wheels to establish that it was a hovering machine, while its pilots practised hooking onto a rope strung between two towers with a replaceable wooden nose fitted [Smithsonian record]. The two halves were joined in the air six months after the first hover, and brought down to the trailer four and a half months after that. The X-5 used the same ordering for variable sweep, and the X-13’s predecessors used it for the propeller case. A research aircraft programme run carefully looks like this.
The intervals are 170 days from first flight to first hover, 184 days from first hover to first transition, and 134 days from there to the full cycle,
\[170 + 184 + 134 = 488 \, \text{days}\]or 1.34 years from first flight to full cycle. The pilots were Ryan’s chief test pilot Peter Girard and Ryan test pilot Lou Everett, whom the Smithsonian record names as the two who practised the hook-on technique and spells Everrett.
A programme of two aircraft and a handful of flights cannot support a statistical statement and should not be asked to. What it can support is a statement about sequence, and the sequence is the finding.
Each phase settled a different one of the article’s relations. The conventional flight on temporary undercarriage settled the wing, which is to say it demonstrated the stall speed and the low-speed handling that the crossover ratio is measured against. The hovering flights settled the reaction and vectoring authority, which the relations above put at 9.87 times the criterion in pitch, and they also settled the position-loop problem well enough for the pilot to hold station. The full cycle settled only the joining of the two, the shortest of the three questions because the transition itself lasts about five seconds.
That ordering also explains the sixteen month interval. The transition was first flown 184 days after the first hover, at altitude in a compilation’s account, and only 134 days later from the trailer, so the only untested thing on the day of the full cycle was flying the whole sequence near the ground. Harper 1955 sets out the variable-stability technique that would later let one aircraft stand in for many, and Drinkwater and Rolls 1962 applies it to this problem. Simulation as the alternative to flying every case arrives with McIntyre 1963 and McCormick 1969.
What the Full Cycle Demonstrated
It demonstrated the crossover. Everything in the article’s first section is a prediction that the two control systems hand over cleanly, and the transitions flown from 28 November 1956, completed from trailer to trailer on 11 April 1957, are the measurement. The aircraft went from a state in which its wing did nothing and its nozzle did everything to the reverse, and back, without an uncontrollable band in between.
It did not demonstrate anything about the mission, because there was no mission. No record consulted describes armament or radar on the aircraft, and in its vertical configuration it could land only on its own trailer.
The Pentagon Flight
On 30 July 1957 the second X-13 was demonstrated at the Pentagon before more than 3,000 military officers and journalists, according to the Smithsonian record, which presents it as an illustration of the dispersed operating site concept. A compilation dates the Washington flights 28 and 29 July and describes a crossing of the Potomac. It is the least technical event of the programme. A demonstration flown for an audience of officials is a statement that the technical question has been answered and the remaining question is whether anyone wants the answer. The answer turned out to be no, and the primary accounts give money and size rather than doctrine as the reason. The Smithsonian record reports that competing programmes reduced the funds available, the Air Force museum cites the design’s limited operational potential and a lack of funding that shut the programme down in 1958, and NASA’s inventory attributes the absence of a production follow-on mainly to the aircraft’s small size and limited payload and to the inability of existing turbojets to power a larger version. The statement that the Air Force found no operational requirement is a compilation’s.
Comparison With Ground Prediction
What the Models Got Right
The X-13 was preceded by an unusually complete model programme, and the single most directly relevant document is Smith 1958 on hovering and transition flight tests of a one-fifth-scale model of the aircraft. A free-flight model at one-fifth scale can perform the entire manoeuvre the full-scale aircraft exists to perform, which is unusual, and it works because gravity rather than viscosity dominates the problem.
The model confirmed the handover and exposed a lateral weakness. Smith flew slow constant-altitude transitions in the Langley full-scale tunnel over full-scale speeds of 0 to 110 knots and angles of attack from about 20 to 90 degrees, and found the transition very easy, with the swivelling nozzle giving adequate pitch control throughout, so that the elevons were trimmed and not used. The relations above predict as much, since the nozzle supplies nearly ten times the pitch criterion. Between about 25 and 45 degrees angle of attack, however, the model was directionally unstable and settled into a rolled and sideslipped attitude, and restoring zero bank took approximately the maximum roll control available on the airplane. The authority arithmetic anticipates every finding of the model programme except this one, because it is a stability problem rather than a control-power one.
Dynamic similarity in a gravity-dominated problem requires the Froude number to match,
\[\frac{V^{2}}{gL} = \text{constant}\]so at a length scale $\kappa$ the speeds and times scale as its square root and the angular rates as its inverse square root,
\[\frac{V_{m}}{V_{f}} = \sqrt{\kappa}, \qquad \frac{t_{m}}{t_{f}} = \sqrt{\kappa}, \qquad \frac{\omega_{m}}{\omega_{f}} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{\kappa}}, \qquad \frac{m_{m}}{m_{f}} = \kappa^{3}\]For the one-fifth model that gives
| Quantity | Full scale | One-fifth model |
|---|---|---|
| Stall speed | 52.5 m/s | 23.5 m/s |
| Crossover speed | 30.2 m/s | 13.5 m/s |
| Transition time | 4.9 s | 2.19 s |
| Transition distance | 128 m | 25.6 m |
| Mass | 3053 kg | 24.4 kg |
A twenty-four kilogramme model flying at twenty-three metres per second reproduces the manoeuvre, and does it twice as fast. That last point is the practical difficulty, since everything the observer has to watch happens at 2.24 times the rate. The model actually flown was lighter than the scaled mass, at 39.3 pounds in its rocket-powered tests in Smith’s table of mass characteristics, against
\[\frac{39.3}{6730 / 125} = \frac{39.3}{53.8} = 0.73\]of the Froude-scaled weight.
The technique was a Langley speciality and it has a literature of its own. Williams and Butler 1964 describes its development for low-speed and vertical take-off configurations, Paulson and Shanks 1961 applies it to a free-flying model of a vertical take-off configuration, and Burk and Wilson 1975 reports the radio-controlled variant used for departure work. Hewes and Hassell 1960, on a one-seventh model of a North American design, is an earlier example of the same method applied to another aircraft in this series. The wind-tunnel free-flight technique in its general form is Platou 1968, with the powered-model balance problem in Dougherty 1966 and the oscillatory derivative measurement that supports it in Owen and Cox 1966 and Barzda 1966.
What does not scale is the Reynolds number, which goes as speed times length,
\[\frac{Re_{m}}{Re_{f}} = \kappa^{3/2} = 0.089\]eleven times lower, so the model’s boundary layer is not the aircraft’s. For a manoeuvre governed by inertia and thrust that is tolerable, and for the stall it is not, which marks the division between what the models settled and what they did not.
The spin tunnel work in Bowman 1955 and Bowman 1957 covered the departure modes, and the whole XFY-1 and XFV-1 literature covered the configuration class, in Lovell et al 1953, Queijo et al 1953, Kirby 1956, and Lovell and Parlett 1957, the last of which is a jet-powered vertically rising model and so the nearest aerodynamic relative of the X-13 in the model record.
What the Models Could Not Show
A free-flight model has no pilot in it. The decisive difficulty of the X-13, that the man flying it cannot see where he is going during the landing, is invisible at model scale because the model is flown by someone standing outside it with an unobstructed view. The programme’s ground testing was excellent and it tested the wrong difficulty, not through carelessness but because the difficulty was not aerodynamic.
A model does not burn fuel in proportion. The endurance relation
\[t = \frac{\zeta}{c}\]contains no length at all, so it neither improves nor worsens with scale, and a tethered or externally powered model carries no fuel fraction whatever. The constraint is not merely mis-scaled in a model. It is absent from it, and a model that hovers for as long as its tether is connected gives no warning that the full-scale aircraft has thirteen minutes.
A model does not load the ground. For geometric scaling at a fixed thrust-to-weight ratio the thrust goes as the cube of length and the nozzle area as the square, so the disc loading goes as the first power,
\[\frac{T}{A} \propto L\]and a one-fifth-scale model imposes one fifth of the pressure, not one twenty-fifth. Even so the model imposes 28 kilopascals, enough to notice and not enough to reproduce the erosion, and the linear rather than quadratic scaling explains why ground-effect results from small models transfer poorly.
And a model is flown to a different standard. A free-flight model is judged by whether it completes the manoeuvre, and a real aeroplane is judged by whether a pilot can complete it repeatably while doing other things. The gap between those two standards is what handling qualities research exists to measure, and the techniques for measuring it were being invented alongside these aircraft, in Anderson 1960, Clark 1964, Nettleton 1965, McGregor and Smith 1965, Ashkenas 1965, and Harper and Sardanowsky 1969, with pilot-model analysis in Adams 1972.
What the Data Changed
Into the Control Power Criteria
The most durable result is the least visible. The question of how much attitude control power a hovering aircraft needs was open when the X-13 flew and was closed shortly afterwards by systematic experiment, in Drinkwater and Rolls 1962 using the X-14A as a variable-stability testbed and Garren et al 1965 in visual flight. The X-13 is one of the data points that made the question worth asking, and the criteria that emerged are those used above to size its controls, a pleasing circularity and a real one.
Into Nothing Operational
No tail-sitting jet fighter went into production, and crewed tail-sitter work was largely abandoned once thrust vectoring offered a more practical route, in the history of the configuration. The reasons this article can demonstrate are the fuel arithmetic, the pilot’s inability to see the landing point, and the ground loading, and they are all present in the numbers rather than in hindsight.
Into the Configuration That Worked
The vertical take-off jet did enter service, and not in this form. The Hawker P.1127 kept the aircraft horizontal and turned the thrust instead of turning the aeroplane, which leaves the pilot facing forward, leaves the undercarriage useful, and removes the landing visibility problem entirely. Smith 1961 reports its model testing, flown at Langley in the same facility and by the same group that flew the X-13 model.
The comparison is the fairest verdict on the X-13 available. Both configurations solve the control-authority problem, and the vectored-thrust layout solves it while also solving the two problems the X-13 could not, namely where the pilot looks and what the aircraft rests on.
The first of those is geometric and can be stated in one number. Measure the bearing of the landing point from the pilot’s line of sight during the descent. On a tail-sitter the target lies along the negative body axis, at the tail, so with the seat pivoted forty-five degrees the bearing is
\[135^{\circ}\]On a horizontal aircraft hovering on deflected thrust the target lies directly below while the pilot looks forward and down, giving a bearing of order
\[45^{\circ}\]The same task is a hundred and thirty-five degrees behind one pilot and forty-five degrees below the other, and no amount of seat pivoting closes that gap, because the difference is which end of the aeroplane is pointed at the ground.
The vectored-thrust line also inherited a research literature the tail-sitter did not. Krenkel and Salzman 1968 computes take-off performance for vectored-thrust aircraft, and the flight control technology that made them practical appears in Crandall et al 1973 and, later, Hartmann et al 1979 on digital adaptive control. The competing answers of the same period all kept the pilot upright, whether by tilting the wing, in McCormick and Mallen 1956, McCormick and Mallen 1957, Mazzitelli 1957, Hargraves 1961, Putman 1961, Clark et al 1963, Longhurst 1966, and Magee and Taylor 1971, or by ducting the lift, in Parlett 1961 and Marchese 1963. The X-13 is the only one of them that tilted the pilot back toward lying on his back for the landing. The tri-service programme that carried the ducted-fan answer forward is Marchese 1963, and Cook 1964 characterises the carrier air wake a shipboard version would have had to land into. The X-13 demonstrated that the tail-sitting answer works and thereby helped establish that it was not the answer to take, which is a real contribution and not the one the programme set out to make. A flight evaluation of a jet vertical take-off transport under visual and instrument conditions, the mature form of the same question, is Holzhauser et al 1972.
The Vertical Attitude Idea Returns Twice
It came back in the 1970s as a proposal for carrier-based fighters, in Eilertson 1975 on a remotely piloted demonstration vehicle, Gerhardt and Chen 1978 on the vertical attitude concept for a fighter or attack aircraft, and Papadales 1979 on the performance of a conceptual vertical-attitude fighter.
And it came back using the same technique that had supported the X-13 twenty years earlier. Newsom and Anglin 1975 and Grafton and Anglin 1975 are free-flight model investigations of a vertical-attitude vertical take-off fighter, flown in the same facility and reported in the same form as Smith 1958. Two decades of intervening work changed the proposed aircraft and did not change how the question was asked, which is a fair measure of how completely the technique had settled the aerodynamic side of the problem and how little it could say about the rest. The remotely piloted version matters most, because removing the pilot removes the problem the X-13 could not solve.
The Contemporary Literature
| Cluster | Records |
|---|---|
| Control allocation and flight control law design | 661 |
| Uncrewed tail-sitters and hybrid vertical take-off drones | 586 |
| Free-flight models, scaling, simulation and flight test technique | 551 |
| Propeller slipstream, rotors and distributed propulsion | 520 |
| Spin, tumble and the delta wing at high incidence | 516 |
| Control power, handling qualities and the criteria | 506 |
| Autonomous landing, moving platforms and recovery | 442 |
| Jet-induced effects, ground effect and the landing surface | 402 |
| Reaction controls and thrust vectoring | 371 |
| The pilot, the view and the visual task | 345 |
| Stability, control and flight dynamics | 301 |
| Tilt-rotor, tilt-wing and the convertible configurations | 294 |
| V/STOL aircraft and the configuration class | 291 |
| Engines, lift jets and propulsion | 280 |
| Hover, station keeping and disturbance | 255 |
| Urban air mobility and the vertiport | 235 |
| The transition and the control handover | 190 |
| Sizing, energy and hover endurance | 171 |
| Vertical-attitude aircraft and the tail-sitter programmes | 97 |
| Landing gear, arresting and recovery systems | 85 |
| Other aeronautical literature | 15 |
| Total | 7,114 |
The X-13’s configuration is not a historical curiosity. It is a standard layout for small uncrewed aircraft, and the reason, on this article’s reading of the 1975 remotely piloted proposal, is that the configuration’s hard problem was the pilot.
The Same Relations, Run Forward
The most useful way into the modern literature is to apply the article’s relations to a modern vehicle. Nothing in them has changed, so the comparison is direct.
| Vehicle | Mass | Disc loading | Wing loading | Ratio | Hover endurance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Small quadrotor tail-sitter | 25 kg | 488 Pa | 490 Pa | 0.99 | 22.8 min |
| Medium tail-sitter | 120 kg | 462 Pa | 588 Pa | 0.79 | 23.4 min |
| Large lift-plus-cruise | 2000 kg | 542 Pa | 981 Pa | 0.55 | 21.6 min |
| Ryan X-13 | 3053 kg | 141,000 Pa | 1,687 Pa | 84 | 13.4 min |
Two things fall out, and the second corrects the first.
The disc loading and the wing loading of a modern electric tail-sitter are the same quantity to within a factor of two. It follows from the XFY-1 comparison that a designer who wants stall-level dynamic pressure on the control surfaces in a hover should choose a disc loading equal to the wing loading. A small electric tail-sitter satisfies that condition without anyone arranging it, because both quantities are set by the same structural and aerodynamic scaling once the propulsor is a set of rotors rather than a jet. The X-13’s ratio was 84 and the modern ratio is near one. The design difference that separated the X-13 from the XFY-1 has been dissolved rather than solved.
The endurance advantage is not what it looks like. Twenty-three minutes against thirteen suggests the energy problem has nearly halved, and it has not.
The two vehicles obey different relations. A jet in the hover burns fuel in proportion to the thrust it must produce, so
\[t = \frac{\zeta}{c}\]while a rotor’s power is set by how hard it works the air it passes through,
\[\frac{P}{T} = \frac{v_{i}}{\eta}, \qquad v_{i} = \sqrt{\frac{T/A}{2\rho}}\]and its endurance is the stored energy divided by that power,
\[t = \frac{\zeta_{b} \, e \, \eta}{g \, v_{i}}\]The modern figures in the table assume a battery at thirty percent of the mass while the X-13’s fuel was twenty-one. Holding the energy mass fraction equal, with an induced velocity of 14.1 metres per second,
\[t = \frac{0.208 \times 9.0 \times 10^{5} \times 0.70}{9.807 \times 14.1} = 948 \, \text{s} = 15.8 \, \text{min}\]against the X-13’s 13.4. Seventy years of propulsion and energy storage has improved hovering endurance at fixed energy mass fraction by about eighteen percent.
The comparison is cleanest expressed as an effective specific consumption. A jet in the hover obeys $t = \zeta / c$ and a rotor obeys the relation above, so the rotor’s equivalent $c$ is
\[c_{\text{eff}} = \frac{g \, v_{i}}{e \, \eta}\]| Configuration | Effective specific consumption | Relative to the Avon |
|---|---|---|
| Ryan X-13, Avon RA.28 | $2.583 \times 10^{-4}$ s⁻¹ | 1.000 |
| Small electric tail-sitter, 250 Wh/kg | $2.197 \times 10^{-4}$ s⁻¹ | 0.850 |
| The same at 400 Wh/kg | $1.373 \times 10^{-4}$ s⁻¹ | 0.532 |
A battery forty-eight times worse than kerosene per kilogramme, driving a rotor seventeen times better than a jet at converting power into thrust, comes out fifteen percent ahead. The rest of the modern advantage is bought by carrying more energy, which a vehicle with no pilot and no weapon can afford to do. The hover is still expensive, and for the same reason.
The Tail-Sitter Came Back Without a Pilot
The transition control problem derived above is now an ordinary subject with a large literature, and the vehicle it is written about is often a biplane quadrotor tail-sitter, which is the X-13’s configuration with four rotors in place of one jet and a computer in place of the man.
Disturbance rejection through the hover and the transition together, which the X-13’s pilot had to manage by hand, is the subject of Mao et al 2026 and Wang et al 2025. Wang et al 2026 and Wang et al 2026 treat hover attitude control for that configuration, Gupta et al 2026 designs its transition feedback, and Jayasundara and Baeder 2026 study its aerodynamics and acoustics. The stability derivatives that the 1953 wind-tunnel programme measured for the XFY-1 are now obtained from the vehicle itself in flight, in Juhasz et al 2025 on system identification of a hovering quadrotor biplane tail-sitter.
Transition strategies and corridors are Rehan et al 2026, Lee et al 2026, Pobikrowska and Goetzendorf-Grabowski 2025, Burton et al 2026, Panish and Bacic 2025, Xi et al 2025, Tellez-Belkotosky et al 2025, and Irmawan et al 2023. Adaptive and fault-tolerant versions, which matter because a rotor can fail where a jet mostly could not, appear in Zhou et al 2025, Cai and Lovera 2026, and Wang et al 2026. The configuration is studied in Samarth Pathak 2025, Liang et al 2026, Rajendran 2025, and Fernandez et al 2026, the last of which optimises the design and the trajectory together under a controllability constraint, which is the modern form of the opening question.
The Handover Is Now a Least-Squares Problem
The control-authority handover is solved as an allocation problem. A modern over-actuated aircraft is given a desired moment and solves for the actuator commands that produce it at least cost,
\[\mathbf{M}_{\text{des}} = B \mathbf{u}, \qquad \mathbf{u} = W^{-1} B^{\mathsf{T}} \left( B W^{-1} B^{\mathsf{T}} \right)^{-1} \mathbf{M}_{\text{des}}\]where the weighting $W$ prices each actuator and the effectiveness matrix $B$ varies with dynamic pressure. The blend that the X-13’s pilot had to perform by hand is now the solution of that problem, evaluated many times a second, and the fraction $\lambda(V)$ tabulated earlier is what it converges to.
Enenakpogbe et al 2025 formulates it for a vectored-thrust vertical take-off aircraft, and Asghari and Tayefi 2026 treats the transition as a multi-objective allocation. The control laws that sit above it are Scordamaglia et al 2025, Pfeifle and Fichter 2023, Saetti 2025, and McIntosh et al 2024. Incremental nonlinear dynamic inversion, which has become the default because it needs less of a model than the alternatives, is the method of Tamaskani et al 2026, Wang et al 2026, Athayde et al 2024, and Salahudden et al 2024. Nonlinear model predictive control on a large multirotor is Zwiener et al 2026, on a tiltwing Doff-Sotta et al 2025, and reconfiguration after an actuator failure is Li et al 2025 and Cai et al 2026.
The Position Loop Became Somebody Else’s Problem
The sharpest human-factors result above is that hovering is a third-order position loop with no restoring moment, requiring the mean tilt to be held below half a degree to keep station within a metre. That loop is now closed by a computer with better sensors than eyes.
Stewart et al 2026 addresses station-keeping against disturbance, Matt and Altamirano 2026 hover system identification, and Lovas 2026 rotor-level health monitoring in the hover, which no 1957 aircraft could contemplate. The rotor aerodynamics underneath are Mihaila et al 2026, Mortimer et al 2026, and Makeev 2026.
Where a human remains in the loop the article’s transport-delay analysis has become a research subject, in Liu et al 2026 on teleoperation under delay and Li et al 2026 on driving the latency of an immersive interface down. The ground observer who talked Girard onto the hook was an early and unusually literal instance of shared control with a transport delay, and the modern treatment of that arrangement identifies the delay as the thing to attack.
The Visual Task, Solved by Deleting the Viewer
The X-13’s decisive difficulty was that the pilot could not see the trailer. The modern answer is not a better window.
Vision-based autonomous landing is Qian et al 2026, González-Tejeda et al 2026, Ryu et al 2025, Yang et al 2025, and Zhang et al 2025. Landing on a moving platform, which is harder than landing on a trailer and is the same problem, is studied in de Paula et al 2026, Zhou et al 2026, Yuan et al 2024, and Comeau et al 2022.
Where a pilot is retained, the answer is to give the information back rather than to improve the view, as the 1970s displays literature concluded and as Newton et al 2024 measures for a head-worn display on approach. Stephenson et al 2026 studies operator workload and situational awareness for small uncrewed aircraft, and Gonzalo 2026 takes up the training question. All of these remove the geometry the X-13 could not remove.
Handling Qualities Became Certification
The control-power criteria borrowed here were a research subject in the 1960s and are now also a certification subject, because somebody has to certify vertical take-off aircraft carrying passengers.
Sizing an aircraft’s control power directly against handling-qualities requirements is Antonakis 2025, using control moment polytopes, a formal version of the argument made here with a single criterion and a single moment arm. Antonakis 2025 and Saetti and Rogers 2024 test those qualities with uncertainty modelled explicitly, Ioannis and Ioannis 2026 applies the Cooper-Harper scale to a small uncrewed aircraft, and Favaro et al 2025 builds flight models credible enough to certify by simulation. Slung loads, which reproduce the X-13’s coupled attitude and position problem in another form, are the subject of Wang and Chen 2024.
The most direct descendant of the X-13’s pilot problem is simplified vehicle operations, in which the aircraft is made easy enough that a person who is not a pilot can fly it. Janetzko et al 2026 measures whether novices can. The X-13 asked an experienced test pilot to do something at the edge of what a person can do, and the field’s eventual answer was to change the aircraft rather than to train the person. Workload measurement itself has moved to physiological instrumentation, in Procházková and Juračka 2026, Xu et al 2026, and Chen et al 2025.
Ground Effect Became a Civil Planning Problem
The disc-loading ratio of about a hundred between a jet and a rotor of the same span is why vertical landing on unprepared ground remains a rotorcraft capability. What has changed is who is asking. The X-13’s ground loading was a military basing question and it is now a question about where a vertiport may be placed in a city.
The aerodynamics is Greene 2020, Sagaga and Lee 2025, Lee et al 2026, Shirbhate et al 2025, and Georgiev 2025, with the energy consequence measured in flight in Su et al 2024. Ingestion persists even at rotorcraft disc loadings, in Li et al 2025, and brownout is now simulated for another planet entirely in Caprace et al 2025. Sharma et al 2021 treats the shipboard case with deck motion.
The planning literature is the part that would have surprised the X-13’s engineers. Vertiport siting and design are Li et al 2026, Lyu and Feng 2026, Maksoud et al 2025, Mercan et al 2025, Guo et al 2025, Zhou et al 2026, Jin and Ma 2025, and Mirković et al 2026, with operations in Lee et al 2025 and the navigation requirement in García Crespillo et al 2024. A tail-sitting jet needed a prepared surface and a particular trailer, and this article counts both against it. A modern vertical take-off aircraft needs a prepared surface and a licensed site, and that is treated as infrastructure rather than as a defect. The requirement did not go away. The expectation did.
Sizing Now Carries the Hover Explicitly
The article’s central arithmetic is that hover endurance depends only on the energy fraction and the effective consumption. A modern sizing method has to carry that term explicitly, because it dominates.
Sizing methodologies are Qiao and Zhou 2026, Lee et al 2022, Chen et al 2026, Paek 2025, and Park et al 2025. Batra et al 2024 and Barufaldi and Morales 2023 rewrite the endurance relations for hybrid propulsion. The honest response, which is to carry a second energy source so the vehicle does not hover on its cruise powerplant, is now a design discipline, in Vegh 2025, Park 2026, Park and Park 2026, Li and Jiang 2026, Zhu et al 2022, and Radmanesh 2026. Energy-optimal trajectories exist because the hover is worth avoiding, in Mathur and Atkins 2026, Cai et al 2026, and Kang et al 2025, and Ayyaswamy et al 2023, Boggan and Clarke 2026, and Jiao and Yang 2026 examine the battery’s behaviour under that duty cycle.
The Slipstream Question, Now a Free Parameter
The explanation given earlier for why a turboprop tail-sitter needs no reaction control is that its slipstream gives the wing stall-level dynamic pressure in the hover. The relation is
\[q_{s} = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho v_{s}^{2} = \frac{T}{A}\]so a designer who wants that condition simply chooses a disc loading equal to the wing loading, which the table at the head of this section shows a modern tail-sitter does automatically.
Shaping the interaction deliberately is Xue and Zhou 2020, Leng et al 2020, Duivenvoorden et al 2026, Duivenvoorden et al 2025, Cao et al 2023, Meng et al 2023, Zhao et al 2024, Zhao et al 2026, and Ikami et al 2021, with the propulsion-aerodynamics coupling modelled in Li et al 2026. The X-13’s disadvantage against the XFY-1 is now a design choice that distributed electric propulsion makes freely available, the single largest change between the period and the present.
High Angle of Attack
A transitioning aircraft passes through every incidence from zero to ninety degrees. Wang et al 2025 and Golmirzaee and Wood 2026 model that passage, Koch 2026, Acher et al 2021, and Combey et al 2026 study the unsteady interactions, and Mohankumar et al 2021 and Mohankumar et al 2022 measure the engine’s tolerance of incidence, which the X-13 needed and nobody measured.
Subscale Free Flight Is Still How It Is Done
The Froude-scaled free-flight model that settled the X-13’s transition is not a superseded technique. It is still one of the ways a transitioning aircraft is tested before it carries anything.
Scaled demonstrators and their development are Pan et al 2026 and Bianco and Simon 2023, Comer et al 2026 flight tests a trajectory controller on a subscale transitioning aircraft, and the identification work that turns such a flight into a model is Ahmed et al 2025, Shen and Chen 2025, Abdul Rashid et al 2025, and Ide and Landman 2025. The difference from 1958 is that the model now carries the flight computer it is testing, so the thing being validated is the software rather than the shape, and the Reynolds number mismatch computed above matters less than it did because the quantity of interest is a control law rather than a stall. Filippoli et al 2026 and Kieß et al 2026 draw safety and certification lessons from such vehicles.
What Has Not Changed
Three of the article’s findings have no modern remedy and appear unchanged in the current literature.
Hovering is expensive, and the effective specific consumption table above shows the improvement over seventy years is about fifteen percent at fixed energy fraction. Ground loading scales with disc loading, so any vehicle that hovers on a small actuator disc will damage what it hovers over. And a hovering aircraft has no aerodynamic restoring moment, so the position loop is third order and undamped whether a person or a computer is closing it.
What changed is who closes the loop, how much energy the vehicle can afford to carry, and whether the ground is expected to be prepared. None of those is an aerodynamic advance, and the X-13’s aerodynamics were never the problem.
Control allocation and flight control law design
The handover as an algorithm. Control allocation for over-actuated aircraft, and dynamic inversion, incremental, model predictive, sliding-mode, adaptive and fault-tolerant control laws for aircraft, rotorcraft, multirotors and vertical take-off vehicles, together with allocation theory stated for over-actuated systems in general. The earliest dated record is from 1972, and 213 titles name dynamic inversion, 101 of them in its incremental form, which is the literature’s own measure of the method the review above describes as the default.
661 records. [A Novel Sliding Mode 2020] [Abbasi 2017] [Acquatella et al 2017] [Adams and Banda 1993] [Adams and Banda 1993] [Addington and Myatt 2000] [Ahmadi Dastgerdi and Nabavi-Chashmi 2026] [Ahmadi Dastgerdi et al 2022] [Ahmadi Dastgerdi et al 2024] [Ahmadi et al 2023] [Ailon 2006] [Al-Hiddabi and McClamroch] [Al-Mahturi et al 2021] [Al-radhi and El-Metwally 2023] [Alam and Celikovsky 2017] [Alam et al 2016] [Alblooshi et al 2025] [Alcan and Unel 2017] [Alwi and Edwards 2009] [Amin and Li 2017] [An and Shao 2023] [Antonakis and Biannic 2024] [Aoki and Higashi 2020] [Asper et al 2026] [Atmaca and Van Kampen 2025] [Atmaca et al 2026] [Autenrieb et al 2019] [Axten et al 2024] [Axten et al 2024] [Bachler and Petit 2021] [Bacon and Ostroff 2000] [Baggi et al 2020] [Baggi et al 2022] [Balas et al 1992] [Bannwarth et al 2024] [Bao et al 2025] [Barlow et al 2009] [Beh et al 2018] [Beheshti et al 2023] [Bellankimath and Chandar 2015] [Bendotti and Morris] [Benghezal et al 2022] [Bernhard and Adamy 2017] [Berrios et al 2017] [Betancourt et al 2020] [Beyer et al 2018] [Bezerra and Santos 2022] [Bhardwaj et al 2019] [Bian et al 2019] [Bicking et al 2014] [Binz and Moormann 2020] [Binz et al 2019] [Biwei Tang et al 2011] [Blas et al 2022] [Bodson 2000] [Boskovic and Mehra] [Botelho] [Bouadi and Mora-Camino 2012] [Bouchard et al 2015] [Buescher and Hill 2025] [Buffington 1997] [Buffington 1999] [Buffington 1999] [Buffington and Sparks 1998] [Buffington et al 1998] [Bugliari Armenio et al 2024] [Burton et al 2023] [Cabecinhas et al 2013] [Cai et al 2026] [Cakiroglu et al 2018] [Calise and Kramer 1982] [Calise and Kramer 1984] [Cao and Liu 2024] [Cao and Lynch 2021] [Cao et al 2014] [Cao et al 2019] [Cao et al 2022] [Car et al 2018] [Cardenas 2022] [Casau et al 2012] [Castañeda and Gordillo 2019] [Catapang 1993] [Caverly et al 2016] [Chaderjian 2017] [Chang et al 2022] [Chang et al 2024] [Chebbi and Briere 2022] [Chen and Zhang 2008] [Chen et al 2018] [Chen et al 2019] [Chen et al 2019] [Chen et al 2022] [Chen et al 2025] [Chen et al 2026] [Chen et al 2026] [Cheng et al 2025] [Chudoba and Cook 2003] [ChunSheng Liu et al 2012] [Chunzhi et al 2015] [Cocetti et al 2016] [Coelho et al 2017] [Comer et al 2024] [Comer et al 2026] [Consolini and Tosques 2006] [Control Allocation and Flight 2016] [Control Distribution for Over-Actuated 2008] [Controller for Attitude Stabilization 2014] [Corraro et al 2011] [Cui et al 2021] [Cui et al 2025] [Córdoba 2007] [Dagal and Erol 2025] [Dahleh and Tsitsiklis 2002] [Damien 2009] [Datta et al 2011] [de Castro and Brembeck 2019] [De Ponti et al 2025] [de Vries and Van Kampen 2019] [Demirkiran and Isci 2023] [Deng et al 2023] [Deng et al 2023] [Deng et al 2023] [Deng et al 2023] [Derawi et al 2015] [Derrouaoui et al 2023] [Devasia 1997] [DeVore et al 2022] [Devytkovsky and Trefilov 2023] [Di Francesco and Mattei 2016] [Di Francesco et al 2014] [Diepolder et al 2017] [Ding et al 2026] [Do 2014] [Do and Paxman 2013] [Do et al] [Do et al 2003] [Doff-Sotta et al 2025] [Doman and Oppenheimer 2002] [Dou and Wen 2022] [Douglas et al 1990] [Du et al 2023] [Duan and Okwudire 2018] [Durham et al 2016] [Dyer et al 2019] [Dynamic Modeling and Robust 2008] [Edwards 1972] [Ehab Safwat et al 2020] [Elif and Tekinalp 2025] [Emami and Rezaeizadeh 2018] [Enns 1990] [Enns 2003] [Enns and Keviczky 2006] [Enns et al 1994] [Faizal et al 2018] [Fan et al 2011] [Fan et al 2026] [Fault Tolerant Control for 2025] [Feng Lin et al 1999] [Figueiredo Prudencio] [Franceschini et al 2026] [Galeani et al 2011] [Galeani et al 2015] [Galeani et al 2025] [Gan and Gao 2014] [Gao et al 2026] [Asper and Simmons 2022] [Goman and Kolesnikov 1998] [Gregory 1998] [Greif et al 1972] [Gress 2018] [Gripp et al 2023] [Grondman et al 2018] [Guan and Xian 2025] [Gui et al 2019] [Guo et al 2016] [Guo et al 2023] [Güneş and Adıgüzel 2024] [Hachem et al 2026] [Hafezi et al 2022] [Hafner et al 2026] [Haisheng and Jinkun 2012] [Hamadi] [Hameduddin and Bajodah 2011] [Hameduddin and Bajodah 2011] [Hameduddin and Bajodah 2012] [Han and Zhang 2019] [Han Du et al 2016] [Handrick et al 2025] [Harris et al 2019] [Harris et al 2022] [Hartmann and Stein 1978] [Hartmann et al 1979] [Hartmann et al 1979] [Hastedt et al 2022] [Hauser et al 1992] [He et al 2020] [Heer et al 2023] [Hegde 2020] [Henkenjohann et al 2023] [Henkenjohann et al 2024] [Herrera et al 2017] [Ho and Zhou 2023] [Ho et al 2024] [Hofsäβ and Holzapfel 2024] [Hougui et al 1995] [Howitt 2005] [Hoyt et al 1980] [Hriadel et al 2026] [Hu et al 2000] [Huang et al 2003] [Huang et al 2022] [Huang et al 2025] [Huang et al 2025] [Hugo et al 2007] [Humaidi et al 2019] [Idan et al 2001] [Ignatyev and Tsourdos 2022] [Ilyas et al 2025] [Immersion and Invariance Adaptive 2026] [Islam et al 2020] [Iswanto et al 2016] [Cook and Gregory] [Jafari et al 2022] [Jaramillo et al 2025] [Jayaraman and Ghosh 2021] [Jayaraman et al 2021] [Jayaraman et al 2022] [Jeong and Park 2025] [Jeong et al 2024] [Jeong et al 2024] [Jiang and Pakmehr 2022] [Jiang et al 2014] [Jiang et al 2025] [Jiaqiang Zhu et al] [Jie et al 2025] [Jin et al 2026] [Jinghe et al 2024] [Johansen and Sbarbaro 2003] [Johnson and Ahamed 2018] [Joo et al 2012] [Joosten et al 2008] [Ju et al 2023] [Nagarathna and Deodhare 2023] [Kamath et al 2025] [Kandath et al 2019] [Kang and Kwon 2000] [Kannan et al 2025] [Kawaguchi et al 2008] [Kawaguchi et al 2009] [Kawaguchi et al 2011] [Kazemi and Tarighi 2024] [Kellett 1996] [Kellett et al 1996] [Kelm and Myschik 2023] [Khelassi et al 2010] [Khelassi et al 2010] [Kim and Kim 2024] [Kim et al 2009] [Kim et al 2016] [Kim et al 2024] [Kim et al 2025] [Kishiwada et al 2019] [Kishore et al 2006] [Kissai et al 2019] [Kissai et al 2019] [Knobel et al 2006] [Kocurek et al 1997] [Koeniguer and Spear 2018] [Kose 2024] [Kou et al 2021] [Krimphove et al 2023] [Krishnamurthy and Khorrami 2011] [Krosche and Heinze 2015] [Kukreti et al 2016] [Kumtepe et al 2022] [Kunwar et al 2026] [Kurniawan 2014] [Lang et al 2024] [Larson 1986] [Lee et al 2006] [Lee et al 2011] [Li 2021] [Li and Tan 2023] [Li et al 2003] [Li et al 2018] [Li et al 2021] [Li et al 2022] [Li et al 2022] [Li et al 2023] [Li et al 2023] [Li et al 2023] [Li et al 2024] [Li et al 2025] [Li et al 2025] [Lili and Hua-min 2011] [Lin et al 2013] [Lin et al 2019] [Lin et al 2024] [Linehan 1996] [Lingyu et al 2006] [Lingzhong Guo et al] [Litt 2024] [Littleboy et al 1997] [Liu and Xue 2016] [Liu et al 2006] [Liu et al 2015] [Liu et al 2018] [Liu et al 2022] [Liu et al 2025] [Liu et al 2026] [Lombaerts et al 2008] [Lombaerts et al 2010] [Louw and Jordaan 2021] [Lozano et al 2022] [Lu et al 2016] [Lu et al 2016] [Lu et al 2018] [Lu et al 2019] [Lu et al 2024] [Lu et al 2026] [Ludeña Cervantes et al 2020] [Lungu and Lungu 2016] [Lam et al 2024] [Ma and Yang 2016] [Ma et al 2009] [Ma et al 2022] [Ma et al 2024] [Maadani et al 2023] [MacKunis et al 2008] [Maggiore and Consolini] [Mahony et al] [Makarov 2019] [Malloy and Chang 1998] [Mancinelli et al 2025] [Mansur and Lanteigne 2020] [Mao et al 2022] [Marantos et al 2013] [Marks et al 2012] [Martin 2025] [Martin et al] [Martin et al 1996] [Masuda and Uchiyama 2024] [Matamoros and de Visser 2018] [Houghton et al] [Mazeh et al 2021] [McGeoch et al 2005] [Merheb] [Messaoui et al 2023] [Michael W. Oppenheimer 2006] [Michalski et al 2023] [Midhat 2017] [Miller 2011] [Milz et al 2025] [Milz et al 2026] [Miyamoto et al 2012] [Modiano and Murman 1993] [Modisette and Darmofal 2008] [Mogorosi et al 2021] [Mokhtari et al 2023] [Mondal and Mahanta 2013] [Mondal et al 2012] [Morani et al 2024] [Morton et al 1996] [Mulgund and Stengel 1993] [Mulgund and Stengel 1995] [Murch et al 2009] [Nandy and Kim 2025] [Narayanan et al 2026] [Nguyen 2011] [Ni 2024] [Nie et al 2021] [Ninomiya and Miyazawa 2010] [Nunes et al 2025] [Nunes et al 2025] [Oertel 1995] [Oertel 1997] [Oertel 1998] [Olfati-Saber] [Olfati-Saber 2002] [Pachter et al 1999] [Panish et al 2023] [Papachristos et al 2011] [Papageorgiou and Glover 2002] [Papageorgiou and Glover 2004] [Park et al 2019] [Park et al 2024] [Park et al 2025] [Park et al 2025] [Patel and Smith 1998] [Pavel et al 2020] [Peng et al 2008] [Peng et al 2010] [Pfeifle and Fichter 2021] [Pfeifle and Fichter 2022] [Pollack and Van Kampen 2022] [Pollack and van Kampen 2023] [Pollack et al 2019] [Pollack et al 2024] [Pollack et al 2025] [Pollack et al 2026] [Pollack et al 2026] [Pollák et al 2026] [Prach 2022] [Prochazka et al 2018] [Pham 2026] [Qian and Chen 2010] [Qian and Li 2010] [Qiao et al 2026] [Qin et al 2023] [Qin et al 2023] [Qiong Hu et al 2012] [Qu et al 2024] [Ramirez-Rodriguez et al 2013] [Raptis et al 2009] [Reiner et al 1994] [Reiner et al 1996] [Ren et al 2026] [Richter 2012] [Rivera-Casillas and Dettwiller 2024] [Robinson et al 2015] [Ruggia 2025] [Ruiz et al 2023] [Rustagi et al 2018] [Sabra et al 2025] [Sadik Aboud et al 2023] [Saeki and Sakaue] [Saied] [Sandino et al 2013] [Sansou et al 2024] [Santos and Bezerra 2022] [Santos et al 2021] [Santos et al 2022] [Saraf et al 1998] [Sargent and Anemaat 2018] [Sarigul-Klijn and Huber 2006] [Satoh and Ohno 2025] [Schkoda and Crassidis 2007] [Schneider et al 2024] [Schumacher 1999] [Scordamaglia et al 2012] [Scordamaglia et al 2025] [Selman 2023] [Senkul and Altug 2014] [Serrani 2012] [Setlur et al] [Shageer et al 2008] [Shankar et al 2003] [Shankar et al 2004] [Sharma and Aldeen 2007] [Shearwood et al 2021] [Sheng and Sun 2015] [Shi et al 2023] [Shivanapura Lakshmikanth et al 2013] [Shunxiang and Rui 2017] [Shuo et al 2025] [Siddiqi and Abraham 1988] [Sieberling et al 2010] [Simplicio et al 2023] [Simplício et al 2013] [Singh and Pal 2019] [Singh et al 1994] [Singh et al 2024] [Singhal et al 2009] [Singla and Junkins 2007] [Sini and Ananthan 2022] [Sisson and Dogan 2025] [Sisson et al 2024] [Smeur et al 2016] [Smeur et al 2016] [Smeur et al 2018] [Smit and Craig 1998] [Smith 1998] [Smith and Berry 2000] [Smith and Patel 1995] [Smith et al 1986] [Snell 1992] [Snell and Stout 1994] [Snell and Stout 1995] [Snell and Stout 1998] [Snell et al 1998] [Soikkeli et al 2023] [Soltani et al 2003] [Song 2008] [Spaans et al 2024] [Sreenatha and Kulkarni] [Staelens et al 2007] [Stalford 1987] [Stam and de Visser 2025] [Steffensen et al 2023] [Steinert et al 2025] [Steinert et al 2025] [Steinleitner et al 2022] [Stengel et al 1976] [Stougie et al 2024] [Su 2014] [Su and Lin 2011] [Su and Lin 2011] [Su and Lin 2012] [Su et al 2014] [Sun et al 2021] [Surmann et al 2024] [Sylvain et al 2009] [Szabolcsi 2019] [Szymanski et al 2025] [Taherinezhad and Ramirez-Serrano 2023] [Takahashi 1994] [Tal and Karaman 2018] [Tal and Karaman 2021] [Tamaskani et al 2026] [Tang et al 2021] [Tang et al 2025] [Tang et al 2025] [Tariq and Nahon 2020] [Tarn and Hsu] [Tarn and Hsu 1993] [Tayebi and McGilvray 2006] [Taylor and Yoo 2011] [Teel 1999] [Teel 1999] [Tekinalp et al 2011] [Theilliol et al 2015] [Tijani et al 2011] [Tipàn et al 2020] [Tohidi et al 2016] [Tohidi et al 2017] [Tohidi et al 2021] [Tol et al 2013] [Torella and Liotti 1993] [Tournes and Johnson] [Traas et al 2026] [Tsuchiya et al 2022] [Ugwueze et al 2023] [ul Amin et al 2016] [Ul Haq et al 2026] [Unal 2021] [Valmorbida and Galeani 2013] [van ‘t Veld et al 2018] [Van et al 2019] [van Oort et al 2008] [Van Oort et al 2011] [Venkataraman and Doman 2001] [Vepa 2021] [Vernyi et al 2026] [Vershinin 2008] [Vile et al 2020] [Villanueva-Aguado and Bronz 2026] [Vinkler and Wood 1978] [Vinkler et al 1979] [Vinkler et al 1980] [Wang and Zhu 2022] [Wang et al 2009] [Wang et al 2009] [Wang et al 2014] [Wang et al 2018] [Wang et al 2018] [Wang et al 2018] [Wang et al 2019] [Wang et al 2020] [Wang et al 2020] [Wang et al 2021] [Wang et al 2021] [Wang et al 2021] [Wang et al 2025] [Wang et al 2026] [Wang et al 2026] [Wang et al 2026] [Wang et al 2026] [Wang Fawei 2016] [Wei et al 2020] [Weilenmann et al] [Wells 2002] [Wendel et al 1991] [Wilson and Prazenica 2020] [Wise 1992] [Wood and Cazzolato 2007] [Wood and Cazzolato 2007] [Woolley 1978] [Wu et al 2017] [Wu et al 2024] [Wu et al 2024] [Wu et al 2026] [Xi and Liu 2020] [Xingjian 2023] [Xu and Zhang 2019] [Xu et al 2019] [Xu et al 2019] [Xu et al 2025] [Yan Chen and Junmin Wang 2011] [Yan et al 2019] [Yang 2021] [Yang and Chang 2024] [Yang and Deng 2024] [Yang and Gao 2003] [Yang and Gao 2020] [Yang and Liu 2003] [Yang and Morales 2021] [Yang and Shen 2007] [Yang et al 2012] [Yang et al 2022] [Yang et al 2023] [Yang et al 2024] [Yang Ning et al 2012] [Yao et al 2020] [Ye et al 2025] [Yedavalli et al] [Yin et al 2017] [Yin et al 2019] [You et al 2024] [Yousef et al 2026] [Yu and Kim 2024] [Yu and Wang 2024] [Yu and Yu 2026] [Yu et al 2005] [Yu et al 2025] [Yuan and Xian 2025] [Yuanqing et al 2014] [Yuksel 2023] [Yılmaz and German 2024] [Zajdel et al 2022] [Zaki et al 2017] [Zhang and Cai 2011] [Zhang and Holzapfel 2015] [Zhang and Morton 1995] [Zhang and Morton 1998] [Zhang and Ran 2023] [Zhang et al 2007] [Zhang et al 2008] [Zhang et al 2014] [Zhang et al 2014] [Zhang et al 2019] [Zhang et al 2019] [Zhang et al 2020] [Zhang et al 2023] [Zhang et al 2023] [Zhang et al 2023] [Zhanqi and Xi’an 2012] [Zhao 2017] [Zhao and Liu 2018] [Zhao et al 2018] [Zhao et al 2024] [Zheng et al 2014] [Zheng et al 2023] [Zhi et al 2018] [Zhiguo Xiong et al 2006] [Zhiyang Zhang et al 2011] [Zhou and Deng 2024] [Zhou et al 2015] [Zhou et al 2015] [Zhou et al 2016] [Zhou et al 2021] [Zhou et al 2023] [Zhu et al 2009] [Zhu et al 2010] [Zhu et al 2022] [Zou and Devasia 2006] [Zou et al 2017] [Zou et al 2021] [Zou et al 2026] [Zouaoui and Rami 2004] [Zurn et al 2016] [Zwiener et al 2026]
Uncrewed tail-sitters and hybrid vertical take-off drones
The configuration after the pilot was removed. Tail-sitter, quadplane, biplane-quadrotor and other hybrid vertical take-off drones, their attitude and transition control, their aerodynamics and their design. The earliest dated record is from 1998, and 474 of the 567 dated records, being 83.6 percent, date from 2015 or later. 232 titles name the tail-sitter and 50 the biplane, so the X-13’s layout is the configuration this cluster names most often.
586 records. [Abdelmageed et al 2024] [Abdessameud and Janabi-Sharifi 2013] [Abdessameud and Janabi-Sharifi 2015] [Abdessameud and Tayebi 2013] [Abdessameud and Tayebi 2013] [Abdulrahim et al 2017] [Abryandoko et al 2026] [Ahmed Snikdha and Chen 2023] [Aksugur and Inalhan 2009] [Aksugur et al 2008] [Alatorre et al 2023] [Alatorre Sevilla] [Ali et al 2024] [Alqudsi et al 2026] [Alqudsi et al 2026] [Althaus et al 2007] [Alves et al 2022] [Aláez et al 2022] [Aláez et al 2023] [Ambroziak et al 2022] [An et al 2022] [Ang et al 2014] [Araar and Aouf 2014] [Arias et al 2025] [Arias et al 2025] [Asghari and Tayefi 2026] [Athayde et al 2024] [Athayde et al 2024] [Axten and Johnson 2026] [Babac and Domitran 2023] [Bapst et al 2015] [Becker and Sheffler 2016] [Benini et al 2016] [Benini et al 2019] [Benmoussa and Gamboa 2024] [Berradi et al 2017] [Bhandari et al 2024] [Bhardwaj et al 2018] [Bilodeau and Wong 2010] [Boschma 1998] [Bouzid et al 2018] [Brzozowski et al 2014] [Bukka and Stütz 2024] [Cai and Lovera 2026] [Cai and Lovera 2026] [Cai et al 2023] [Cai et al 2024] [Cai et al 2026] [Campos et al 2021] [Cao et al 2022] [Carlson 2014] [Chen 2023] [Chen and He 2023] [Chen et al 2023] [Chen et al 2026] [Cheng and Pei 2023] [Cheng and Pei 2024] [Cheng et al 2026] [Chiappinelli and Nahon 2018] [Chipade et al 2018] [Chodnicki et al 2019] [Choi et al 2022] [Chowdhary and Lorenz 2005] [Chu et al 2010] [Chu et al 2022] [Conceptual design of a 2015] [Conyers et al 2015] [Cooper et al 2018] [Cui et al 2023] [Czyba et al 2023] [Dalwadi et al 2021] [Dalwadi et al 2022] [Dalwadi et al 2022] [Dalwadi et al 2022] [Dalwadi et al 2023] [Dalwadi et al 2023] [Dalwadi et al 2023] [Dalwadi et al 2023] [Dalwadi et al 2023] [Dalwadi et al 2023] [Daud Filho] [Daud Filho and Belo 2023] [De Lucena et al 2022] [De Lucena et al 2025] [de Plinval and Burlion 2015] [de Plinval et al 2013] [De Ponti et al 2023] [De Wagter and Meulenbeld 2019] [De Wagter et al 2018] [Demitrit et al 2017] [Deng 2019] [Dermer] [Deshpande and Zhang 2021] [Design and Simulation of 2024] [Design of Avionics System 2015] [Deyuan et al 2017] [Deyuan et al 2018] [Dezons and Ducard 2023] [Dhaliwal and Ramirez-Serrano 2009] [Dollinger et al 2021] [Domitran and Babac 2021] [Dony and Islam 2026] [Dooher et al 2026] [Dragos Daniel et al 2026] [Dubois et al 2026] [Ducard and Carughi 2024] [Duncan et al 2006] [Durán-Delfín et al 2026] [Dyatmika et al 2023] [Dynamic Modeling and Simulation 2017] [Escareño et al 2007] [Eulopa-Hernandez et al 2026] [Fan and Xia 2025] [Fan et al 2025] [Fernandez et al 2023] [Fernandez et al 2026] [Ferreira and Becker 2026] [Ferrier et al 2025] [Figueira et al 2025] [Fleming et al 2003] [Flight performance of civil] [Flight Test Data Analysis 2016] [Flores and Flores 2020] [Flores et al 2018] [Footohi et al 2019] [Forshaw et al 2013] [Fredericks et al 2013] [Fredericks et al 2015] [Frietsch et al 2008] [Fu et al 2025] [Fu et al 2025] [Fu et al 2025] [Fu et al 2026] [Fuhrer et al 2019] [Gadag et al 2025] [Gadag et al 2026] [Gamble 2023] [Gan et al 2023] [Gannous et al 2021] [Gao et al 2023] [Garcia et al 2008] [Ge and Hou 2019] [Gentili et al 2008] [Getachew and Zeleke 2024] [Ghanchi and Gururajan 2026] [Gill and D’Andrea 2020] [Giroux et al 2000] [Gomez Ariza] [Gonzalez-Guerrero et al 2022] [Govdeli] [Govindarajan and Sridharan 2021] [Govindarajan et al 2018] [Gregory et al 2015] [Gu et al 2017] [Guclu et al 2016] [Guerrero et al 2009] [Guo et al 2023] [Gupta et al 2023] [Gupta et al 2023] [Gupta et al 2025] [Gupta et al 2026] [Günsel et al 2025] [Kang et al 2024] [Kim et al 2026] [Liu et al 2022] [Mhmood and Ali 2021] [Habel et al 2025] [Hall 2011] [Han et al 2013] [Han et al 2025] [Hang et al 2013] [Harcus and Bright 2020] [He et al 2022] [He et al 2025] [Healy et al 2023] [Hedjar 2015] [Hedjar and Al Zuair 2019] [Heidarian and Memon 2012] [Herisse et al 2008] [Herisse et al 2010] [Herissé et al 2012] [Heydari] [Hirano et al 2019] [Hu et al 2015] [Hu et al 2022] [Hu et al 2025] [Hu et al 2025] [Hu et al 2026] [Huang et al 2009] [Hudati et al 2019] [Huo et al 2019] [Huo et al 2026] [Imran et al 2023] [INAV-Based Adaptive Transition Control 2025] [Invernizzi et al 2018] [Isgandarov and Hajizada 2026] [Islam et al 2026] [Islam et al 2026] [Ismail et al 2024] [Jabbari Asl 2019] [Jayasundara and Baeder 2023] [Jayasundara and Baeder 2023] [Jayasundara and Baeder 2026] [Jeong et al 2010] [Jia et al 2025] [Jiang et al 2024] [Jin et al 2015] [Jirwankar et al 2022] [Johnsen et al 2021] [Johnsen et al 2022] [Juanxia et al 2023] [Juhasz et al 2018] [Juhasz et al 2025] [Jung and Shim 2011] [Jung et al 2013] [Jóźko and Włodarczyk 2020] [Mohammadi et al 2023] [Paw and Ang 2023] [Pham et al 2025] [Reinhardt and Johansen 2021] [Smeur et al 2020] [Tal and Karaman 2022] [Trusfus and Abdullin 2021] [Tullu and Jung 2026] [Wang et al 2024] [Yokesh et al 2025] [Kabganian and Hashemi 2025] [Kamal and Ramirez-Serrano 2020] [Kanodia et al 2024] [Kaparos et al 2019] [Ke and Chen 2017] [Ke et al 2017] [Kikumoto et al 2022] [Kikumoto et al 2026] [Kim et al 2013] [Kim et al 2023] [Kita et al 2009] [Kita et al 2009] [Kocamer et al 2025] [Kocer et al 2018] [Kohno and Uchiyama 2014] [Kong et al 2015] [Kownacki et al 2023] [Kshitij et al 2023] [Kubo and Suzuki 2007] [Kubo and Suzuki 2008] [Kubo and Suzuki 2008] [Kumar et al 2021] [Kumar et al 2024] [Kyoung-Moo Min et al. 2019] [König et al 2025] [Laddusaw et al 2021] [Laillatul and Darwito 2026] [Le Bras et al 2007] [Lee and Baek 2025] [Lee and Kim 2024] [Lee et al 2012] [Lee et al 2012] [Lee et al 2025] [Lee et al 2026] [Lee et al 2026] [Leng et al 2020] [Li 2013] [Li et al 2016] [Li et al 2017] [Li et al 2018] [Li et al 2018] [Li et al 2018] [Li et al 2020] [Li et al 2022] [Li et al 2023] [Li et al 2025] [Li et al 2025] [Li et al 2025] [Li et al 2026] [Li et al 2026] [Liang et al 2016] [Liang et al 2022] [Liang et al 2026] [Lin et al 2020] [Lin et al 2024] [Lippiello and Ruggiero 2016] [Liu and Mi 2025] [Liu and Xu 2026] [Liu and Zhang 2024] [Liu et al 2018] [Liu et al 2018] [Liu et al 2018] [Liu et al 2020] [Liu et al 2022] [Liu et al 2024] [Liu et al 2025] [Loughran et al 2024] [Lovell-Prescod et al 2023] [Lu et al 2017] [Lu] [Lucena and Goncalves 2020] [Lugo Cárdenas] [Lyu] [Lyu et al 2017] [Lyu et al 2017] [Lyu et al 2018] [Lyu et al 2018] [Maier and Kondak 2015] [Makarenko et al 2017] [Manoilo 2025] [Manouchehri et al 2011] [Mao et al 2026] [Marchini] [Marshall et al 2022] [Marvakov and Holzapfel 2021] [Matsumoto et al 2010] [Matsumoto et al 2010] [Matsumoto et al 2010] [McIntosh et al 2020] [McIntosh et al 2021] [McIntosh et al 2022] [Meng et al 2023] [Metni 2010] [Metni et al 2006] [Mhmood 2024] [Mihalik and Keane 2022] [Minh-Duc Hua et al 2009] [Minh-Duc Hua et al 2009] [Miyazaki and Tsubakino 2017] [Mohammadi et al 2024] [Moore 2010] [Muraoka et al 2009] [Murata et al 2025] [Murata et al 2025] [Murkute et al 2025] [Nersisyan et al 2026] [Okpara 2025] [Okpara 2026] [Olszanecki Barth] [Omar et al 2007] [Oosedo et al 2010] [Oosedo et al 2012] [Oosedo et al 2013] [Oosedo et al 2016] [Osadchyi et al 2023] [Osman et al 2025] [Osman et al 2026] [Ossyra et al 2025] [Ozdemir et al 2013] [Pan et al 2015] [Panayotov and Zikyamov 2026] [Panigrahi et al 2021] [Parizeau et al 2023] [Patel et al 2022] [Peciak et al 2023] [Pelletier and Giroux 2000] [Pflimlin et al 2005] [Pflimlin et al 2006] [Pflimlin et al 2007] [Pflimlin et al 2007] [Phillips et al 2016] [Phillips et al 2017] [Phillips et al 2018] [Phillips et al 2019] [Phillips et al 2021] [Piancastelli et al 2016] [Pinder 2008] [Pines 2014] [Pisano et al 2025] [Pobikrowska and Goetzendorf-Grabowski 2021] [Pobikrowska and Goetzendorf-Grabowski 2025] [Poh and Poh 2015] [Prach and Kayacan 2017] [Pravitra and Johnson 2020] [Pravitra et al 2019] [Preisner et al 2002] [Priambodo et al 2022] [Priyambodo et al 2023] [Prochazka and Stomberg 2020] [Qi et al 2024] [Qi et al 2024] [Qiao et al 2023] [Qin et al 2024] [Raeisi 2021] [Raj et al 2020] [Raj et al 2020] [Rajendran 2025] [Ramirez and Nahon 2021] [Ranasinghe and Don Lakitha Gunawardana 2021] [Rathjen] [Reatti et al 2022] [Reddinger 2019] [Reddinger et al 2019] [Reddinger et al 2024] [Rehan et al 2026] [Reinhardt and Johansen 2021] [Ren et al 2022] [Ren et al 2022] [Research on Improvement of 2018] [Research on the Total 2020] [Retha 2017] [Rhoads 2011] [Roberts and Tayebi 2011] [Rong et al 2026] [Rosa et al 2014] [Ryseck et al 2020] [Ryseck et al 2023] [Raja et al 2021] [Saetti et al 2025] [safaee et al 2025] [Safaee et al 2025] [Safi’i et al 2021] [Safieh et al 2020] [Sakai and Miwa 2014] [Samarth Pathak 2025] [Sawatdipon et al 2020] [Schenk et al 2026] [Schlatter et al 2024] [Seren and Hornung 2023] [Serkin 2025] [Sethi et al 2021] [Sharma et al 2025] [Shen and Chen 2025] [Shen and Zhu 2023] [Sheng Zhao et al 2013] [Shih and Zou 2026] [Sikora and Czyba 2018] [Singh et al 2019] [Sohail et al 2021] [Sonkar et al 2023] [Sridharan and Govindarajan 2020] [Srivastava and Dondapati 2026] [Stewart et al 2024] [Stewart et al 2025] [Stone 2002] [Stone 2002] [Stone 2008] [Stone et al 2006] [Stone et al 2008] [Stone] [Stone] [Su et al 2024] [Su et al 2025] [Sun and Zhao 2024] [Sun et al 2017] [Supsukbaworn and Lin 2014] [Suresh and Ratnoo 2019] [Suzuki et al 2010] [Swarnkar et al 2018] [Swarnkar et al 2018] [Szczepaniak et al 2019] [Takita and Kashitani 2016] [Takita and Kashitani 2017] [Takita et al 2015] [Tal and Karaman 2021] [Tan et al 2010] [Tanabe et al 2015] [Tang and Song 2018] [Tang et al 2017] [Tang et al 2020] [Tellez-Belkotosky et al 2025] [Terpecz and Schuster 2025] [Theys et al 2016] [Thipyopas and Moschetta 2010] [Thirumaleshwar Hegde et al 2020] [Thirumaleshwar Hegde et al 2021] [Torno et al 2023] [Tsai 2008] [Tsai et al] [Tsubakino and Saito 2020] [Turkmen and Altug 2020] [Turkoglu and Najafi 2015] [Ugur and Yesildirek 2025] [Vegh 2025] [Verling et al 2016] [Vogeltanz 2019] [Wang] [Wang and Cheng 2020] [Wang and Zhang 2022] [Wang et al 2016] [Wang et al 2016] [Wang et al 2017] [Wang et al 2017] [Wang et al 2017] [Wang et al 2017] [Wang et al 2018] [Wang et al 2018] [Wang et al 2019] [Wang et al 2019] [Wang et al 2020] [Wang et al 2021] [Wang et al 2022] [Wang et al 2022] [Wang et al 2023] [Wang et al 2025] [Wang et al 2025] [Wang et al 2026] [Wang et al 2026] [Wang et al 2026] [Ward et al 1999] [Whitcher and Johnson 2017] [Whitcher et al 2019] [Wijerathna and Annasiwaththa 2025] [Willis and Beard 2021] [Winters] [Wong et al 2007] [Wu and Li 2025] [Wu et al 2014] [Wu et al 2019] [Wu et al 2019] [Wu et al 2020] [Wu et al 2022] [Wu et al 2023] [Xi et al 2016] [Xi et al 2019] [Xia et al 2021] [Xia et al 2026] [Xian et al 2026] [Xiao et al 2026] [Xin et al 2021] [Xiong et al 2021] [Xu and Wang 2025] [Xu and Zhang 2020] [Xu et al 2019] [Xu et al 2025] [Yang et al 2015] [Yang et al 2020] [Yang et al 2021] [Yang et al 2022] [Yang et al 2023] [Yang et al 2024] [Yangping and Honggang 2018] [Yeo and Liu 2018] [Yu and Nan 2017] [Yuan et al 2015] [Yue et al 2026] [Yuksek and Inalhan 2022] [Yuksek et al 2016] [Yun et al 2005] [Zafirov 2019] [Zaludin 2024] [Zaludin and Gires 2019] [Zaludin and Harituddin 2019] [Zaludin et al 2021] [Zhang and Qi 2024] [Zhang et al 2012] [Zhang et al 2013] [Zhang et al 2016] [Zhang et al 2017] [Zhang et al 2017] [Zhang et al 2017] [Zhang et al 2017] [Zhang et al 2018] [Zhang et al 2019] [Zhang et al 2021] [Zhang et al 2025] [Zhang et al 2025] [Zhao et al 2009] [Zhao et al 2023] [Zhao et al 2024] [Zhao et al 2025] [Zhao et al 2026] [Zhao et al 2026] [Zhong and Wang 2021] [Zhong and Wang 2022] [Zhong et al 2017] [Zhong et al 2019] [Zhong et al 2023] [Zhong et al 2026] [Zhou] [Zhou and Wang 2026] [Zhou et al 2017] [Zhou et al 2018] [Zhou et al 2019] [Zhou et al 2020] [Zhou et al 2022] [Zhou et al 2025] [Zhu et al 2019] [Zhu et al 2026] [Zong et al 2021] [Zou and Meng 2019] [Zou et al 2023] [Zou et al 2024] [Zou et al 2025] [Çabuk 2023] [Çakici and Leblebi̇ci̇oğlu 2016] [Çeti̇n et al 2024] [Öznalbant and Kavsaoglu 2015] [Öznalbant and Kavsaoğlu 2018] [Öznalbant et al 2016]
Free-flight models, scaling, simulation and flight test technique
How the configuration was tested before it flew, and after. Free-flight and powered models, wind tunnel technique for vertical take-off aircraft, ground-based and in-flight simulation, parameter identification from flight data, in-flight thrust determination and flight test method. The scaling law behind the models is rarely named in their titles, as the Source Base sets out under Thin Subjects.
551 records. [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1962] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1967] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1967] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1992] [Borchers et al 1998] [Capone et al 2007] [Chambers et al 1981] [Dias 2023] [Feng et al 2023] [Gresham et al 2023] [Holmes and Woehr 1971] [Hughes and Gazzaniga 1989] [Innis and Anderson 1972] [Jacob da Motta 2020] [Abdul Rashid et al 2025] [Abras and Hariharan 2021] [Abras et al 2019] [Adelgren et al 2004] [Advanced Ducted Propulsor In-Flight] [Afari et al 2025] [Ahad and Graham 2007] [Air Force Flight Test Center Edwards Afb Ca 1974] [Air Force Flight Test Center Edwards Afb Ca 1974] [Aircraft and Flight Test 2021] [Airfoil static-pressure thrust 1990] [Alford and Knarr 1999] [Altman 2015] [Analysis of Gust-Response Flight-Test 1988] [Anderson and Averett 1972] [Aoyagi 1979] [Aoyagi and Aiken 1979] [Appendix F Flight Test 1999] [Araar et al 2017] [Armstrong 1977] [Arnold 1968] [Aryawijaya 2026] [asadi 2022] [Asselin 2021] [Azid et al 2021] [Bach and McNally 1988] [Bach and McNally 1989] [Bachfischer et al 2024] [Baeder et al 2014] [Baer-Riedhart 1981] [Bahnemann et al 2017] [Bailey et al 1983] [Balasa et al 2026] [Ballin and Dalang-Secretan 1990] [Barker 1966] [Barra et al 2020] [Beale and Miller 1975] [Bennett 1947] [Benyamen and Keshmiri 2022] [Berger et al 2020] [Beyers 1992] [Bhandari et al 2025] [Bianco and Simon 2023] [Biber 2017] [Biermann and Hartman 1942] [Binion 1970] [Binion 1971] [Binion 1975] [Bonyan Khamseh 2021] [Borst 1965] [Bovais et al 1992] [Bower 1978] [Brady and Gururajan 2025] [Brady and Gururajan 2026] [Braman et al 1983] [Brand et al 1986] [Bronz and Hattenberger 2016] [Budd et al 1993] [Budd et al 1995] [Burcham and Burken 1994] [Burcham and Pappas 1996] [Burton and Bischoff 1976] [Jordan et al 2004] [Kashitani et al 2019] [Kim et al 2023] [Kim et al 2023] [Kong et al 2023] [Laiping et al 2020] [Lee et al 2023] [Lo 1971] [Obermark 2004] [Olejnik et al 2019] [Olejnik et al 2020] [Parameter estimation techniques and 1974] [Parlett 1974] [Parrish and Williams 1990] [Raoofi and Yildiz 2023] [Richardson 1976] [Risch et al 2009] [Russell and Conley] [Chaimovich et al 1992] [Chambers and Kirby 1966] [Chan 2019] [Charla et al 2024] [Chen et al 2015] [Chen et al 2022] [Cheney 1988] [Chernousov et al 2020] [Chin et al 1987] [Cho et al 2019] [Chung et al 1995] [Cicolani and Meyer 1975] [Clough et al 1971] [Cole and Jordan 1952] [Comer et al 2025] [Conners 1989] [Cook 1985] [Cook and Hickey 1965] [Corliss and Dugan 1972] [Corliss et al 1977] [Corliss et al 1978] [Corsiglia et al 1989] [Courtin et al 2020] [Cox et al 2012] [Cunningham and Hubbard 2018] [Cunningham et al 2008] [Daffer and Rogers 1973] [Dantsker 2024] [Dantsker and Mancuso 2019] [Dantsker et al 2022] [Dantsker et al 2025] [Davenport 1957] [Sekino and Maki 2024] [Simmons 2023] [Simmons et al 2023] [Smith et al 1995] [Sun et al 2019] [Traven and Whitley 1995] [Wang et al 2020] [Wang et al 2022] [Xue et al 2020] [Xue et al 2020] [Yasue 2020] [Yip 1987] [Yuan 2026] [Zahn et al] [Davis 1974] [Davis and Mertens 1958] [Davis et al 2025] [De Divitiis 2003] [Deets and Brown 1986] [Delbecq et al 2021] [Dempster and Arnold 1969] [Denham and Owens 2016] [Di Carlo et al 1968] [Ding et al 2022] [Dolhyi et al 2026] [Dooley and Yeary 1979] [Dougherty 1966] [Driscoll et al 1975] [Dungan and Clark 1994] [Dutta et al 2019] [Dynamic Lateral-Directional Stability Theory 2003] [Dynamic Longitudinal Stability Flight 2003] [Dynamic scaling 2014] [Egolf et al 2000] [Eigenmann and Bailey 1977] [Ekquist 1965] [Elena 2026] [ElSharkawy et al 2024] [Emslie 1965] [Emslie 1966] [Energy Approach To Performance 2003] [ERC V/STOL program flight 1968] [Estimation and Sensitivity in 2026] [Eulrich et al 1978] [Falarski 1979] [Falarski and Mort 1971] [Farquerabao-Dimaano 2024] [Feistel and Morelli 1980] [Filippoli et al 2026] [Filippoli et al 2026] [Fink 1963] [Fitzgerald and Gingras 1996] [Fletcher 1993] [Fletcher 1995] [Fletcher 2008] [Flight Simulation 2016] [Flight test of a 1979] [Flight Test Programme 1970] [Flores and Flores 2022] [Fortin and Ahuja 2024] [Fradenburgh et al 1973] [Franklin and Stortz 1993] [Freeman and Newsom 1966] [Freuler and Hoffmann 1977] [Fry et al 1966] [Fry et al 1966] [Fry et al 1966] [Fry et al 1967] [Fu et al 2012] [Fuel cell demonstrator aeroplane 2007] [Furusawa and Kitamura 2020] [Gao et al 2021] [Gao et al 2021] [Garren et al 1969] [Gentry and Margason 1967] [Gerdes 1981] [Ghoreishi and Vermeire 2023] [Goldschmidt and Ukeiley 2025] [Goodyear Aerospace Corp Akron Oh 1958] [Gracey 1967] [Graham and Bhandari 2022] [Grant and Lee 2007] [Grantham and Nguyen 1977] [Gray and Biermann 1941] [Green and Oh 2006] [Gregory and McCrink 2016] [Grunnet 1971] [Grunwald 1964] [Guerreiro and Hubbard 2008] [Gundry 1977] [Guner et al 2022] [Gustafson et al 1960] [Habana et al 2025] [Hajiyev et al 2015] [Hall et al 1967] [Hamel 2017] [Hardy and Matthews 1968] [Hariharan 2020] [Hariharan et al 2014] [Heyson and Grunwald 1966] [Hartman 2019] [Hays and Schultz 2025] [Hebbar et al 1999] [Heintzman 1965] [Henriksson and Breitholtz] [Hewes and Hassell 1960] [Heyson 1969] [Heyson 1969] [Heyson 1970] [Heyson 1971] [Heyson 1974] [Heyson 1978] [Hickey and Kirk 1966] [Hiers et al 2004] [Hill et al 1982] [Hinton and Eastlake] [Hockman and Eisiminger 1948] [Hoe et al 2012] [Hollingsworth et al 1977] [Holzhauser et al 1971] [Holzhauser et al 1972] [Hon et al 2022] [Hong and Curtiss 1994] [Hoshu et al 2022] [Hosman and van der Vaart 1985] [Hosman and van der Vaart 1986] [Hrishikeshavan et al 2013] [Hrishikeshavan et al 2015] [Hsieh 1979] [Huang et al 2026] [Hughes and Wernicke 1974] [Huston and Winston 1969] [Huston et al 1963] [Harasani 2015] [Ide and Landman 2025] [Identification of Orientation Dynamics 2013] [In-Flight Thrust Determination] [Incorporating agility flight test 1994] [Integrated Flight Instruments and] [Introduction to Stability and 2003] [Ishola et al 2024] [Ivler et al 2019] [Ivler et al 2019] [Ivler et al 2021] [Jansen 1982] [Jansen 1988] [Jet Thrust Measurement In 2003] [Jia et al 2021] [Jiang et al 2025] [Jiao and Yang 2026] [Johnson 1959] [Johnson and White 1983] [Jonkers and Mulder 1976] [Joppa 1966] [Joppa 1968] [Joppa 1968] [Joppa 1969] [Joppa and Parikh 1984] [Joppa and Shindo 1965] [Jouannet et al 2012] [Kahn 1968] [Kaletka and Fu 1993] [Kang and Kwon 2001] [Kang et al 2024] [Kanistras et al 2015] [Keller et al 2026] [Kelly 1972] [Kelly 1973] [Kelly and Jemcov 2019] [Kelly et al 1970] [Keçeci and Oktal 2026] [Kharchenko et al 2017] [Kieß et al 2026] [Kim and Benedict 2026] [Kimberlin 2003] [Kirby and Parlett 1964] [Kirk et al 2022] [Klinar and Craig 1961] [Koenig 1984] [Kohlman 1977] [Koning 2018] [Koratkar and Chopra 2001] [Kotarski et al 2017] [Kraft 1974] [Król and Gołaszewski 2011] [Kubo 2018] [Kubo et al 2009] [Kurosaki 1978] [Kwon and Yang 2026] [Lai and Le Tri 2017] [Lange 1945] [Lateral-Directional Stability Theory and 2003] [Lau et al 2009] [Lavi 1966] [Lebacqz 1974] [Lee et al 2022] [Letalenet and Morin 2020] [Level Flight Performance Flight 2003] [Li et al 2023] [Lind and Beck 1991] [Linnell 1963] [Livingston 1965] [Lizak 1960] [Lo 1970] [Lockheed-California Co Burbank 1964] [Londono and Leonhardt 2012] [Long 1968] [Longitudinal Control And Trim 2003] [Lovell and Parlett 1957] [Maine et al 1994] [Manning et al 1995] [Margason 1981] [Margason 1982] [Marino 2001] [Mason 2013] [Matt and Altamirano 2025] [Matt and Altamirano 2026] [Gladfelter et al] [Gladfelter et al] [Mayfield et al 2026] [McCormick et al 1963] [McLaughlin] [McNally and Bach 1988] [McNeill et al 1995] [McPherson 1977] [McSwain et al 2017] [Mendela 1971] [Menhaj and Rajaei Salmasi 2000] [Methods for Reducing Data 2003] [Meyersburg 1968] [Michaels 1969] [Minor et al 2004] [Mittal 2005] [Moen and Yenni 1975] [Moens and Gardarein 2001] [Monstein et al 2019] [Moore and Newsom 1970] [Moralez et al 1987] [Morelli 2021] [Morelli 2022] [Morris et al] [Morris et al 1964] [Mort and Yaggy 1963] [Mumford et al 2023] [Nangia 2009] [Newsom 1967] [Newsom 1970] [Niemiec et al 2022] [Niessen 1969] [Niki Maleki et al 2024] [Nugroho et al 2022] [Olstad 1960] [Ong et al 1998] [Ouellette et al 2014] [Owen and Cox 1966] [Paglino and Beno 1971] [Painter and Erickson 1984] [Pan et al 2026] [Paris and Alaverdi 2005] [Paris and Bonner 2004] [Parker et al 1972] [Parlett 1961] [Pasupuleti et al 2025] [Pattinson et al 2013] [Paulson and Shanks 1961] [Paw] [Performance Evaluation by Flight 1995] [Perry et al 2019] [Perry et al 2023] [Pieper et al 2018] [Pitkin 1943] [Platou 1968] [Pollini et al 2014] [Portapas 2025] [Position Estimation for Autonomous 2014] [Prasad et al 2011] [Prats et al 2015] [Prediction and Verification of 1985] [Propeller/Propfan In-Flight Thrust Determination] [Pruner and Reynolds 1971] [Pugliese and Englar 1979] [Qu et al 2016] [Quigley 1964] [Quigley and Holzhauser 1974] [Wickens and Nguyen 1991] [Raab 2026] [Rae and Shindo 1969] [Rahman and Whidborne 2009] [Ramachandran and Wells 1974] [Reader 1976] [Reeder 1964] [Reynolds and Pruner 1972] [Reynolds et al 2003] [Rhodes 1969] [Richards and Dismukes 1982] [Riddle et al 1981] [Rimmer 1952] [Ring and Henriksson 2006] [Rizzi 2010] [Roberts et al 1966] [Rolls 1965] [Rooney and Wilt 1985] [Rosenberg and Schuch 1983] [Roskam et al 1980] [Row and Fischel 1963] [Ruangwiset and Suwantragul 2008] [Ruiz-Sanchez 2016] [Runco and Benedict 2021] [Runco and Benedict 2023] [Russell and Conley 2020] [Sachs 1977] [Sandlin 1983] [Conley and Shirazi] [Sarker et al 2026] [Sato and Satoh 2007] [Schierbrock and Takahashi 2021] [Schumacher 1952] [Seanor] [Shao et al 2024] [Sheng and Zhao 2025] [Shepheard 1965] [Shim et al 2023] [Simmons 2022] [Simmons 2023] [Simmons and Busan 2024] [Simmons et al 2023] [Simmons et al 2025] [Simmons et al 2026] [Simpson 1972] [Simpson 1979] [Sims and Kimberlin 1995] [Sinacori 1970] [Sinacori 1970] [Sirigireddy and Ahner 2026] [Sleeman and Byrnes 1953] [Sleeman and Morrison 1953] [Smith 1959] [Smith 1961] [Smith and Parsons 1970] [Sobron 2018] [Sobron et al 2021] [Sobrón Rueda 2021] [Soltmann and Hall 2017] [Spencer and He 2025] [Spitzer et al 1972] [Srinathkumar et al 1995] [Srivathsan and Rauleder 2023] [Srivathsan and Rauleder 2023] [Srivathsan and Rauleder 2024] [Stark 2003] [Static Longitudinal Stability Flight 2003] [Stereopsis cueing effects on 1989] [Stolarik 2007] [Stone et al 1975] [Stratton et al 2023] [Stroub et al 1986] [Sunil] [Surmann et al 2022] [Sutton et al 1982] [Swanson 1943] [System In-Flight Testing 2010] [Szafranski et al 2014] [Tagade et al 2010] [Takagi and Inumaru 1967] [Terceiro 1976] [Thibault 1964] [Thomas 1967] [Thomas et al 2012] [Time-Dependent In-Flight Thrust Determination] [Tischler 2018] [Toha et al 2015] [Tomaine et al 1978] [Trainelli and Rolando 2011] [Traub et al 2006] [Ulbrich 2010] [Uncertainty of In-Flight Thrust] [V/STOL flight simulation 1979] [Vagianos and Rooney 1964] [VanLandingham et al 2025] [Vogler 1970] [Vos 2019] [Walter and Agnihotri 1970] [Wang et al 2008] [Wang et al 2016] [Wang et al 2024] [Wang et al 2025] [Wang et al 2026] [Warsop and Crowther 2019] [Webb et al 1979] [Wei et al 2017] [Wei et al 2021] [Wei et al 2024] [Weiberg and Holzhauser 1961] [Welge and Crowder 1978] [White 1963] [Whitfield and Jameson 1983] [Whitfield and Jameson 1984] [Whittley and Koenig 1980] [Widmayer and Tomassoni 1971] [Wilcox and Quigley 1978] [Wilkin Perry 1943] [Williams and Butler 1964] [Wingrove 1972] [Winston 1969] [Winston 1969] [Wood 1972] [Woolf 2012] [Wright 1968] [Wroblewski and Ansell 2020] [Yamato et al 1988] [Yan Zhou et al 2018] [Yang and Zhuang 2000] [Yang et al 2022] [Yin et al 2023] [Ying et al 2015] [Yoo and Hong 2015] [Yu et al 2021] [Zafi and Chakraborty 2023] [Zeyada and Hess 2003] [Zha and Ren 2023] [Zhang et al 2025] [Zhao and Sheng 2025] [Zhao et al 2019] [Zheng et al 2024] [Zosimovych 2022]
Propeller slipstream, rotors and distributed propulsion
The slipstream the X-13 did not have. Propeller and wing interaction, the slipstream and its deflection, rotor and propeller aerodynamics and wakes, ducted and lift fans, and distributed electric propulsion. 160 titles name the slipstream or the interaction of propeller and wing, and 62 name distributed propulsion, none of them before 2015, which dates the change the review describes, from a slipstream fixed by the configuration to one the designer distributes along the span.
520 records. [Adamson 1968] [Aerodynamic design of low-speed 1986] [Aerodynamics in the Age 1997] [Agostinelli et al 2013] [Agostinelli et al 2015] [Ahmed and Raghav 2024] [Akshat Deshpande and Shyamkant Limaye 2016] [Akturk and Camci 2022] [Akturk and Camcı 2014] [Alba et al 2017] [Alba et al 2018] [Ali et al 2025] [Alvarez-Munoz et al 2019] [Aminaei et al 2018] [Arace et al 2026] [Aref et al 2018] [Auer et al 1971] [Autonomous Positioning and Control 2021] [Bagdai 2025] [Ballano Martinez et al 2025] [Barakos 2023] [Bardera et al 2020] [Barufaldi and Morales 2023] [Beck et al 2014] [Beck et al 2015] [Beeler 1965] [Bell Aerospace Co Buffalo Ny 1956] [Bencze et al 1978] [Bendarkar et al 2021] [General Electric Co Cincinnati Oh 1964] [Healy et al 2022] [Lei and Zhao 2023] [Magee et al 1975] [Maldonado et al 2021] [Ni and Lee 2025] [Russo et al 2023] [Shen et al 2026] [Simmons] [Benzaid et al 2016] [Berlin et al 2025] [Bershadsky et al 2016] [Biber 2005] [Biber 2011] [Biber 2016] [Biggers and Linden 1985] [Biggers et al 1966] [Birckelbaw et al 1995] [Bird 1970] [Blaurock and Lammers 1988] [Bohari et al 2019] [Bondyra et al 2018] [Borst 1978] [Bouquet and Vos 2017] [Bousquet 1986] [Bousquet and Gardarein 2000] [Bouzid et al 2017] [Brand et al 1990] [Brogan et al 1961] [Brown 1965] [Brown and Fisher 1968] [Bucherelli et al 2025] [Burgers 1995] [Butler et al 1966] [Bölk et al 2021] [Cai et al 2024] [Cao et al 2023] [Caprace et al 2022] [Castles et al 1960] [Catalano and Stollery 1993] [Cavage 1975] [Chae et al 2022] [Chahba] [Chang et al 2022] [Chauhan and Martins 2020] [Chauhan and Martins 2021] [Cheatham and Creason 1983] [Chen 1980] [Chen and Yang 2022] [Chen et al 2016] [Chen et al 2024] [Chen et al 2025] [Cheng 1995] [Cheng et al 2023] [Chiaramonte et al 1996] [Chinwicharnam and Thipyopas 2016] [Chiocchia and Pignataro 1995] [Cho and Cho 1999] [Cho and Williams 1990] [Choi et al 2022] [Chu and Berman 2025] [Chu et al 2021] [Clark and Landgrebe 1971] [Clark and Valarezo 1990] [Clark et al 1963] [Clarke 2010] [Cole et al 2017] [Comunian et al 2025] [Comunian et al 2025] [Conceptual design of a 1973] [Cook and Hickey 1967] [Coward 1955] [Crimi 1965] [Crouse and Leishman 1993] [Cui et al 2019] [Cunningham et al 2022] [Curtiss and Howard C. 1969] [Cusati et al 2023] [Czinczenheim 1977] [D’Angelo et al 2022] [Dagur et al 2020] [Daniel and Hendrick 2023] [Darvishpoor et al 2020] [North et al] [Davis et al 1961] [Decker 1966] [De Giorgi et al 2017] [de Vries and Vos 2022] [de Vries and Vos 2023] [de Vries et al 2019] [de Vries et al 2019] [Deckert and Rolls 1974] [Deere et al 2017] [Delansnay et al 2021] [Desopper 1985] [Dickinson et al 1971] [Diedrich 1975] [Do 2014] [Doan 2023] [Dorange et al 2024] [Duan et al 2012] [Duan et al 2024] [Ducted Fans for Vertical 1960] [Dugan et al 1971] [Duivenvoorden et al 2022] [Duivenvoorden et al 2025] [Duivenvoorden et al 2026] [Dyke 1963] [Dziubiński and Klimczyk 2026] [Qin et al 1998] [Edenborough et al 1972] [Eldridge et al 1973] [Ellis 1966] [Elsaadawy and Britcher 2000] [Elsaadawy and Britcher 2002] [Elsaadawy and Britcher 2004] [Empey and Nahon 2022] [Erginer and Altug 2007] [Erhard and Alonso 2022] [Erhard and Alonso 2024] [Erhard and Alonso 2024] [Erhard et al 2021] [Erickson and John C. 1969] [Erickson et al 1965] [Escareno et al 2008] [Escareno et al 2013] [Fard et al 2022] [Fardin et al 2026] [Fattahi Massoum and Liu 2026] [Favier et al 1988] [Favier et al 1991] [Feddersen and Cea 1977] [Fei 2019] [Fei and Peters 2013] [Felli 2020] [Ferrari 1937] [Ferraro et al 2014] [Fink 1969] [Fradenburgh and Kefford 1976] [Franke and Weinig 1939] [Fratello et al 1991] [Fry 1967] [Funk and Komerath 1995] [Furusawa et al 2024] [Furusawa et al 2024] [Tauber et al 1976] [van der Wall 2020] [Gabriele 1991] [Gallani et al 2020] [Garcia-Nieto et al 2019] [Ga̧sior et al 2018] [General Electric Co Cincinnati Oh 1962] [Gentry et al 1966] [Gentry et al 1994] [Giles 1987] [Giles 1988] [Gogidze et al 2023] [Goland et al 1964] [Goldsmith and Hickey 1963] [Goldsmith and Hickey 1963] [Gonçalves and da Silva 2025] [Goodson and Yaggy 1960] [Grafton and Newsom 1971] [Grafton and Newsom 1971] [Gregorio et al 2024] [Gress 2003] [Gress 2007] [Griffin 1983] [Hall et al 1967] [Hall et al 1971] [Ham 1986] [Hamlin and Spenceley 1946] [Hammer et al 2026] [Hammond and Margason 1964] [Hatfield et al 2021] [Hawkswell et al 2022] [Hayama et al 2024] [Hayama et al 2025] [Hayes et al 1958] [Herfray and Nahon 2024] [Herisanu and Marinca 2020] [Hermes and Wood 1969] [Herzog et al 2021] [Heyson 1980] [Hiller Aircraft Corp Palo Alto Ca 1965] [Hiller Aircraft Corp Palo Alto Ca 1965] [Hiller Aircraft Corp Palo Alto Ca 1965] [Hiller Aircraft Corp Palo Alto Ca 1965] [Hohenemser and Johnson 1969] [Hohenemser et al 1969] [Howard and Miley 1989] [Howard et al 1985] [Howard et al 1985] [Huang et al 2018] [Hummel et al 2026] [Hunsaker and Snyder 2006] [Ignatkin et al 2021] [Ikami et al 2019] [Ikami et al 2021] [Ikami et al 2022] [Iwabe et al 2011] [Jadidi et al 2026] [JanakiRam 1980] [Janakiram and Scruggs 1981] [Jiang et al 2015] [Jiang et al 2024] [Jiang et al 2025] [Johnson et al 1991] [Kaballo and Arogeti 2024] [Kasten 1986] [Katzenberger 1967] [Katzoff 1940] [Keller and Rudnik 2018] [Khan and Nahon 2014] [Khan and Nahon 2015] [Khan et al 2013] [Kim and Jo 2024] [Kim and Komerath 1993] [Kim and Komerath 1995] [Kim and Park 2025] [Kim et al 2001] [Kim et al 2014] [Kim et al 2018] [Kim et al 2025] [Kink 1967] [Kirby 1956] [Kirby 1957] [Kirby 1960] [Kirby 1961] [Klemstein and Liu 1972] [Klunk and Freeman 2018] [Knight et al 1973] [Ko and Lee 2023] [Koch 2026] [Komerath et al 1993] [Kondor and Moore 2005] [Kondor et al 2003] [Kou et al 2023] [Kuhn 1957] [Kuhn 1959] [Kuijvenhoven 1990] [Kumar et al 2024] [Kurane et al 2018] [Lan 1975] [Lan et al 2026] [Landgrebe 1969] [Laskaridis 2015] [Laskowitz 1961] [Lee and Kim 2024] [Lee et al 2021] [Leishman 2010] [Lenfers et al 2017] [Lewis et al 2023] [Li and Da Ronch 2026] [Li et al 2019] [Li et al 2024] [Li et al 2025] [Li et al 2026] [Liao et al 2010] [Lieblein 1970] [Lieblein 1970] [Lieblein and Stockman 1969] [Lindner et al 2024] [Liu 2023] [Lombaerts et al 2020] [Love 2022] [Low-speed aerodynamics of the 1991] [Ma et al 2020] [MacNeill and Verstraete 2018] [Makeev 2026] [Makino and Nagai 2014] [Manca et al 2023] [Marretta 1997] [Winston and Huston 1962] [Matveev et al 2023] [McCormick 1956] [McKinney and Newsom 1967] [McKinney and Newsom 1968] [McKinney et al 1966] [Meng et al 2023] [Merola et al 2024] [Merrick 1977] [Metcalfe 1985] [Michel et al 2022] [Mikhalyov et al 2019] [Milenković-Babić 2018] [Miley et al 1985] [Miley et al 1986] [Miley et al 1988] [Mishra and Joshi 2024] [Mohamed Ali et al 2024] [Mohamed and Nabawy 2026] [Mohite and Awate 2026] [Moody et al 2019] [Moore and Ning 2019] [Morillo and Peters 2002] [Morris et al 1979] [Morris et al 1980] [Morris et al 1980] [Mu and Chirarattananon 2020] [Multi-Rotors A Revolution In 2015] [Murnieks et al 2024] [Murnieks et al 2024] [Musoles et al 2024] [Nagabhushan 1983] [Nakamura et al 2025] [Nangia and Palmer 2001] [Narain 1983] [Nargi et al 2018] [Nelson 1956] [Nelson 1959] [Nguyen and Xiong 2026] [Nigro et al 2019] [Zawodny et al] [Niro et al 2024] [Nishida et al 1991] [Niwa and Sugiura 1987] [Niwa et al 1989] [Ohman et al 1995] [Okawa et al 2023] [Olcer 2015] [Olcott 2016] [Omair Alhatim 2026] [Pantel] [Papathakis] [Papathakis et al 2017] [Parlett 1961] [Patel and Dave 2020] [Patil and Navrátil 2024] [Peri and Mishra 2026] [Perry et al 2021] [Phillips 2002] [Piccinini et al 2020] [Pickles et al 2018] [Piljek et al 2020] [Plijter et al 2025] [Poggi et al 2024] [Popowski and Dąbrowski 2018] [Pour Razzaghi et al 2026] [Prabhu and Tiwari 1983] [Prabhu et al 1985] [Przedpelski 1965] [Purser and Spear 1946] [Qian et al 2023] [Quackenbush 1987] [Quaranta] [Ralston and Hultburg 2010] [Ramasamy and Leishman 2006] [Rau and Greenwood 2022] [Rauhut and Slingerland 2003] [Redkin et al 2020] [Ren and Liu 2022] [Renooij and Slingerland 2004] [Reveles et al 2020] [Rezaei et al 2023] [Ribner 1944] [Richardson 1970] [Richardson and Liiva 1970] [Rinehart 1970] [Rizk 1980] [Rizk 1980] [Rizk 1981] [Roberts 1964] [Roelke and Zigan 1972] [Roosenboom and Schröder 2009] [Roosenboom et al 2007] [Roosenboom et al 2009] [Roosenboom et al 2009] [Roosenboom et al 2010] [Rotor in Vertical Flight 2011] [Rotorcraft aerodynamic 2002] [Rumph et al 1942] [Sadoway and Ghaemi 2026] [Sambell 1971] [Sambell 1972] [Conley et al] [Satria Palar et al 2024] [Savino and Zanotti 2025] [Schneider and Wilkerson 1990] [Schneider and Wilkerson 1990] [Schouten 1982] [Schouten 1993] [Schouten 1999] [Schrage et al 2018] [Schroijen and Slingerland 2007] [Schröter et al 2023] [Schöne 1988] [Scully 2018] [Seibert and Lewis 2005] [Selig 2010] [Sellappan et al 2025] [Sellers et al 1977] [Senkul and Altug 2013] [Sha et al 2025] [Shankar et al 2021] [Shao et al 2025] [Sharma et al 2025] [Sharpe and Agarwal 2019] [Shastry et al 2018] [Shi et al 2019] [Shi et al 2021] [Shi et al 2024] [Shruti and Sivapragasam 2021] [Sinacori and Lange 1961] [Song et al 2024] [Song et al 2026] [Sowyrda 1961] [Sparks and Miley 1983] [Spreemann 1957] [Spreemann 1958] [Spreemann and Kuhn 1956] [Stengel et al 1977] [Stockman 1970] [Stokkermans et al 2021] [Strash et al 1998] [Stroub 1986] [Stuper 1938] [Sullivan 1973] [Sun et al 2026] [Suzuki et al 2019] [Swift and Bartel 1989] [Taboada et al 2018] [Takahashi et al 2014] [Takallu and Gentry 1992] [Tamayo et al 2018] [Taniguchi and Oyama 2022] [Teodosio et al 2024] [Theodorsen 1960] [Theodorsen and Nomicos 1961] [Thomas and Malone 2023] [Throneberry et al 2021] [Throneberry et al 2021] [Tischler 1987] [Aagren et al] [Traum 2011] [Trenka 1966] [Turner and Drinkwater 1963] [Van Den Borne and Van Hengst 1990] [van der Wall 2024] [Vasilescu 2006] [Vechtel and Buch 2022] [Vidal et al 1960] [Viken et al 2017] [Vlasov and Ovdienko 2020] [Vogeley 1951] [Walz 1976] [Wang and Lee 2025] [Wang and Lee 2026] [Wang et al 2019] [Wang et al 2021] [Wang et al 2023] [Wang et al 2025] [Warsett 1955] [Watson et al 2019] [Weir 1986] [Welge et al 1981] [Wenren and Steinhoff 2009] [West 1969] [Whitt and Gandhi 2023] [Williams and Ybarra 1981] [Williams and Ybarra 1981] [Witkowski et al 1989] [Wolkovitch and Hoffman 1971] [Xia et al 2013] [Xu et al 2022] [Xue and Zhou 2020] [Xue and Zhou 2020] [Yackle 1969] [Yan 2025] [Yan et al 2023] [Yan et al 2024] [Yan et al 2025] [Yeganehdoust et al 2023] [Yemenici et al 2010] [Young 2023] [Yuan 1969] [Yuan 1970] [Zabinsky et al 1975] [Zalewski 2015] [Zanotti et al 2024] [Zha 2023] [Zhang et al 2010] [Zhang et al 2022] [Zhang et al 2023] [Zhao and Bil 2008] [Zheng and Merret 2023] [Zheng et al 2025] [Zhou et al 2019] [Zhou et al 2020] [Zhu et al 2024] [Zizkovsky and Klesa 2019]
Spin, tumble and the delta wing at high incidence
Where a tail-sitter lives in the transition. Delta and other slender wings at high angle of attack, vortex lift and breakdown, wing rock, stall, departure and spin. 290 of its 516 titles name the delta wing. Of the 12 titles in the survey that name tumbling, 3 are the Langley spin-tunnel reports on the X-13, the XFY-1 and the XFV-1, which sit with their aircraft under vertical-attitude aircraft and the tail-sitter programmes.
516 records. [Abdelhamid and Kandil 1998] [Acher et al 2021] [Aggarwal et al 2021] [Ahmed and Worley 2008] [Ahmed and Zheng 2013] [Ahmed et al 2025] [Aircraft Wing Rock in 2010] [Airplane Spin Testing 2003] [Allan et al 2003] [An analysis of gap 1981] [Ananda and Selig 2016] [Anderson 1979] [Anderson 2004] [Anemaat et al 2011] [Aoyagi and Tolhurst 1964] [Arena and Nelson 1989] [Arena and Nelson 1991] [Arthur et al 1999] [Attar et al 2006] [Attar et al 2008] [Ayoub and McLachlan 1987] [Baer 2014] [Bagby 1963] [Bagheri and Danesh 2025] [Bagherzadeh 2026] [Baigang and Xuan 2022] [Bakaul et al 2012] [Bakaul et al 2014] [Bakaul et al 2015] [Bakaul et al 2015] [Banks 1988] [Bannink and Houtman 1993] [Bay and Kara 2026] [Beane 1953] [Ben-Gida and Gurka 2022] [Bennett et al 2017] [Berman 1947] [Berman 1947] [Berman 1949] [Berman 1949] [Berman and Pumphrey 1950] [Bernardini et al 2014] [Berry et al 1979] [Beyers 1995] [Bihrle 1993] [Boelens 2009] [Boer and Cunningham 1990] [Borisov et al 2025] [Boumrar and Ouibrahim 2011] [Bowman and Healy 1959] [Bowman and Healy 1959] [Bowman et al 1978] [Bowman 1970] [Boyd and Fleeter 2002] [Bradley et al 1973] [Bryant 1948] [Buchholz 1992] [Buchholz and Tso 1992] [Bunge et al 2015] [Burk 1972] [Burk and Wilson 1975] [Burman et al 2008] [Carafoli 1969] [Carafoli 1969] [Carine Viola Dsouza and Dr. Basawaraj 2015] [Catalano 2004] [Cebeci et al 1993] [Celik and Roberts 1994] [Chaderjian 1992] [Chaderjian and Schiff 1993] [Chaderjian and Schiff 1994] [Chadrjian and Schiff 1995] [Chambers 1986] [Chana 2000] [Chevalier et al 1974] [Chou] [Chou et al 1981] [Chung et al 2010] [Clark and Spurlin 1962] [Cobleigh 1994] [Coe and Weston 1978] [Cohen 1976] [Coplin 1965] [Coplin 1966] [Craig and Romani 1993] [Crichton et al 2005] [Crippa and Rizzi 2006] [Cui et al 1993] [Cummings et al 2003] [Dantsker and Selig 2015] [Dantsker et al 2017] [Dantsker et al 2023] [Darden and Komerath 1995] [De Young 1965] [Deghat et al 2016] [Del Frate 1992] [Delta-Wing Plane Design 1946] [Dhaigude et al 2021] [Dias 2016] [Dias and Almeida 2013] [Dicarlo and Johnson 1979] [DiCarlo et al 1981] [Dicarlo et al 1992] [Diedrich 1971] [Dikbaş et al 2025] [Dixon 2001] [Dong et al 2019] [Dong et al 2020] [Driver and Spearman 1961] [Durham 1994] [Durston and Schreiner 1983] [Dzanic and Martinelli 2019] [Eftekhari and Al-Obaidi 2019] [Ekaterinaris and Schiff 1990] [Elenin 2021] [Elsayed et al 2007] [Er-El 1988] [Erickson 1980] [Erickson and Murri 1993] [Ericsson 1991] [Ericsson 1995] [Ericsson 1995] [Ericsson 1996] [Ericsson 1996] [Ericsson 1996] [Ericsson 1997] [Ericsson 1998] [Ericsson 1998] [Ericsson 1999] [Ericsson 2000] [Ericsson 2000] [Ericsson 2002] [Ericsson 2003] [Ericsson and Beyers 2002] [Ericsson and Ericsson 1997] [Ericsson and Ericsson 1997] [Ericsson and King 1992] [Ericsson and Reding 1974] [Faure and Leogrande 2020] [Faure et al 2019] [Feng et al 2024] [Findlay et al 1991] [Fornasier and Rizzi 1985] [Foss et al 1965] [Fremaux et al 1993] [Fremaux et al 1995] [Friehmelt 2002] [Frith and Wood 2003] [Gad-El-Hak and Blackwelder 1986] [Geng et al 2013] [Gera et al 1981] [Ghaffari and Lamar 1985] [Ghee et al 1999] [Giulianetti and Weiberg 1964] [Goertz 2003] [Goertz and Le Moigne 2003] [Goldthorpe et al 2010] [Golmirzaee and Wood 2026] [Goman et al 1992] [Goman et al 1994] [Gopalarathnam and Segawa 2008] [Gordnier 1991] [Gordnier 1993] [Gordnier 1995] [Gordnier 1996] [Gordnier and Melville 1999] [Gordnier and Visbal 1993] [Gordnier and Visbal 2004] [Gordon 1990] [Grafton et al 1982] [Greenwell and Wood 1993] [Grismer and Jenkins 1996] [Grismer and Nelson 1994] [Guglieri 2012] [Guillot and Gutmark 1999] [Gursul 1994] [Gursul 2004] [Gursul and Wang 2010] [Gursul and Yang 1994] [Guy et al 2000] [Hahne 1985] [Hall et al 1998] [Hanff and Huang 1991] [Hanff and Jenkins 1990] [Hartwich et al 1988] [Hassan 2005] [Hassan 2006] [Hawk et al 1990] [Healy 1958] [Hebbar et al 1993] [Heinrich et al 2022] [Hemsch and Luckring 1990] [Heron and Myose 2003] [Hess 1986] [Hiremath 2021] [Hirose et al 2007] [Hoeijmakers and Rizzi 1984] [Hoeijmakers and Van Den Berg 1991] [Hoffler et al 1986] [Hoffler et al 1988] [Holway 1966] [Hong and Roberts 1995] [Hreha and Lutze 1983] [Hreha and Lutze 1984] [Hsiao et al 1998] [Hsu and Liu 1988] [Hsu and Liu 1990] [Huang 2003] [Huang and Hanff 1992] [Huang et al 1996] [Huang et al 2026] [Hultberg et al 1988] [Hwang and Rho 1995] [Iliff 1980] [Iliff and Wang 1997] [Jackson 2023] [Jarrah 1989] [Jin Song et al 2012] [Johnson et al 1980] [Jordan and Hahne 1992] [Jouannet and Krus 2002] [Jun and Nelson 1987] [Jupp et al 1998] [Jupp et al 1999] [Kaiden and Nakamura 2001] [Kandil and Chuang 1988] [Kandil and Chuang 1989] [Kandil and Salman 1992] [Karasu 2015] [Katz 1988] [Kawazoe and Kato 2005] [Kawazoe and Morita 2003] [Kellock and Miller 1971] [Kentfield 1992] [Kern 1992] [Khrabrov et al 2004] [Kjelgaard et al 1986] [Klinar 1947] [Klinar and Healy 1955] [Klute et al 1996] [Kobayakawa et al 1993] [Kok et al 2017] [Konstadinopoulos et al 1985] [Kostić et al 2015] [Koçak and Yavuz 2023] [Kubo et al 2010] [Kubota et al 1993] [Kuhn and McKinney 1965] [Kumar et al 2021] [Lamont and Kennaugh 1991] [Larson 1984] [Lee 2005] [Lee and Batina 1991] [Lee and Kim 2004] [Lee and Kim 2004] [Lee and Marnineau-Mes 1996] [Lehmkuhl et al 2020] [Lei and Zha 2021] [Leknys et al 2018] [Lemay et al 1988] [LeRoy et al 2003] [Li and Polak 1966] [Li and Yang 2017] [Li and Yang 2017] [Li et al 2020] [Li et al 2021] [Liang et al 2026] [Lina and Moul 1965] [Longo 1994] [Longobardi et al 2024] [Lowson and Riley 1994] [Ludin@ Jamaluddin et al 2014] [Luoma 1961] [Lyu et al 2018] [MacDougall 1947] [Magness et al 1989] [Malcolm 1978] [Malcolm 1979] [Manar and Jones 2017] [Manor and Wentz 1985] [Manuel et al 1989] [Manzoor et al 2016] [Marchman 1981] [Marchman and Terry 1983] [Marchman et al 1983] [Marconi 1987] [Margalit et al 2005] [Mat et al 2014] [Matsuno and Nakamura 2000] [Matsuno et al 2011] [Maughmer et al 1990] [May and Gutmark 2005] [McBreen et al 2023] [McCormack and Gleason] [McKernan and Nelson 1983] [Mendenhall and Perkins 1996] [Mendenhall and Perkins 1999] [Meyer et al 1989] [Milillo 1972] [Miller and Gile 1992] [Min et al 2026] [Mitchell 2003] [Miyaji and Arasawa 2001] [Moeller and Rediniotis 2000] [Mohamed et al 2022] [Mohankumar et al 2021] [Mohankumar et al 2022] [Moore et al 1979] [Moreira and Johari 1995] [Morgado et al 2016] [Morton 2003] [Morton et al 1999] [Motyka 1975] [Muramatsu et al 2005] [Murman et al 1994] [Murri et al 1983] [Myatt 1998] [Myatt and Myatt 1997] [Müller et al 2012] [Nakamura et al 1993] [Nawrocki 1995] [Nelson 1988] [Nematollahi et al 2019] [New Delta-Wing Plane 1949] [Ng and Malcolm 1990] [Ng et al 1989] [Ng et al 1993] [Ng et al 1994] [Nguyen et al 1981] [Nguyen et al 2016] [Nial 1972] [Numerical investigation of the 1991] [Ogburn et al 1992] [Oh and Tavella 1986] [Ormiston 1972] [Osa et al 2018] [Ostroukhov and Chumakova 2019] [Otaka et al 2001] [Ozgören et al 2002] [Pamadi and Taylor 1982] [Pamadi et al 1994] [Papadakis et al 1992] [Park et al 2017] [Pasquali et al 2024] [Patten 1988] [Paul and Gopalarathnam 2012] [Pedreiro et al 1998] [Pelletier and Nelson 1994] [Perrier 1993] [Petrilli et al 2013] [Pfnür and Breitsamter 2019] [Planeaux and Barth 1988] [Polak and Li 1967] [Polhamus 1966] [Polhamus 1968] [Polhamus 1969] [Polhamus 1971] [Prediction of vortex breakdown 1994] [Prudnikov et al 1993] [Pusztai et al 2023] [Qu et al 2026] [Qu et al 2026] [Quinlan et al 1996] [Raghavan and Ananthkrishnan 2005] [Ragheb et al 2013] [Rajamurthy 2002] [Ransom 1983] [Rao 1979] [Rao 1980] [Rao 1989] [Rao 1992] [Rao and Bhat 1992] [Rao and Buter 1983] [Ray 1965] [Raymer 1991] [Rizzi and Purcell 1985] [Rizzi and Purcell 1987] [Robertson et al 2014] [Robinson and Spearman 1961] [Rockwell 1993] [Rockwell 1994] [Rohith and Sinha 2020] [Rohlmann and Keye 2015] [Rom 1992] [Rom and Gordon 1988] [Roy 1966] [Rullan et al 2006] [Sacks et al 1963] [Saephan and van Dam 2006] [Saephan and van Dam 2006] [Saephan and Van Dam 2008] [Salehian et al 2022] [Sarwar et al 2024] [Sato et al 1993] [Schaeffler and Telionis 1996] [Schaeffler and Telionis 1998] [Scher 1947] [Schoenstadt 1975] [Schuerch 1953] [Schuette and Ghoreyshi 2026] [Seidman and McAvoy 1940] [Sellars et al 2002] [Seraj and Martins 2021] [Seraj and Martins 2022] [Setoguchi and Kanazaki 2020] [Sforza and Smorto 1980] [Shen and Chen 2024] [Shen and Qin 1986] [Shi et al 2014] [Shigemi 1993] [Shojae et al 2025] [Shumsky] [Shumsky 2006] [Shumsky 2010] [Sidorenko et al 2009] [Sidorenko et al 2013] [Siegel et al 2001] [Siegel et al 2002] [Simmons 2021] [Simon 1992] [Sirbaugh 1987] [Skow and Penke 1982] [Smith 1997] [Snow et al 1993] [Snyder 1947] [Sohn and Chung 2005] [Sohn and Lee 2002] [Sohn and Lee 2003] [Sohn et al 2007] [Soltani et al 1988] [Son et al 2015] [Spencer 1962] [Squires 2002] [Stephen 1995] [Stoll and Koenig 1983] [Stoll and Minter 1981] [Stone and White 1948] [Stratton and Spyropoulos 2024] [Symposium on Advanced Flow 2001] [Syverud et al 1993] [Tajuddin et al 2025] [Tang et al 2002] [Taylor and Gursul 2004] [Telionis 1990] [Teng et al 2016] [Thomas and Lan 1991] [Thompson et al 1990] [Tobak and Schiff 1974] [Tong et al 1993] [Tousi et al 2021] [Traub 2012] [Traub et al 1998] [Tromp 1998] [Trussa et al 2021] [Trussa et al 2022] [Trussa et al 2026] [Tsai et al 1995] [Tu et al 2019] [Ueno et al 1998] [Uhlig and Selig 2017] [Vadyak and Schuster 1989] [Van Dyken et al 1996] [Vardaki and Gursul 2004] [Vaughan and Wood 1995] [Verhaagen 1991] [Verhaagen 2000] [Verhaagen and Jobe 2001] [Verhaagen and Naarding 1988] [Verhaagen and Van Bossuyt 2006] [Verhaagen et al 1996] [Vimal et al 2020] [Visbal 1993] [Visbal 1993] [Visbal 1995] [Visbal and Gordnier 1994] [Visonneau and Guilmineau 2024] [Visualization of delta wing 2025] [Viswanath and Patil 1994] [Walchli et al 1992] [Wang and Xu 2004] [Wang et al 2013] [Wang et al 2023] [Wang et al 2025] [Ward and Bennett 1974] [Wardlaw et al 1975] [Washburn 1992] [Watry and Helin 1994] [Wei et al 2017] [Wentz 1972] [Whipple 1982] [Whipple and White 1984] [White 1947] [Wibowo et al 2019] [Widing 1993] [Wong et al 1993] [Wood and Roberts 1987] [Wu and Wu 1993] [Xiao et al 2004] [Xin et al 2019] [Xu and Deng 2014] [Yamada and Nakamura 2002] [Yaniktepe and Rockwell 2004] [Yip et al 1991] [Yongxi Lyu et al 2016] [Yoshinaga et al 2004] [Zakir et al 2024] [Zhang and Tang 2004] [Zhang et al 2008] [Zhang et al 2015] [Zhang et al 2017] [Zhang et al 2019] [Zhang et al 2019] [Zohar and Er-El 1988] [Zuccher and De Ponte 2007] [Zwerger et al 2015] [Çetin et al 2026]
Control power, handling qualities and the criteria
What adequate means, and who now decides it. Handling and flying qualities, control power requirements, pilot ratings and pilot-induced oscillation, the military specifications and the certification of vertical take-off aircraft. 93 titles name a vertical take-off, V/STOL or hovering aircraft and 23 an electric or urban air mobility aircraft, so the criteria the article borrows sit inside a much larger literature on conventional aircraft, and the regulatory turn the review describes is a small and recent part of it.
506 records. [A comparative study of 2015] [Adams 1972] [Agrawal et al 2024] [Aharrah and Lockenour 1969] [Aiken 1985] [Aiken et al 1977] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1969] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1981] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1988] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1988] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1988] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1989] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1990] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1990] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1990] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1991] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1991] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1992] [Aircraft lateral-directional handling qualities 2011] [Aircraft longitudinal handling qualities 2011] [Alexander 2025] [Alexander 2025] [Alscher et al 1966] [Altamirano et al 2023] [Anderson 1960] [Anderson 1960] [Anderson 1966] [Anderson 1970] [Anderson 1979] [Anderson 1984] [Anderson 1985] [Anderson and Foster 1984] [Anderson and Schroers 1972] [Andreea-Irina and Achim 2014] [Antonakis 2025] [Antonakis 2025] [Arnold 1987] [Ashkenas 1965] [Ashkenas 1965] [Ashkenas 1965] [Ashkenas 1969] [Ashkenas 1982] [Ashkenas 1984] [Atmospheric disturbance models and 1981] [Bachelder and Aponso 2020] [Bachelder and Aponso 2020] [Bachelder et al 2021] [Bachelder et al 2023] [Bachelder et al 2023] [Bagiev and Thomson 2009] [Bahr et al 2021] [Bailes et al 1975] [Bailey 1986] [Bailey 1990] [Bailey et al 1987] [Bailey et al 2009] [Baillie and Hoh 1986] [Balas and Hodgkinson 2009] [Balke 1970] [Balke 1971] [Barbini et al 1970] [Barnes et al 2025] [Baughman and Longeauay 2015] [Bechelder et al 2025] [Berger et al 2010] [Berger et al 2025] [Berry 1981] [Berry 1986] [Berry and Powers 1970] [Bidinotto et al 2021] [Biezad and Bole 2001] [Bingaman 2012] [Birckelbaw and Corliss 1992] [Bischoff et al 2003] [Bise and Black] [Bivens 1985] [Black 2009] [Black and Moorhouse 1979] [Black and Thomas] [Blackwell 1970] [Blanken and Pausder 1994] [Boeing Vertol Co Philadelphia Pa 1983] [Boothe et al 1974] [Bowes and Miller 1976] [Breneman and Lower 1992] [Breul 1963] [Breul et al 1985] [Brown 1970] [Bruel et al 1967] [Camerano et al 1963] [Campos and Marques 2021] [Cao and Qi 2018] [Cappetta 1993] [Cappetta and Johns 1990] [Carpenter and Jenny 1964] [Cathey 1979] [Chalk and Key 1969] [Chalk and Saunders 1969] [Chalk and Wilson 1968] [Chalk et al 1969] [Chance Vought Corp Dallas Tx 1979] [Chevalier and Burke 1972] [Chiu] [Blanken and Whalley 1993] [Chowhan et al 2019] [Citurs and Caton 1985] [Clark 1964] [Clark 1980] [Clark 1982] [Cleveland 1971] [Configuration Development and Flying 2021] [Cook 1997] [Cook 2007] [Cook 2013] [Cooke 2010] [Cord 1981] [Cord 1994] [Corless and Blanken 1983] [Corliss 1982] [Corliss et al 1983] [Cotting 2010] [Craig et al 1978] [Crist and Symes 1981] [Crombie and Moorhouse 1980] [Cromwell and Koven 1965] [Crother et al 1973] [Curry et al 1965] [Curtiss 1971] [d and Menichetti 2000] [Dallas and Irvin 1956] [Daughaday and Duwaldt 1955] [Davenport et al 1972] [Didomenico and Biezad 1985] [Difranco 1969] [Dobos-Bubno and Hartsook 1977] [Doman 1995] [Doman 1999] [Doman and Andrisani 1994] [Donmez et al 2008] [Drewiacki et al 2016] [Drinkwater and Rolls 1962] [Drinkwater et al 1964] [Dussart et al 2019] [Edwards et al 1997] [Efremov et al 1998] [Efremov et al 2020] [Efremov et al 2022] [Egorov et al 1997] [Eichler 1970] [Ema and Mizukura 1999] [Ema et al 1997] [Eney 1967] [Eney 1968] [Eskey and Wilson 1986] [Fegely et al 2017] [Ferreira Filho and Cardoso Júnior 2024] [Ferrell et al 1974] [Flying Qualities 2003] [Flying Qualities and Flight 1998] [Flying Qualities Forms of 2007] [Flying Qualities Forms of 2018] [Flying Qualities Objective Assessment 2007] [Flying Qualities Subjective Assessment 2007] [Flying Qualities Through Variable 2010] [Ford 1989] [Fouda and Taha 2022] [Franklin 1970] [Franklin 1971] [Franklin 1993] [Franklin 2000] [Franklin 2002] [Franklin and Miller 1967] [Freeman and Klunk 2018] [Frost et al 2002] [Fuller and Moorhouse 1982] [Gallagher 1970] [Gallagher 1971] [Gao et al 2021] [Gao et al 2021] [Garren 1961] [Garren 1962] [Garren and Kelly 1965] [Gatley et al 2006] [Gerken 1979] [Gertsen and Shomber 1965] [Gibson 1990] [Gilbreath and Markofski 2001] [Giles 1970] [Gillette et al 1993] [Goldstein 1982] [Gorham 1977] [Goto 1998] [Gottschall et al 2022] [Grant et al 2015] [Gratton 2018] [Gray 1964] [Gray 2009] [Green 1988] [Griffin and Bellaire 1968] [Guerrero and Corliss 1991] [Hall and Boothe 1972] [Hamidani and Kunz 2018] [Han and Liu 2026] [Handling qualities 2000] [Handling Qualities Analysis 2008] [Handling Qualities and Control 2017] [Handling Qualities Workshop 40 2009] [Harper 1955] [Harper and Sardanowsky 1969] [Harris and Black 1996] [Harris et al 2000] [Helicopter Handling Qualities 1982] [Hess 1977] [Hess 1980] [Hess 1981] [Hess 1984] [Hess 1987] [Hess 2009] [Hess 2010] [Hess and Hess 1997] [Hess and Joyce 2013] [Hess et al 1997] [Hindson et al 1990] [Hirsch and McCormick 1965] [Hirsch and McCORMICK 1966] [Hodgkinson et al 1990] [Hoffman 1969] [Hoffman 1969] [Hoffman 1969] [Hoffman 1971] [Hoffman et al 1970] [Hoh 1982] [Hoh 1988] [Hoh 1990] [Hoh and Ashkenas 1979] [Hoh and Ashkenas 1981] [Hoh and Mitchell 1983] [Hoh et al 1981] [Holladay 1966] [Holzhauser et al 1965] [Honaker 1987] [Huff 1949] [Hutchings 1977] [Iloputaife and Iloputaife 1997] [Innis et al 1966] [Innocenti 1985] [Ioannis and Ioannis 2026] [Ionita 1996] [Franklin 1993] [Jeram and Prasad 2003] [Jeram and Prasad 2003] [Ji et al 2021] [Ji et al 2022] [John 2022] [Johnston and Friend 1965] [Johnston and Hogge 1974] [Johnston et al 1965] [Johnston et al 1974] [Jones 2020] [Jones and Jusko 2022] [Jones et al 2023] [Joshi and Rickard 1981] [Jusko et al 2022] [Kanno and Katayanagi 1995] [Katayanagi 2001] [Katayanagi 2004] [Kempel 1971] [Kemper and Cotting 2016] [Kereliuk and Sinclair 1979] [Key 1971] [Key 1982] [Key et al 1965] [Khan 2019] [Kidd and Bull 1963] [Kimball 1993] [Kish et al 1996] [Kish et al 1997] [Kish et al 1997] [Kisslinger and Wendl 1971] [Klein et al 2017] [Klyde et al 1997] [Klyde et al 2020] [Klyde et al 2020] [Klyde et al 2022] [Krekeler et al 1990] [Kriechbaum and Lollar 1968] [Kriechbaum and Stineman 1971] [Lateral Control Power Rolling 2003] [Lateral-Directional Flying Qualities in 2002, Lateral-Directional Flying Qualit] [Lateral-Directional Flying Qualities in 2002, Lateral-Directional Flying Qualit 2] [Lawrence and Head 2024] [Lebacqz and Scott 1984] [Lebacqz et al 1972] [Lebacqz et al 1974] [Lee et al 2026] [Leggett and Cord 1994] [Lesiário and Hagström 2010] [Levi and Nelson 1963] [Levi and Nelson 1964] [Lewis et al 1991] [Li et al 2026] [Liang et al 2025] [Lim et al 2023] [Liu and Gao 2010] [Liu and Lone 2013] [Lollar and Kriechbaum 1968] [Longitudinal Flying Qualities in 2002, Longitudinal Flying Qualities in] [Longitudinal Flying Qualities in 2002, Longitudinal Flying Qualities in 2] [Lu and Jump 2014] [Lusardi 2023] [Ma and Liu 2025] [Malcom 1969] [Malpica and Lusardi 2013] [Malpica et al 2015] [Mandal and Gu 2016] [Markofski and Bailey 1999] [Marr and Roderick 1974] [Marr and Roderick 1975] [Martin 1963] [Martin 1963] [McCormick 1969] [McGregor and Smith 1965] [McGREGOR and Smith 1966] [McKay 1994] [McKillip Jr. et al 2025] [McKinney et al 1964] [Meyer 1983] [Meyer and Husband 1990] [Miller 1969] [Miller 1970] [Miller and Clark 1965] [Miller and Vinje 1967] [Mitchell 2000] [Mitchell and Hoh 1982] [Mitchell and Hoh 1983] [Mitchell and Hoh 1984] [Mitchell and Klyde 2008] [Mitchell et al] [Mitchell et al 1987] [Mitchell et al 1991] [Mitchell et al 1995] [Mitchell et al 2003] [Miyajima 1969] [Moennich and Dalldorff 1993] [Momiyama 1977] [Mooij 1985] [Mooij 1985] [Mooij 1985] [Moorhouse 1979] [Moorhouse 1995] [Moorhouse et al 1989] [Moralez III et al 2006] [Nagy and Kirsten 1976] [Neal and Smith 1970] [Neal and Smith 1970] [Neighbor and Wiler 1978] [Nettleton 1965] [Newell 1963] [Newton and Kroo 2023] [Newton and Kroo 2024] [Newton and Kroo 2025] [Nguyen and Cord 1999] [Nguyen et al 1997] [Nguyen et al 2021] [Oliva 2000] [Padfield and Lu 2022] [Page and Gillette 1994] [Darmstadt et al] [Pauli et al 1974] [Pedrioli et al 2024] [Perhinschi 1998] [Perry and Schneider 1984] [Peterson and Grant 2011] [Phillips 1988] [Place et al 1974] [Pleffken et al 2024] [Pleffken et al 2026] [Portapas and Cooke 2020] [Powers 1980] [Powers 1982] [Quan 2013] [Radford and Andrisani 1980] [Radford and Andrisani 1984] [Ransone 1971] [Raol and Singh 2023] [Reeder 1960] [Repperger et al 1997] [Reschak 1970] [Rhoads 1967] [Riccardi et al 2025] [Riccius 1984] [Riley and Drajeske 1991] [Riley and Wilson 1990] [Ritter et al 1971] [Huston and Ward 1966] [Rodchenko et al 2003] [Rohling 1968] [Rohling 1969] [Rotorcraft handling qualities design 2011] [Rudolph 1972] [Rylko et al 2025] [Rynaski 1985] [Rynaski 1994] [Rynaski et al 1986] [Ryu and Andrisani 2000] [Ryu and Andrisani 2000] [Sachs 1990] [Saetti and Rogers 2020] [Saetti and Rogers 2024] [Saetti et al 2020] [Saucez] [Schaeffler et al 1967] [Schroeder and Chung 2000] [Schroeder et al 1998] [Schuler 1983] [Shafer et al 1983] [Shomber and Gertsen 1967] [Shubert and Jones 2025] [Shubert and Sizoo 2025] [Shubert et al 2026] [Shweyk and Weltz 2005] [Silva] [Silva-Martinez et al 2015] [Siwakosit et al 2000] [Smit et al 2022] [Smith 1966] [Smith 1977] [Smith 1982] [Smith 1986] [Smith 2023] [Smith 2025] [Smith and Geddes 1979] [Solies 1995] [Soltanmohmmad and Botez 2023] [Srinathkumar 2011] [Stability, Control, and Handling 2024] [Stapleford et al 1974] [Stengel 1981] [Stengel 1985] [Stevens and Roskam 1985] [Stinton 1987] [Stough et al 1987] [Strand and Ennis 2012] [Suchomel 1987] [Swaim 1970] [Swaim 1978] [Swaim 1981] [Swaim and Poopaka 1982] [Swaim and Yen 1979] [Sykes et al 2025] [Tanaka 1981] [Tapscott 1960] [Tapscott 1960] [Tapscott 1960] [Tapscott 1960] [Tapscott 1964] [Teofilatto 2001] [Tischler and Hoh 1982] [Tohidi et al 2018] [Tomczyk 2001] [Tomczyk 2002] [Tomczyk 2008] [Tran et al 2017] [Tuck 1970] [Umapathy et al 2021] [Van Dam et al 1980] [van Gool 1982] [van Overeem et al 2023] [Vinje 1973] [Vinje and Miller 1973] [Walsh 1992] [Wang and Chen 2024] [Wang et al 2012] [Wang et al 2021] [Wang et al 2025] [Wei 1985] [Wei 2020] [Welter 1966] [Weltz et al 2007] [Westbrook 1964] [Westbrook 1965] [Whitbeck and Hofmann 1978] [White and Innis 1959] [Wilhelm and Schafranek 1986] [Willebeek-LeMair and Rhinehart 2023] [Wilson and Riley 1989] [Wilson et al 1990] [Wilson et al 1993] [Witte et al 2003] [Woodcock and Browne 1986] [Xie et al 2023] [Xu and Zhang 2024] [Xu et al 2019] [Yin and Wang 2017] [Yin et al 2019] [Yomchinda et al 2009] [Yu and Liu 2013] [Zanoni et al 2022] [Zaytseva et al 2021] [Zeyada et al 1998] [Zeyada et al 1999] [Zhang and Li 2016] [Zhang et al 2017] [Zhou et al 2012] [Ziakkas 2026] [Ünen and Yıldız 2025]
Autonomous landing, moving platforms and recovery
The visual task, solved by deleting the viewer. Autonomous and vision-guided landing, landing on ships and moving vehicles, shipboard guidance for vertical take-off aircraft and the recovery of drones. 292 of its 442 titles name an uncrewed aircraft and 170 a moving, mobile or shipboard platform, which is the X-13’s trailer problem in its modern form.
442 records. [Ariante et al 2022] [Burlion and Kolmanovsky 2020] [Craig and Heffley 1973] [Di et al 2022] [Grzes et al 2019] [Huang et al 2019] [Jung and Kim 2024] [Ling 1970] [Lungu et al 2022] [Ma et al 2025] [Nikhil and Anbarasu 2024] [A quadrotor UAV navigational 2015] [Abdelkhalek and Bayezit 2026] [Abdelwahab et al 2026] [Aboumrad et al 2020] [Abulkassov et al 2026] [Acuna et al 2018] [Ahmad 2026] [Aikins et al 2024] [Ajmera et al 2015] [Akagi et al 2024] [Akash and Anbarasu 2025] [Alarcon et al 2015] [Alijani and Osman 2020] [Almeshal and Alenezi 2018] [Alsaayed and Noura 2025] [Alshbatat 2021] [Amarnath and D’Souza 2026] [Amirgaliyeva et al 2025] [An et al 2023] [Angarita et al 2026] [Anikin and Saveliev 2025] [Anitha and Kumar 2012] [Approach to solving the 2025] [Araar et al 2016] [Avionics-Part I Steep Landing 1969] [Avionics-Part II Systems Steep 1969] [Badakis et al 2021] [Baidya and Jeong 2024] [Banik et al 2025] [Basak and Datta 2026] [Basescu et al 2023] [Batool et al 2025] [Beaulieu et al 2007] [Bezzaoucha et al 2017] [Bicer et al 2019] [Blachut et al 2020] [Blachut et al 2020] [Blanchard 1981] [Bodson and Athans 1985] [Borshchova and O’Young 2017] [Borshchova and O’Young 2017] [Branco et al 2025] [Britcher et al 2025] [Brown et al 2025] [Bu et al 2016] [Buckland 1980] [Buffum et al 1974] [Bykov and Parnenkov 2020] [Byun et al 2025] [Cabrera-Ponce and Martinez-Carranza 2017] [Cantelli et al 2017] [Cao et al 2021] [Cao et al 2025] [Cengiz and Ucun 2022] [Chamitoff 1994] [Chamitoff 1995] [Chandra and Ghosh 2019] [Chang et al 2021] [Chang et al 2022] [Chatzikalymnios and Moustakas 2021] [Chavez et al 2017] [Chen 2018] [Chen et al 2016] [Chen et al 2020] [Chen et al 2023] [Chiang et al 2025] [Chickmagalur et al 2026] [Chitrakaran et al 2005] [Computer vision-based approach for 2025] [Cook 1964] [Craig 1961] [Cruz and Shoukry 2023] [Cui et al 2021] [Cui et al 2023] [Cunis] [Daffer and Gebhardt 1974] [Dalai et al 2025] [Daquan and Hongyue 2007] [de Paula et al 2026] [Deghat and Lampiri 2017] [Deniz et al 2023] [Desaraju et al 2015] [Development of a correction 2024] [Dickmanns and Schell] [Ding et al 2016] [Dingari et al 2025] [Disa and Nair 2023] [Disturbance interval observer-based carrier 2022] [Drinkwater and Rolls 1963] [Drinkwater et al 1963] [Elumalai et al 2025] [Evaluation of the navigation 1979] [Falanga et al 2017] [Feng et al 2013] [Feng et al 2018] [Fenwick 1966] [Fenwick 1967] [Ferrier et al 2006] [Ferrier et al 2007] [Fiorucci et al 2025] [Fitch and Mehra 2014] [Fitzgerald et al 2005] [Fluk 1981] [Franklin and Innis 1974] [Franklin and Innis 1977] [Gaines et al 1968] [García-Pulido et al 2022] [Garren et al 1973] [Ge et al 2023] [Ghasemi et al 2021] [Ghommam and Saad 2017] [Goh et al 2019] [González-Tejeda et al 2026] [Greene 1977] [Gribanov et al 2021] [Gribanov et al 2022] [Grobler and Jordaan 2020] [Guo et al 2022] [Guo et al 2022] [Guo et al 2026] [Gupta et al 2021] [Gupta et al 2022] [Guy 1976] [Hahn et al 2025] [Hailiang 2026] [Han 2026] [Hardy 2026] [Hayama et al 2021] [He et al 2019] [He et al 2026] [helicopter landing deck 2014] [Hoburg and Tedrake 2009] [Holzhauser and Innis 1960] [Hsin 1973] [Hsin 1974] [Hu and He 2025] [Hu and Mishra 2017] [Hu and Mishra 2019] [Hu et al 2017] [Huang et al 2019] [Huang et al 2026] [Innis and Quigley 1961] [Isidori et al 2003] [Isidori et al 2003] [Ito 2018] [Ito et al 2019] [Jang et al 2022] [Jang et al 2023] [Jang et al 2026] [Jiang 2021] [Jiang 2026] [Jiang and Song 2022] [Jiang et al 2018] [Jiang et al 2019] [Jiang et al 2026] [Jiaxin et al 2017] [Joglekar 1969] [Johnston 1970] [Jung 2024] [Jung et al 2014] [Jung et al 2015] [Jung et al 2015] [Jung et al 2016] [Dalamagkidis 2006] [Kakaletsis et al 2021] [Kakillioglu and Velipasalar 2016] [Kamman and Hall 1978] [Kang and Choi 2025] [Kapetanović et al 2022] [Karemaa 1971] [Keipour et al 2022] [Kelly et al 1974] [Kesselring 1969] [Kholosi et al 2026] [Khyasudeen et al 2024] [Kim et al 2014] [Kim et al 2019] [Kim et al 2021] [Klinar and Jones 1950] [Kluever 1967] [Konishi et al 2015] [Koo et al 2015] [Kotansky and Glaze 1987] [Krammer et al 2021] [Krammer et al 2022] [Krenz et al 1979] [Kumar and Padhi 2024] [Kumar et al 2004] [Kunz Cechinel et al 2023] [Kuo and Lin 1996] [Kwak et al 2022] [Ladosz et al 2024] [Latif et al 2022] [Lebacqz and Chen 1977] [Lebedev et al 2020] [Lee and Libbey 1961] [Lee and Nagati 2004] [Lee et al 2016] [Li and Li 2010] [Li et al 2015] [Li et al 2019] [Li et al 2024] [Li et al 2024] [Li et al 2025] [Li et al 2025] [Liang et al 2022] [Liao et al 2022] [Limaico et al 2025] [Lin et al 2015] [Lin et al 2016] [Lin et al 2021] [Lin et al 2022] [Lin et al 2026] [Liu] [Liu and Cao 2003] [Liu and Fleming 2006] [Liu et al 2019] [Liu et al 2020] [Liu et al 2023] [Llerena Caña et al 2022] [Llerena et al 2022] [LP Based Path Planning 2013] [Lu et al 2012] [Lungu et al 2019] [Luo et al 2022] [Luo et al 2022] [Lúa et al 2026] [Ma et al 2018] [Ma et al 2022] [Ma et al 2025] [Maces-Hernandez et al 2017] [Malik et al 2021] [Martin and Hill 1989] [Marut et al 2019] [Marut et al 2023] [McCormack and Poteate Jr. 1965] [McGee 1977] [McGee et al 1978] [McIntyre 1963] [McINTYRE 1970] [McMinn and Jackson 2002] [McMuldroch 1979] [McMuldroch et al 1979] [Mehta and Sharma 2022] [Meng et al 2019] [Merrick and Gerdes 1983] [Meyer-Oehme et al 2023] [Min et al 2005] [Ming et al 2015] [Mishra and Chitraganti 2026] [Mishra et al 2019] [Mittal et al 2022] [Mo et al 2026] [Modali et al 2020] [Mohammadi et al 2020] [Mondal et al 2020] [Montgomery and Moul 1966] [Morais et al 2015] [Morales et al 2023] [Moustafa et al 2025] [Mu et al 2023] [Mu et al 2023] [Murshid et al 2014] [Muvva et al 2022] [Nakamura et al 2016] [narayan et al 2026] [Narkiewicz and Zasuwa 2002] [Nazir et al 2018] [Nguyen et al 2018] [Nguyen et al 2024] [Nogar 2020] [Nowak and Solies 2000] [Owen et al 2021] [Palafox et al 2019] [Pan et al 2008] [Parasuraman et al 2026] [Paris et al 2020] [Paris et al 2021] [Parker and Engelbrecht 2022] [Patel et al 2021] [Patterson et al 2014] [Paulk and Phatak 1984] [Pavlov 2016] [Peng and Xia 2025] [Phatak and Karmali 1983] [Pieczyński et al 2024] [Pogust 1969] [Pozzan et al 2022] [Pruynn and Shannon 1980] [Puvrez 1965] [Qassab et al 2024] [Qi et al 2019] [Qian et al 2026] [Rabah et al 2018] [Rabelo et al 2021] [Raja 2011] [Ramasamy et al 2026] [Rao et al 2020] [Renselaer 1974] [Republic Aviation Corp Mineola Ny 1963] [Richards] [Richards et al 2018] [Ridho hendra yoga perdana et al 2020] [Roberts 1964] [Rodriguez-Ramos et al 2018] [Rodriguez-Ramos et al 2018] [Rose et al 1952] [Ryabinov et al 2023] [Ryabinov et al 2024] [Ryu et al 2025] [Salahudden 2025] [Salahudden et al 2020] [Sankaranarayanan et al 2024] [Saripalli 2009] [Saripalli et al] [Scholz et al 2022] [Schulz and Vörsmann 2007] [Schulz et al 2005] [Schweim et al 2026] [Semerikov et al 2025] [Sevostyanov et al 2022] [Shastry et al 2021] [Shaw 1960] [Shen et al 2020] [Shen et al 2023] [Shriki et al 2020] [Sikdar et al 2021] [Silva Cotta et al 2024] [Silva et al 2017] [Smith et al 1973] [So-Ryeok Oh et al] [Song et al 2026] [Sonkar et al 2021] [Spray-on Landing Field Aids 1965] [Srigrarom and Holzapfel 2019] [Stavrinos 2020] [Stenfelt and Ringertz 2013] [Stough and Patton 1979] [Strozecki and Mammar 2021] [Su et al 2023] [Suggett 1960] [suo et al 2019] [Sözer and Kumbasar 2023] [Tang et al 2014] [Tang et al 2020] [Taylor and Miller 1982] [Telford and Vasiloff 1968] [The Design of a 2023] [Tischler and Barlow 1980] [Tischler and Barlow 1981] [Tong et al 2026] [Topczewski and Bibik 2023] [Tripathi et al 2024] [Tripathi et al 2025] [Vision Based Self-Guided Quadcopter 2021] [Vlantis et al 2015] [Vázquez-Meza and Martínez-Carranza 2026] [Wan et al 2023] [Wang and Wei 2023] [Wang et al 2017] [Wang et al 2019] [Wang et al 2022] [Wang et al 2023] [Wang et al 2024] [Wei 2013] [Weiwei Kong et al 2013] [Wen et al 2024] [Wenzel et al 2010] [Willis 1981] [Wu et al 2008] [Wu et al 2018] [Wu et al 2022] [Wu et al 2025] [Wu et al 2025] [Xia et al 2022] [Xiang et al 2021] [Xie et al 2020] [Xin et al 2022] [Xu et al 2018] [Xu et al 2018] [Xu et al 2019] [Xu et al 2019] [Xu et al 2021] [Xu et al 2023] [Xu et al 2024] [Xu et al 2024] [Xuan-Mung et al 2022] [Yang and Li 2022] [Yang and Li 2022] [Yang et al 2010] [Yang et al 2012] [Yang et al 2018] [Yang et al 2025] [Yang et al 2025] [Yang et al 2026] [Yasentsev et al 2021] [Ye et al 2020] [Yoo et al 2015] [Yu et al 2020] [Yuan et al 2024] [Yubo et al 2020] [Yue et al 2023] [Yukhimets and Gubankov 2026] [Zamanakos et al 2020] [Zeng et al 2023] [Zhang and Wu 2025] [Zhang and Wu 2026] [Zhang et al 2013] [Zhang et al 2017] [Zhang et al 2020] [Zhang et al 2020] [Zhang et al 2021] [Zhang et al 2022] [Zhang et al 2023] [Zhang et al 2023] [Zhang et al 2024] [Zhang et al 2024] [Zhang et al 2025] [Zhang et al 2026] [Zhao and Pei 2012] [Zhao et al 2013] [Zhao et al 2023] [Zhao et al 2024] [Zhong et al 2021] [Zhou and Liu 2021] [Zhou and Zhang 2024] [Zhou et al 2015] [Zhou et al 2026] [Zhu et al 2023] [Zhu et al 2023] [Zhuang et al 2012]
Jet-induced effects, ground effect and the landing surface
What the exhaust does to the aircraft and to the ground. Suckdown, fountain flow, hot-gas ingestion, jet impingement and ground erosion, rotor downwash and outwash, brownout, landing mats and prepared sites. 61 titles concern hot-gas ingestion, with a median year of 1987, and 43 concern brownout, none before 2006, so the jet-lift problem of the 1960s to the 1980s has been succeeded by the rotorcraft problem of the dust cloud.
402 records. [Adarkar and Hall 1968] [Adarkar and Hall 1969] [Agarwal and Deese 1985] [Alfano et al 1968] [Alfred et al 2013] [Allen 2004] [Amuedo et al 1989] [Amuedo et al 1991] [Arledge et al 1996] [Asdurian 1967] [Bai and Zhou 2023] [Barata 2013] [Bardera Mora and Matías García 2022] [Barrack and Kirk 1968] [Barrack and Kirk 1969] [Barrack and Kirk 1970] [Bauer 1987] [Bauknecht et al 2019] [Bellavia et al 1991] [Bellavia et al 1991] [Bevilaqua et al 2007] [Bevilaqua et al 2010] [Bhattacharya et al 2003] [Bhattacharyya and Conlisk 2003] [Binion 1970] [Blake and Laughrey 1987] [Bolanovich and Marks 1959] [Brabston 1967] [Brown and Whitehouse 2003] [Brun et al 2011] [Burns and Barker 1966] [Burns and Brabston 1969] [Burns and Brabston 1969] [Butler and Thomas 1964] [Cabrita et al 2005] [Cacciola and Calabria 2026] [Cao et al 2012] [Cao et al 2021] [Capone 1975] [Capone 1976] [Caprace et al 2024] [Caprace et al 2025] [Carangui et al 2016] [Carlisle 1988] [Carr 1973] [Castells and Mishler 1973] [Ceolato et al 2017] [Chaderjian et al 2002] [Chaderjian et al 2002] [Chawla 1993] [Chawla et al 1989] [Cheng et al 2024] [Childs and Nixon 1987] [Christiansen 1984] [Chung et al 2020] [Cimbala et al 1993] [Cook et al 2005] [Cordell et al 2023] [Corsiglia et al 1990] [Corsiglia et al 1991] [Cosgrove and Ryan 1969] [Cosgrove and Ryan 1969] [Cosgrove et al 1968] [Curtis 2002] [Curtis et al 2005] [Curtis et al 2007] [Curtiss 1965] [D’Andrea 2009] [D’Andrea and Scorcelletti 2010] [Danjun et al 2015] [Davidson et al 1972] [Dawson and Omar 1977] [Deckert et al 1968] [Deneke and Carter 2025] [Dent 1966] [Design concepts for minimizing 1981] [Donaldson et al 1966] [Donaldson et al 1971] [Dos Santos et al 2024] [Dudley et al 1981] [Dudley et al 1986] [Dukes and Hargraves 1962] [DuWaldt 1966] [Edmunds and Vangaasbeek 1984] [Eshleman et al 1986] [Eshlemen 1985] [Fanucci et al 1969] [Fenwick 1966] [Fenwick and Mathews 1966] [Foley 1979] [Foltz 1962] [Fricker et al 1992] [Fricker et al 1994] [Gao and Agarwal 2019] [Gao et al 2018] [Gao et al 2019] [Garrard et al 2022] [Garrick et al 2013] [Gatlin 1989] [Gentry and Margason 1966] [George et al 1964] [Georgiev 2025] [Gerlach 2011] [Gherman et al 2019] [Ghosh] [Ghosh and Rajagopalan 2022] [Ghosh et al 2010] [Glucksman-Glaser and Jones 2012] [Godfroy-Cooper et al 2017] [Goodson 1967] [Goodson 1967] [Govindarajan et al 2013] [Gray and Kisielowski 1971] [Greco et al 1997] [Green 1966] [Green and Zanine 1984] [Greene 2020] [Griffiths and Leishman 2002] [Griffiths et al 2005] [Grossman 1963] [Grotz 1961] [Grunwald 1961] [Grunwald 1961] [Grunwald 1966] [Hackett and Justice 1973] [Hafer and Skinner 1960] [Hagelen et al 2008] [Hall 1967] [Hall 1968] [Hall 1968] [Hall 1970] [Hall 1970] [Hall 1971] [Hammond and McLemore 1967] [Han 2026] [Hange and Wardwell 1992] [Hange and Wardwell 1993] [Hange et al 1996] [Hange et al 1996] [Harman et al 1994] [Harry and Trobaugh 1966] [He and Leang 2020] [He et al 2019] [Heyson 1962] [Heyson 1962] [Hay 1970] [He and Leang 2024] [He et al 2024] [Hebbar et al 1999] [Hemeter et al 1970] [Heron and Myose 2004] [Heyson 1961] [Higgins and Wainwright 1964] [Higgins et al 1966] [Hill et al 1982] [Hinshaw et al 1964] [Hoad and Gentry 1975] [Hoad and Gentry 1977] [Holdeman and Vukits 2004] [Hong and Ansell 2018] [Hosseini et al 2010] [Hot gas ingestion and 1984] [Hot-Gas Ingestion 2007] [Houlihan and Thompson 1972] [Huggett 1959] [Huston and Winston 1960] [Hwang 1990] [Hwang and Kwon 2019] [Hwang and Tsou 1981] [Hwang et al 2016] [Ing and Zhang 1993] [Ing and Zhang 1994] [Irmawan et al 2023] [Ison 2024] [Jackson and House 1981] [Jackson and House 1982] [Jakubowski et al 1985] [Jang et al 2022] [Johns 1989] [Johns et al 1987] [Johns et al 1988] [Johns et al 1989] [Johns et al 1989] [Johns et al 1990] [Johns et al 1990] [Joshi and Compton 1985] [Jung et al 2025] [Kaemming and Smith 1984] [Kalra and Baeder 2017] [Kalra et al 2013] [Karemaa et al 1979] [Kato and Suzuki 2019] [Kawazoe and Morita 2004] [Kawazoe and Morita 2004] [Keller et al 2006] [Kemp 1967] [Kemp 1969] [Koc¸er et al 2008] [Kotansky 1978] [Kotansky 1982] [Kotansky and Bower 1977] [Kotansky and Bower 1977] [Kotansky and Bower 1978] [Kotansky and Glaze 1978] [Krishnamoorthy 1971] [Kristy 1995] [Kuhlman and Warcup 1977] [Kuhlman and Warcup 1978] [Kuhlman and Warcup 1979] [Kuhlman and Warcup 1980] [Kuhlman et al 1978] [Kuhlman et al 1978] [Kuhn 1965] [Kuhn 1982] [Kuhn 1986] [Kuhn 1987] [Kuhn 1987] [Kuhn and Grunwald 1960] [Kuhn and Grunwald 1961] [Kuhn et al 1991] [Kuhn et al 1991] [Kuhn et al 1993] [Kuhn et al 1993] [Lavi 1967] [Lee and Ko 2018] [Lee et al 2026] [Lehman 1971] [Leishman 2008] [Leishman 2014] [Levin and Wardwell 1997] [Levinsky et al 1968] [Li et al 2020] [Li et al 2025] [Lissaman 1967] [Lissaman 1968] [Lissaman 1969] [Liu et al 2009] [Lohry et al 2011] [Lord 1985] [Lorenz 2020] [Louisse and Marshall 1974] [Louisse and Marshall 1976] [Lourenco et al 1996] [Lummus 1980] [Ma et al 2019] [Maclean 1991] [Margason 1966] [Margason 1970] [Margason 2002] [Matsumoto and Premachandra 2023] [McLemore 1966] [McLemore 1966] [McLemore and Smith 1968] [Mehrabi and Davari 2020] [Mehta et al 2010] [Miesner et al 2020] [Migdal et al 1979] [Milluzzo and Leishman 2010] [Milluzzo and Leishman 2017] [Minsk 1970] [Modeling gas turbine deterioration 1987] [Morse and Newhouse 1960] [Morse and Newhouse 1961] [Morse and Newhouse 1961] [Mourtos et al 1995] [Moushegian et al 2021] [Mylapore and Schmitz 2015] [Neiswander] [Neiswander 2011] [Peters and Shirazi] [O’Bryan 1961] [Obryan 1960] [Otis 1962] [Otsuka et al 2024] [Page and Aiken 1971] [Pandya et al 2003] [Papadopoulos et al 2023] [Penrose and Smith 1996] [Perrotta 2015] [Phillips and Brown 2008] [Phillips and Brown 2009] [Phillips et al 2010] [Polsky 2000] [Polzin et al 2011] [Porcacchia et al 2023] [Preston 1994] [Prewitt et al 2023] [Prophete] [Pruyn and Taylor 1970] [Pulla and Conlisk 2005] [Qu et al 2017] [Quackenbush et al 2018] [Radhakrishnan and Schmitz 2003] [Radhakrishnan and Schmitz 2005] [Radhakrishnan and Schmitz 2006] [Radotich 2026] [Renselaer 1975] [Renselaer 1977] [Richardson et al 2005] [Richardson et al 2006] [Richardson et al 2007] [Rizk and Menon 1987] [Robins et al 1994] [Rogers and Belluomini 2026] [Rogers et al 1969] [Rovere et al 2020] [Rovere et al 2023] [Rubel 1978] [Saddington and Knowles 2013] [Saddington et al 2002] [Saddington et al 2007] [Saddington et al 2008] [Saddington et al 2009] [Sagaga and Lee 2025] [Saijo et al 2003] [Salahudden et al 2024] [Sandlin and Howard 1991] [Sandoval and Zhang 2026] [Saripalli 1985] [Saripalli 1987] [Saripalli 1987] [Saripalli and Kroutil 1985] [Saripalli et al 1997] [Schnell 1982] [Schnell and Grossman 1978] [Schnell and Grossman 1979] [Schnell and Ordonez 1981] [Schuldenfrei 1942] [Schwarz et al 2019] [Schwarz et al 2020] [Sharma et al 2021] [Sherrieb 1978] [Sherrieb 1979] [Shirbhate et al 2025] [Shollenberger 1978] [Shollenberger and Smyth 1978] [Shumpert and Tibbetts 1969] [Sickles 1964] [Siclari et al 1975] [Siclari et al 1976] [Siclari et al 1980] [Silwal et al 2022] [Smith 1972] [Soderlund and Matveev 2010] [Spong et al 1979] [Spreemann 1960] [Stahl and Gaitonde 2021] [Stahl and Gaitonde 2021] [Steinhoff et al 2008] [STOL Operation Transition-in-Ground Effect 2007] [Strand 1967] [Su et al 2022] [Suresh 2020] [Syal and Leishman 2013] [Sykora 2012] [Tafti and Vanka 1990] [Thrust-induced effects on pitching-up 1994] [Tokarski et al 1994] [Tritschler and Celi 2012] [Tritschler et al 2010] [Tritschler et al 2012] [Tritschler et al 2014] [Tritschler et al 2019] [Tsuboi et al 1991] [Tucker and Garrett 1962] [Turpin et al 2010] [Udaya Hebbar et al 2024] [Van Dommelen 1995] [Vanka 1998] [VanOverbeke and Holdeman 1990] [Vaughn 1970] [Vogler 1966] [Wachspress et al 2026] [Wadcock et al 2008] [Walker et al 1965] [Wang 2003] [Wang et al 2024] [Wardwell and Hange 1993] [Wardwell and Kuhn 1991] [Wardwell et al 1992] [Wardwell et al 1993] [Watson et al 1967] [Weber 1973] [Weber and Gay 1975] [Weng et al 2004] [White et al 1960] [Wichita State Univ Ks 1962] [Winston 1970] [Winston et al 1975] [Wohllebe and Migdal 1979] [Xin et al 1998] [Xin et al 2015] [Yon and Li 2026] [Yu et al 2019] [Zhang and Agarwal 2020] [Zhang and Ing 1993] [Zhang and Ing 1994] [Zhang et al 2019] [Zhang et al 2026] [Zhao et al 2023] [Zhu et al 2024] [Zilberman and Kopeika 2022]
Reaction controls and thrust vectoring
Turning the jet. Reaction control systems and bleed for hovering aircraft, vectoring nozzles, jet flaps, fluidic thrust vectoring and the flight control of vectored-thrust aircraft and drones. 63 titles concern fluidic vectoring by secondary injection, dual throats, counterflow or Coanda turning, against 17 that name reaction controls or bleed, so the mechanism the X-13 used for roll has been far less studied than the mechanism it did not use.
371 records. [Adavbiele 2009] [Adavbiele 2009] [Adavbiele and Salami 2007] [Adnan] [ADRC-based control allocation method 2023] [Afridi et al 2023] [Afridi et al 2024] [Ahmed and Katupitiya 2021] [Ale Isaac Khoueini] [Ali et al 2012] [Amoozgar et al 2024] [Application of Fluidic Thrust 2024] [Aroussi 2026] [Atesoglu and Ozgoren 2011] [Atesoglu and Özgören 2006] [Atesoglu and Özgören 2007] [Atesoglu and Özgören 2008] [Atesoglu and Özgören 2009] [Baldini et al 2026] [Banazadeh and Banazadeh 2014] [Barrett 1965] [Baskaran et al 2018] [Battipede et al 2003] [Baumann and Gal-Or 1992] [Beard and Foley 1983] [Beck et al] [Beebe] [Beilman 1983] [Berdoyes 1989] [Berens 2019] [Bergman 1979] [Bhabar and Mukesh Sharma 2025] [Billet 1964] [Bindu Mounica et al 2020] [Bolitho and Jacob 2008] [Borchers et al 1994] [Bose et al 2014] [Brandt et al 2019] [Buffington et al 1993] [Buffington et al 1994] [Burnes et al 2001] [Bursey and Dickinson 1990] [Cai et al 2022] [Capello et al 2019] [Capone 1974] [Capone and Mason 1986] [Carr 1984] [Carr 1986] [Casau et al 2016] [Case] [Caton and Franke 1991] [Chakraborty and Comer 2024] [Chandra Sekar et al 2017] [Chawla and Van Dalsem 1992] [Cheatham et al 1991] [Chen and Liao 2020] [Chen et al 2015] [Chen et al 2016] [Chen et al 2026] [Cheng et al 2020] [Chi et al 2022] [Chi et al 2022] [Chin et al 1974] [Chouicha et al 2019] [Clark 1965] [Cliff et al 1982] [Cohn et al 1985] [Coles 1968] [Collins Jr 2005] [Comer 2025] [Computational and Experimental Analysis 2024] [Computational Investigation of Effects 2022] [Computational Investigation of Fluidic 2025] [Cong et al 2019] [Cornelius and Lucius 1993] [Costes 1988] [Crandall et al 1973] [Culpepper et al 2021] [Culpepper et al 2022] [Cunningham and Boytos 1981] [Cunningham and Boytos 1983] [Daljit Majil 2016] [Das et al 2024] [Davis and Hines 1976] [Davis and Spicer 1965] [de Matteis et al 1998] [Deere et al 2003] [Deere et al 2005] [Deere et al 2007] [Denton et al 2021] [Di et al 2025] [Dinca and Corcau 2021] [Dinca et al 2019] [Dunbar et al 2002] [duPont and duPont 1997] [Eatough 1971] [Eilers et al 2010] [Eilers et al 2011] [Eilers et al 2012] [Ellis and Kearney 1982] [Emelyanov et al 2021] [Enenakpogbe et al 2024] [Enenakpogbe et al 2024] [Enenakpogbe et al 2025] [Erdem et al 2006] [Erickson 1962] [Erwin et al 1964] [Esker and McArdle 1993] [Esker and Sedrick 1972] [Experimental Investigations on the 2020] [Feistel et al 1969] [Ferlauto and Marsilio 2016] [Ferlauto and Marsilio 2016] [Ferlauto and Marsilio 2017] [Ferlauto et al 2020] [Flamm 1998] [Flamm et al 2005] [Flamm et al 2006] [Flamm et al 2007] [Flow visualization studies of 1991] [Forliti et al 2002] [Francis 2018] [Friddell and Franke 1990] [Friddell and Franke 1992] [Friehmelt 1996] [Friehmelt 1997] [Friend 1964] [Frost and Bishop 1963] [Frost and Bishop 1965] [Gal-Or] [Gal-Or 1990] [Gal-Or 1992] [Gal-Or 1995] [Gal-Or 2001] [Gal-Or and Baumann 1993] [Gal-Or et al 1995] [Garcia et al 2009] [Gerber and Tsao 2018] [Ghosh et al 2006] [Gill 1974] [Goetz et al 1976] [Gogoi et al 2021] [Granasy 1995] [Ha et al 2025] [Hakim et al 2020] [Hall 1965] [Haloulakos 1982] [Hamed et al 1997] [Harisrinivasan et al 2018] [Hauser and Jadbabaie] [Hegarty et al 1965] [Henning et al 1957] [Herrick 1992] [Hienz and Vedova 1984] [Hiroyuki Takano et al 2007] [Hooker 1981] [Hoskin et al 1991] [Hou et al 2024] [Hou et al 2026] [Huang et al 2025] [Huang et al 2026] [Hui-min et al 2005] [Hui-min et al 2005] [Iliff and Wang 1997] [Imbaratto] [Imlay 1986] [In-Flight Thrust Determination for] [Invernizzi and Lovera 2018] [Invernizzi et al 2020] [Islam et al 2018] [Jadbabaie and Hauser 2002] [Jayakody and Katupitiya 2015] [Johnson 1990] [Jois et al 2024] [Joseph et al 2024] [Jyothy and John Wessley 2023] [Kaijun and Fawei 2017] [Kannan and Bhat 2005] [Kantner et al] [Keller 1969] [Kelley et al 1982] [Kentfield 1975] [Kentfield 1975] [Khoo et al 2017] [Kim 2026] [King et al 1991] [Klafin 1988] [Korbacher 1963] [Korbacher 1964] [Krenkel and Salzman 1968] [Krishnan et al 2020] [Kuang and Zhu 2015] [Kumon et al 2010] [Kumon et al 2011] [Kutschera and Render 1999] [Lallman 1985] [Lampard 1978] [Lavrukhin et al 2014] [Lee and Lan 1992] [Lee et al] [Leitner 1986] [Leovan 2019] [Lewis and Simpkin 1981] [Li et al 2013] [Li et al 2016] [Li et al 2019] [Li et al 2025] [Lichtsinder et al 1998] [Limage 1977] [Liu et al 2013] [Liu et al 2020] [Liu et al 2022] [Liu et al 2024] [Liu et al 2024] [Liu et al 2025] [Liu et al 2026] [Lu and Wu 2009] [Maarouf et al 2009] [Mace et al 1989] [Madarasz et al 2012] [Madeiras et al 2026] [Mangin et al 2006] [Mansell 1987] [Margetts et al 2015] [Martinez et al 2025] [Marubashi and Miwa 2014] [Mason and Crowther 2004] [Matesanz et al 1995] [Matveev and Wheeler 2019] [McArdle and Esker 1993] [Merceruio] [Milam et al 2005] [Miller 1983] [Miller 1986] [Mineck and Margason 1974] [Mishra and Sinha 2018] [Miwa 2021] [Miwa and Maruhashi 2016] [Mockenhaupt 1988] [Mohammadi and Toloei 2011] [Molyneux 1983] [Morello et al 1972] [Murguia-Rendon et al 2009] [Nagabhushan and Tomlinson 1985] [Nagabhushan and Tomlinson 1986] [Nardi et al 1999] [Nayebi and Taeibi Rahni 2024] [Nery et al 2024] [Nocoń et al 2023] [Oganyan and Loginov 2025] [Park et al 2025] [Pastorelli 2013] [Patierno and Asdurian 1965] [Pauli 1964] [Pauli 1965] [Peris et al 2021] [Petit and Scholey 1973] [Petit and Scholey 1973] [Petit and Scholey 1973] [Platzer 1976] [Porzio and Franke 1986] [Porzio and Franke 1989] [Postma 1970] [Pulk and Stolarik 1977] [Raghavendra et al 2005] [Ravindranath 2025] [Reigelsperger et al 1995] [Renselaer 1977] [Resta et al 2021] [Resta et al 2022] [Resta et al 2024] [Riley et al 1989] [Rolls 1960] [Rolls 1965] [Rolls and Aoyagi 1977] [Ruetten 2018] [Russo et al 2011] [Ryan and Franke 1991] [Akshay et al 2020] [Salahudden et al 2022] [Salahudden et al 2025] [Salehian et al 2024] [Salehian et al 2025] [Salimi et al 2023] [Sanders 1997] [Schirmer and Capone 1989] [Schneider and Watt 1988] [Schneider and Watt 1989] [Schumacher 1970] [Schwagerus et al 2026] [Sellam et al 2012] [Shandor and Walker 1962] [Sherbaum and Lichtsinder 1998] [Shi 2014] [Shi et al 2024] [Shin et al 2010] [Shynkarenko et al 2024] [Sieder et al 2019] [Simmons 2022] [Simmons et al 2025] [Singh and Kushari 2008] [Sobel and Lallman 1988] [Sobester and Keane 2006] [Sotheran 1982] [Soundararajan 2022] [Sparavalo 2019] [Sparavalo 2021] [Spreemann 1961] [Srivastava and Jayachandran 2023] [Stalford and Hoffman 1989] [Steer 2000] [Steer 2000] [Stewart 1974] [Stillwell and Drake 1958] [Sully and Whittley 1987] [Suñol et al 2014] [Suñol Jiménez et al 2015] [Swaraj et al 2023] [Sørensen et al 1996] [Takahashi and Stone 2019] [Tang 2025] [Tanveer and Ahmad 2023] [Tape et al 1987] [Taylor 1988] [Tcherak et al 2026] [The Hawker P1127 vectored 1990] [Thompson 1965] [Thrust vector control 2026] [Thrust Vectoring of a 2020] [Tich 1991] [Toney 1974] [Traub et al 2004] [Ulizar 1997] [Van Nieuwstadt and Murray 1998] [Van Poppel et al 1998] [Variable mode turbofan jet 2002] [Vectored thrust 1992] [Vinayagam and Sinha 2013] [Visser 1999] [Vohra and Kumar 2025] [Wang et al 2007] [Wang et al 2017] [Wang et al 2020] [Wang et al 2022] [Wang et al 2027] [Ward and Penrose 1983] [Webster 1973] [Wei Yuan and Katupitiya 2013] [Whitaker and Gowadia 1994] [Williams and Bernitt 1970] [Williams and Vittal 2002] [Wilson et al 2003] [Wing 1994] [Wing and Asbury 1991] [Wooten et al 1984] [Wu et al 2024] [Wygnanski 1966] [Xu and Zha 2022] [YAV-8B reaction control system 1993] [Yuhas and Ray 1992] [Zafirov 2010] [Zhang et al 2024] [Zhang et al 2026] [Zhang et al 2026] [Zhao 2025] [Zhao-miao and Chuan 2013] [Zhou et al 2022] [Zhou et al 2024] [Zhu et al 2025] [Zmijanovic] [Živković et al 2014]
The pilot, the view and the visual task
The pilot as a component of the control loop. Pilot models and the human operator, workload and its measurement, visual cues, cockpit displays and the pilot’s view, the operators of remotely piloted aircraft and teleoperation under delay. 99 titles name workload and 45 a remotely piloted or uncrewed aircraft, the second being the literature of the operator who replaced the pilot of the X-13.
345 records. [A piloted simulator investigation 1979] [Ackerman et al 2014] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1962] [Alaimo et al 2011] [Alexander 1979] [Alharasees et al 2024] [Analysis of stress effects 2024] [Anderson and Toivanen 1970] [Andre and Johnson] [Andrisani 1982] [Andrisani and Gau 1985] [Aponso et al 1987] [Army Scientific Advisory Panel Washington Dc 1977] [Aronson 1987] [Ashworth and McKissick 1979] [Assessing pilot workload. Advisory 1979] [Atmaca et al 2025] [Aume et al 1976] [Bachelder 2020] [Bachelder and Godfroy-Cooper 2019] [Bachelder and Hansman] [Bachelder et al 2018] [Bachelder et al 2019] [Barbato 1992] [Barile 1981] [Baron 1983] [Barrows et al 1996] [Bartlett et al 2002] [Batson et al 1981] [Battipede et al 2004] [Battiste and Bortolussi 1988] [Bauschat 2001] [Beal 1945] [Becker et al 2011] [Behan and Siciliani 1965] [Behan and Siciliani 1967] [Beilman et al 1975] [Belak and Hromcik 2024] [Benbassat 2005] [Bennett et al 1988] [Benoit et al 2014] [Biernacki and Lewkowicz 2024] [Billings and Durlach 2008] [Birckelbaw and Corliss 1992] [Birckelbaw and Corliss 1994] [Birckelbaw et al 1994] [Bonyad et al 2024] [Bortolussi et al 1986] [Bradley and Brindley 2003] [Bromfield et al 2023] [Brutch and Moncayo 2024] [Budihartono et al 2026] [Burke and Ferris 1981] [Cahill et al 2017] [Cai et al 2014] [Caraux and Wanner 1979] [Caraux and Wanner 1980] [Cardullo and Sinacori 1988] [Carmody et al 2025] [Chase 1976] [Chase 1997] [Chen and Pérez-Arancibia 2024] [Chen et al 2017] [Chen et al 2025] [Chevaldonne et al 2006] [Chung et al 1995] [Cocco et al 2021] [Cockpit Visibility for Commercial] [Coleman and Thirtyacre 2021] [Comeau et al 2022] [Conover 1964] [Control Augmentation and Cockpit 2002] [Cornell Aeronautical Lab Inc Buffalo Ny 1947] [Corwin 1989] [Corwin 1992] [Cunningham et al 2011] [Curry et al 1976] [Decker 1992] [Deutsch 2006] [Di Carlo et al 1971] [Dougherty 1968] [Driscoll 1966] [Duggan et al 2025] [Duggan et al 2026] [Dukes 1969] [Durak et al 2016] [Durbin and Hicks 2009] [Effects of modes of 2016] [Efremov et al 2020] [Eshow 1990] [Eskey and Wilson 1989] [Farris et al 1983] [Faye 1960] [Flight deck environment and 1973] [Foster et al 1991] [Francis et al 2002] [Francis et al 2002] [Franklin 1997] [Franklin 1997] [Franklin and Engelland 1991] [Frazier and McElreath 1976] [Fry et al 1973] [Fulkerson et al 1980] [Garner 2002] [Garrood and Reid 1994] [Geister et al 2017] [Gillingham 1984] [Haines 1980] [Hall 1987] [Hanson et al 2014] [Harvey and Waugh 1976] [Hindson 1987] [Lapins et al 1982] [Litt et al 2012] [Pietrzyk et al 2023] [Sen et al 2025] [Sinacori 1986] [Taheri Gorji et al 2023] [Tucker 1984] [Gerdes 1964] [Gerdes 1977] [Gold and Walchli 1974] [Gonzalo 2026] [Gozzo and Vienneau 1987] [Gracey 1968] [Green 1982] [Grether 1973] [Gruchet 2026] [Gruszecki et al 2012] [Guerrero and Corliss 1991] [Guo et al 2013] [Habboush and Yildiz 2022] [Habboush and Yildiz 2026] [Harris and Glover 1984] [Hart 1956] [Hart 1978] [Hartzell 1979] [Haworth et al 2001] [Heffley 1983] [Heinle 1960] [Hess 1988] [Hess and Gorder 1990] [Hess and Tran 1988] [Hicks and Durbin 2014] [Hoffman et al 1976] [Hoffman et al 2000] [Hofmann and Riedel 1979] [Hoh 1985] [Hoogeboom et al] [Hooks and McMurry 1983] [Horn 2014] [Horn 2016] [Howard 1975] [Howard 1976] [Howse 2011] [Hu et al 2024] [Huntoon et al 1979] [Iijima et al] [Innocenti et al 1997] [Jalovecký and Janů 2010] [Janetzko et al 2025] [Johnson and Weir 1969] [Johnson et al 1992] [Johnston and Wolfe 1986] [Jones et al 2018] [Kalra and Greiwe 2026] [Kantowitz 1992] [Kantowitz et al 1983] [Khoo and Lim 2004] [Kimura et al 2024] [Koronkov 2022] [Krohn 1988] [Kruk et al 1999] [Kucuk 1988] [Kurylowich and Ritter 1970] [Kurylowich and Ritter 1971] [Lambert 1989] [Larsen 1975] [Lebacqz and Aiken 1975] [Lebacqz and Radford 1979] [Ledegang et al 2012] [Li et al 2013] [Li et al 2026] [Liggett and Gallimore 2001] [Liu et al 2026] [Lollar and Matous 1963] [Lüdtke Andreas and Javaux Denis 2012] [Ma et al 2015] [Mandal] [Marshall] [McKissick et al 1983] [McReynolds] [McRuer 1972] [Merhav 1989] [Merrick 1981] [Merrick 1984] [Merrick and Gerdes 1978] [Merrick et al 1990] [Metalis 1989] [Mills 1967] [Milz et al 2026] [Mooij and Van Gool 1977] [Moore 2015] [Mori et al 2007] [Morris and Leung 2006] [Mortazavi et al 2018] [Muralidharan et al 1979] [Newman and Greeley 1997] [Newton et al 2024] [Nicholson et al 1988] [Nieuwenhuizen et al 2007] [Niewind 2011] [Northrop Aircraft Inc Hawthorne Ca 1952] [Oliver 2012] [Olson 2015] [Optimization and Piloted Simulation 2017] [Osterman and Mulley 1977] [Papa and Stoliker 1988] [Park 2014] [Patton 1972] [Paul and Rhinehart 2020] [Paulson et al 1977] [Pepitone et al 1987] [Petkosek et al 2005] [Pilot Perspective of Cues 2016] [Pilot workload and fatigue 1977] [Pilot Workload during an 1980] [Plichta and Škvareková 2021] [Prasad et al 2006] [Procházková and Juračka 2026] [Raeth and Reising] [Rault 1976] [Rault 1979] [Reichlen et al] [Reid and Robinson 1990] [Reising et al 1994] [Ricard and Parrish 1984] [Ringland 1977] [Ringland and Craig 1977] [Rojas-Ramirez] [Rolfe and Lindsay 1973] [Roscoe 1948] [Roscoe 1989] [Roscoe 1992] [Roscoe and Grieve 1986] [Roscoe and Grieve 1988] [Roscoe et al 1975] [Rosenstein et al 1973] [Rupert 2008] [Russi-Vigoya and Patterson 2015] [Sagoo] [Saputra 2017] [Sarrafian 1984] [Sarrafian 1986] [Schiefele et al 1999] [Schreiter et al 2017] [Schroeder and Merrick 1990] [Schroeder et al 1994] [Schulte et al 2015] [Schultz et al 2009] [Schuppe] [Schuppr 1989] [Schwartz and Shearer 1964] [Schwerd and Schulte 2021] [Seaberg et al 1972] [Selection Methods for Operators 2016] [Shafer 1970] [Sheesley et al 2003] [Shipman 2014] [Shipman 2014] [Sidestick Control Evaluation Completed 1985] [Simon and Dunn 1989] [Solz et al] [Sotiropoulos-Georgiopoulos and Johnson 2026] [Stephenson et al 2026] [Stepniewski and Tarczynski 1992] [Stortz and O’Donoghue 1993] [Strother 1974] [Studies on pilot workload 1978] [Sun et al 2024] [Drennen and Bowen 1984] [Tanaka 1993] [Tanaka et al 2013] [Tapia and Intano 1976] [Thato Elijah and Rui Vasconcellos 2026] [The Cockpit Design Process 2017] [The role of human 1986] [Thomas and Mija 2022] [Thomas et al 2021] [Thome et al 1999] [Tohidi and Yildiz 2019] [Totah 1991] [Totah 1992] [Tritto et al 2025] [Trujillo] [Turnage et al 2019] [Turpin et al 2006] [Tušl et al 2020] [Tvaryanas 2006] [Tvaryanas and Maupin 2013] [Vallerie 1967] [Van Houtte 1970] [Vandersteen 1987] [Vantrepotte et al 2025] [Vindigni et al 2026] [Vinje 1968] [Virasak 2021] [Visual and manual workload 1977] [VTOL control and display 1988] [Wallace et al 2011] [Walters et al 2002] [Wang et al 2024] [Wang et al 2026] [Watson et al 1996] [Watson et al 2020] [Way 1978] [Way 1981] [Webster] [Weeks 2000] [Wickens and Dixon 2002] [Decker et al 1993] [Winn and Lewis 1976] [Winn and Lewis II 1974] [Woo Chang Cha and Funk] [Woodruff et al 1979] [Wright 1980] [Xi et al 2019] [Xu 2023] [Xu et al 2025] [Xu et al 2026] [Yan and Chen 2019] [Yan et al 2022] [Yang 2025] [Yang et al 2017] [Yawei Liang] [Yip et al 1990] [Yuan et al 2025] [Zaitceva 2020] [Zanoni et al 2022] [Zhang et al 2014] [Zhang et al 2025] [Zhang et al 2026] [Zheng et al 2019] [Zipoy et al 1971] [Škvareková et al 2020]
Stability, control and flight dynamics
The rest of the control literature. Stability and control of vertical take-off and conventional aircraft, stability augmentation, automatic flight control and guidance, equations of motion and the textbooks of flight dynamics that the period relations come from.
301 records. [Advanced Control Techniques for 2023] [Afilipoae et al 2024] [Ailon] [Ailon 2007] [Ailon 2009] [Aircraft Dynamic Stability 2003] [Aircraft Dynamic Stability 2014] [Aircraft Dynamic Stability 2024] [Aircraft Dynamic Stability and 1980] [Aircraft Equations of Motion 2003] [Aircraft Equations of Motion 2014] [Aircraft Equations of Motion 2022] [Aircraft Flight Control 2014] [Aircraft Flight Control Systems] [Aircraft moments of inertia 1996] [Aircraft Stability and Control 2003] [Aircraft Stability and Control 2014] [Aircraft Stability and Control 2022] [Aircraft Stability and Control 2024] [Aircraft Stability and Control 2026] [Aircraft Stability Derivatives 1998] [Aircraft Stability Derivatives 2002] [Ajaj 2021] [Alston 1939] [Anderson and Innis 1965] [Anderson and Schroers 1972] [Appendix C Stability and 2021] [Application of dynamic flight] [Approximate Expressions for the 1997] [Approximate Expressions for the 2013] [Arthur and Pitkin 1961] [Automatic Control of VTOL 1966] [Barlow 2004] [Barzda 1966] [Beatty and Worthey 1984] [Bernatz and Thielecke 2004] [Beyers 1983] [Bihrle and Bowman 1980] [Boehler 1959] [Boling and Zha 2021] [Bolton and Collins 1975] [Bowman et al 2012] [Brandt and Bons 2023] [Bryson and Mehra 1967] [Bryson and Mehra 1969] [Bryson et al 1970] [Burnashev and Zbrutsky 2019] [Cabarbaye] [Calise et al 1981] [Campbell and Abramovitz 1975] [Capen 1971] [Carithers et al 2019] [Carter 1969] [Chambers 1971] [Chen and Huo 2019] [Clarke et al 1973] [Comer 2026] [Cook 1997] [Cook 2007] [Cook 2013] [Cook 2021] [Cornish 1964] [Cornish 1965] [Costandin et al 2018] [Costandin et al 2021] [Cunningham 1976] [Curtiss 1965] [Curtiss 1969] [Curtiss 1970] [Curtiss 1986] [Curtiss et al 1961] [Czyba and Blachuta 2001] [Czyba and Kronhof 2020] [Dantsker et al 2018] [Davis et al 1977] [Definitions of Aerodynamic Stability 1997] [Definitions of Aerodynamic Stability 2007] [Definitions of Aerodynamic Stability 2013] [Dendy and Tribken 1968] [Design of the circulation 1979] [Dicarlo et al 1966] [Dikshit et al 2022] [Dingle and Tooley 2026] [Do 2021] [Doran et al 2025] [Dugan 2014] [Dukes 1970] [Dynamic Longitudinal Stability Theory 2003] [Emerson et al 2023] [Englar 1975] [Equations of Motion 2001] [Ericsson and Reding 1977] [Escareno et al 2006] [Experimental development of an 1981] [Falco and Baskervill 1961] [Feedback Flight Control 2026] [Fletcher 1962] [Flight Control 2015] [Flight control system design 2011] [Flight Control Using Nonlinear 2000] [Flight Dynamics 2013] [Flight Vehicle Aerodynamic Control 2001] [Foster and Morris 1960] [Foster and Morris 1961] [Franklin 1986] [Franklin 1994] [Franklin 2018] [Franklin and Anderson 1984] [From Steady Flight to 2011, 13. From Steady Flight to Flight] [From Steady Flight to 2011, From Steady Flight to Flight Dyna] [Gallagher and O’Donnell 1965] [Gao et al 2020] [Gao et al 2021] [Gao et al 2021] [Gao et al 2021] [Garren and Kelly 1966] [Garren et al 1964] [Gc] [Go 2009] [Goka et al 1980] [Goldberger 1966] [Green and Hoffmann 1986] [Guimarães et al 2021] [Hajiyev et al 2015] [Hall 1992] [Han and Hong 2015] [Harenberg 1962] [Hasdorff et al 1970] [Hashem Dabaghian and Halder 2025] [Haugen 1966] [Haviland et al 2016] [He et al 2024] [Healey 1974] [Henderson and Walters 1981] [Hendrick 1977] [Hoffman and Hollister 1975] [Hoffman and Hollister 1976] [Hoffman et al 1971] [Hoffman et al 1972] [Hoffman et al 1974] [Hoffman et al 1975] [Hollister 1970] [Howard 1966] [Hyde et al 2012] [Leonard et al 2023] [Nardi 1970] [Sudhakar et al 2025] [Schmitz 1969] [Shi et al 2022] [Simplified Vehicle Operations Pathway 2024] [Introduction to Aircraft Flight 1998] [Introduction to Aircraft Flight 2024] [Jackson and Patch 1968] [Jeffrie and Rolston 1972] [Jehangir 2014] [Jenkins 1973] [Johnston 1964] [Johnston 1965] [Jou and Metcalfe 1984] [Kalemaris 1983] [Kaplan 1959] [Kassapakis and Warwick 1994] [Katz and Maskew 1988] [Katz and Plotkin 2001] [Kaufman 1965] [Kaufman and Schultz 1963] [Kidd 1988] [Kirby 1964] [Kish et al 2021] [Knott 1977] [Knott 1978] [Konar et al 1974] [Kress 1978] [Krishnaswamy et al] [Kuhn 1960] [Kumar and Pradeep 2007] [Kunz et al 2024] [Lazer and Kuatbayeva 2026] [Lee et al 2012] [Lewis et al 1978] [Leylek and Costello 2013] [Lim and Moerder 2007] [Lim et al 2004] [Linear Quadratic Flight Control 2026] [Linearizing the Equations of 2003] [Liu et al 2023] [Liu et al 2024] [Loh and Jacob 2013] [Longitudinal and Lateral Linear 2014] [Loscutoff et al 1973] [Loth and Boasson 1984] [Louma 1961] [Low-Speed Aerodynamics 2009] [Lu et al 2023] [Margason and Kuhn 1988] [Mbikayi et al 2024] [McInville and Moore 1994] [McLaughlin et al 1993] [McLean and Naseem 1977] [Mendenhall et al 1972] [Merrick and Gerdes 1977] [Methods for Improving Longitudinal 2003] [Meyer and Cicolani 1975] [Mitchell 1979] [Mo et al 2026] [Mohammed 2007] [Montgomery and Hatch 1969] [Moore and Inville 1995] [Moore et al 1993] [Morris 1962] [Mueller 1964] [Mueller 1965] [Muller 1967] [Neogi et al 2025] [Newsom 1963] [Nguyen and Webb 2025] [Nichols and Englar 1980] [Nichols and Englar 1981] [Niessen 1971] [Norton 2002] [O’hara 1971] [Okumoto and Elsanker 1973] [Olson 1992] [Ostheimer and Giguere 1963] [Ozcan et al 2025] [Padfield 2007] [Pauli 1969] [Pauli 1971] [Pauli et al 1970] [Payne and Henry E. 1961] [Smetana 1971] [Suh et al] [Placement in Flight Control 2026] [Plotkin 2012] [Putman et al 1979] [Ramaveerapathiran et al 2025] [Randall et al 2011] [Rigatos 2021] [Rigid-Body Flight Dynamics 2026] [Ro and Barlow 1996] [Roberts and Anderson 1981] [Rosas et al 2012] [Rowley 2008] [Rowley 2010] [Shin and Lee 2023] [Shweyk et al 2012] [Sisk et al 2025] [Sissingh 1956] [Skifstad 1970] [Smith and Meyer 1990] [Smith and Vickers 1970] [Smith et al 1971] [Snell et al 1990] [Spreemann 1967] [Stability and control of 1986] [Stanford et al 2007] [Static Flight Stability and 2026] [Static Longitudinal Stability Theory 2003] [Static Stability and Control 1998] [Stengel 1975] [Stengel et al 1976] [Sugino et al 2019] [Swaim 1969] [Swanson 1942] [Takahashi 1991] [Takahashi et al 2023] [Takahashi et al 2024] [Tan et al 2014] [The Bell X-22A V/STOL 1990] [Time-Domain Unsteady Aerodynamics for 2023] [Toader and Tecuceanu 2018] [Tobing] [Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Dynamics 2016] [Uribe Quintero et al 2024] [Urnes and Yeager 1991] [Uzun and Oktay 2023] [van der Maas 1959] [Vepa 2023] [Vepa 2023] [Vepa 2026] [Vincent and Anex 1990] [VTOL Aircraft Control Design 2010] [VTOL Flight Control Systems 1966] [Vujić 1997] [Waechter 1966] [Walters and Henderson 1983] [Wang 2013] [Wang and Ma 2021] [Wang et al 2022] [Wen et al 2021] [Winick 1968] [Woolard 1974] [Xie et al 2015] [Xu et al 2014] [Xu et al 2022] [Yoo and Strash 1989] [Yoo and Strash 1990] [Yuan et al 2019] [Zheng and Merret 2022] [Zhu et al 2022] [Özer 2025]
Tilt-rotor, tilt-wing and the convertible configurations
The configurations that tilt the thrust instead of the aircraft. Tilt-rotor, tilt-wing, tilt-duct and lift-plus-cruise aircraft and drones, their aerodynamics, rotor and wing interaction, control and flight test. 159 titles name the tilt-rotor and 80 the tilt-wing, the two answers to the X-13’s question that kept the fuselage horizontal.
294 records. [Abergo et al 2026] [Aerodynamic interaction study of 1994] [An and Kim 2026] [Annamalai and Thunaipragasam 2021] [Apkarian 2018] [Arif and Sasongko 2021] [Armutcuoglu et al 2004] [Bachmaier and Anderson 2021] [Bagai and Leishman 1995] [Bagai and Leishman 1996] [Barla et al 2006] [Bass et al 1993] [Bauersfeld and Ducard 2020] [Bayraktar and Guldas 2026] [Belák and Hromčík 2023] [Belák and Hromčík 2023] [Bland et al 1976] [Chen and Jia 2020] [Cook 1993] [He et al 2020] [Nichols 1963] [Simmons and Murphy] [Bennink and Langelaan 2024] [Beppu et al 1966] [Beser 1978] [Beser 1979] [Betzina and Falarski 1979] [Betzina and Kita 1979] [Bhandari and Chakraborty 2026] [Bhandari et al 2024] [Bian et al 2025] [Bowen et al 2025] [Bray 1995] [Briardy and Head 1968] [Brown and Fischer 1967] [Brown et al 1977] [Brown et al 1978] [Burton et al 2024] [Busan et al 2021] [Carico and Garcia-Otero 1995] [Carlin et al 1986] [Cetinsoy 2015] [Chakraborty and Mishra 2022] [Chakraborty and Mishra 2023] [Chakraborty and Mishra 2023] [Chakraborty et al 2025] [Chakraborty et al 2026] [Chambers and Grafton 1966] [Chambers and Grafton 1968] [Chambers and Grafton 1970] [Champine et al 1970] [Chance Vought Corp Dallas Tx 1963] [Chang et al 2023] [Chattopadhyay et al 1995] [Chauhan and Martins 2020] [Chen and Guo 2025] [Chen and Hubner 2021] [Chen et al 2024] [Chen et al 2025] [Chiappinelli et al 2019] [Choi et al 2026] [Churchill and Gerdes 1984] [Clark 1975] [Clark 1985] [Cole et al 1980] [Comer et al 2024] [Comer et al 2026] [Crawford et al 1996] [Critchfield and Ning 2026] [Crossley and Rutherford 1995] [Curtiss and Warburton 1992] [Curtiss et al 1967] [Dabundo and Neary 1985] [Dancik et al 1958] [Darabi and Wygnanski 2003] [de Madrid et al 2007] [Decker et al 1989] [Deckert and McCloud 1968] [Deckert et al 1964] [Dehaeze et al 2017] [Deng et al 2025] [Deng et al 2026] [Design definition study of 1975] [Detore and Gaffey 1969] [Development of Simulation Program 2005] [Dicarlo 1971] [DiMaggio et al 2026] [Droandi et al 2014] [Droandi et al 2015] [Dudley 2016] [Eskey et al 1984] [Falarski et al 1982] [Faye et al 1987] [Fejtek 1993] [Fejtek and Roberts 1989] [Fejtek and Roberts 1991] [Fejtek and Roberts 1992] [Fejtek and Roberts 1992] [Felker 1988] [Felker and Light 1986] [Felker et al 1987] [Ferrarese et al 2013] [Flores et al 2014] [Follow-On Studies for Design 1977] [Ford 1989] [Fraga and Liiva 1972] [Fry 1965] [Gaffey and Maisel 1974] [Gass et al 1986] [Gibertini et al 2011] [Gibs et al 1975] [Gibs et al 1976] [Gill and Sauer 1983] [Golovkin and Tarasov 2009] [Goodson 1966] [Gotlieb et al 1976] [Grima 2016] [Grima et al 2016] [Grunwald 1965] [Gupta and Bryson 1972] [Rosenstein et al 1973] [Haixu et al 2010] [Ham and Whitaker 1978] [Hargraves 1961] [Harned and Head 1965] [Hartmann et al 2017] [Haskins and Haskins 2008] [Hassan 2008] [He et al 2025] [Hesse 1965] [Hill and Waters 1974] [Hu-Sheng Wu et al 2015] [Hunt et al 1977] [Hassell and Kirby 1966] [Jensen et al 2025] [Kratz and Culley] [Jordon et al 1985] [Josephs 1964] [Kahvecioglu and Alemdaroglu 2015] [Kai 2024] [Kaneshige et al 2024] [Kang et al 2023] [Kang et al 2025] [Kaul and Ahmad 2012] [Goodson 1966] [Kim and Choi 2011] [Kim and Jo 2025] [Kirby and Newsom 1964] [Kirby et al 1963] [Kolesar 1971] [Kolesar et al 1970] [Kolesar et al 1970] [Kong et al 2025] [Kukla 2026] [Kutney 1964] [Lade and Guérin 2026] [Lake et al 1994] [Large scale static tests 1978] [Lee and Lee 2013] [Li 2024] [Li et al 2024] [Liao et al 2024] [Lichen et al 2025] [Lichota 2023] [Liu 1962] [Lockhart] [Longhurst 1966] [Lu et al 2016] [Lu et al 2021] [Magee 1983] [Magee and Alexander 1973] [Magee and Wernicke 1979] [Maisel and Harris 1981] [Maisel et al 2000] [Marr et al 1974] [Marr et al 1976] [Mathur and Atkins 2026] [Matthys and Scroggs Jr. 1984] [Maurya et al 2022] [May et al 2022] [McCarthy and Chattopadhyay 1996] [McCormick and Mallen 1956] [McCormick and Mallen 1957] [Meakin 1995] [Michaelsen 1971] [Morris and Alexander 1978] [Murphy and Landman 2015] [Murugan and Lm 2023] [Müller and Moormann 2023] [NASA/HAA Advanced Rotorcraft Technology 1980] [Newsom 1962] [Newsom 1962] [Newsom and Tosti 1959] [Newsom and Tosti 1962] [Nguyen et al 2023] [Notarstefano and Hauser 2010] [Oh et al 2026] [Omar and Lampkin 1977] [Osa et al 2014] [Osa et al 2016] [Osa et al 2017] [Osa et al 2021] [Osa et al 2022] [Ostermann 2016] [Oyama et al 2024] [Harendra et al 1973] [Pacini et al 2023] [Papachristos et al 2013] [Passarelli D’Onofrio and Pecoraro 2025] [Pegg 1962] [Pei and Roithmayr 2022] [Pei et al 2023] [Persson and Lawrence 2017] [Potonides 1979] [Pradeep and Wei 2018] [Primatesta et al 2023] [Putman 1961] [Putman 1969] [Quackenbush et al 2010] [Quigley and Franklin 1977] [Raghavan et al 1990] [Rais-Rohani and Baker 1994] [Robinson 2015] [Rohr et al 2019] [Rosenstein and Clark 1986] [Rostami et al 2023] [Rothhaar et al 2014] [Sawron 2026] [Schmalzel et al] [Seung et al 2017] [Shankar et al 2026] [Shivers 1970] [Shovlin and Gambucci 1978] [Simmons and Ackerman 2026] [Simmons and Murphy 2021] [Simmons et al 2025] [Simoes Pessoa] [Smith 1968] [Song et al 2015] [Geuther et al 2020] [Strand and Levinsky 1969] [Stratton and Landman 2021] [Sullivan 1972] [Sánchez Meza et al 2024] [Taher et al 2026] [Tai and Vorwald 1993] [Taubert et al 2021] [Templin et al] [The Boeing Canard rotor/wing 2004] [Theodore et al 2014] [Thiemeier et al 2019] [Thomason 1978] [Thomason 1982] [Tischler et al 1983] [Tosti 1959] [Tosti 1962] [Turney and Allen 1980] [Ram Rohit 2024] [Voskuijl and Walker 2007] [Walker and Perfect 2007] [Wang and Cai 2015] [Wang et al 2021] [Wang et al 2022] [Wang et al 2024] [Wang et al 2026] [Weiberg and Holzhauser 1961] [Wellman 1992] [Wernicke 1977] [Wernicke 1980] [Wernicke et al 1980] [Wilson et al 1983] [Wind tunnel and ground 1976] [Wu et al 2016] [Xing et al 2025] [Xiong et al 2026] [Yamazaki et al 2025] [Yanguo and Huanjin 2009] [Yassini and Syrovy 2002] [Yeh et al 2023] [Yeo and Johnson 2009] [Yiru et al 2020] [Yokota et al 2021] [Youngshin Kang et al 2008] [Yu et al 2006] [Yuan et al 2020] [Yuan et al 2020] [Zabinsky and Higgins 1975] [Zhang et al 2014] [Zhang et al 2017] [Zhang et al 2022] [Zhao and Wang 2016] [Zhao et al 2023] [Zhao et al 2025] [Zhong Chen et al]
V/STOL aircraft and the configuration class
The class as a whole. Surveys, programme reports and design studies of vertical and short take-off aircraft, jet-lift, lift-fan and ejector concepts, and their operational and historical assessments, from the conference records of the 1960s to the electric aircraft of the present.
291 records. [A Preliminary Study of 1961] [Adamski et al 2014] [Aircraft Design A Conceptual 2024] [Albers and Zuk 1987] [Albers and Zuk 1988] [Albers and Zuk 1990] [Albers and Zuk 1992] [Alford et al 1963] [Allel et al 2023] [Alsalem and Zohdy 2023] [Alvarez muñoz] [American Helicopter Society Inc Washington Dc 1965] [Anderson 1977] [Anderson 1981] [Anderson 1983] [Anderson 1990] [Anderson and Lebacqz 1997] [Anderson and Petersen 1977] [Androsky et al 1972] [Avera 2019] [Barton 1966] [Basgall et al 2024] [Beebe 1968] [Bell Aerospace Co Buffalo Ny 1970] [Bhardwaj and Holzapfel 2025] [Binkley 1986] [Birckelbaw and Nelson 1992] [Bischoff and Palmer 1983] [Bloomfield 1959] [Bobbitt and Margason 2007] [Boeing Co Morton Pa Vertol Div 1956] [Bogner et al 2025] [Boling et al 2020] [Borst and Mergen 1961] [Bradfield 1981] [Bretoi 1968] [Bridgelall et al 2022] [Bright 1966] [Brown et al 2015] [Buchholz 2002] [Burgan and Paddison 1974] [Burks 1989] [Caldwell and Lafavor 1980] [Calvano and Harney 1998] [Camacho 1991] [Campbell 1959] [Campbell 1960] [Campbell 1962] [Campbell 1963] [Campbell 1965] [Campbell 1967] [Campbell 1968] [Campbell 1979] [Carpenter 1970] [Chana 2002] [Choi and Suk 2026] [Clark 1983] [Cochrane et al 1981] [Cohan and Hirsh 1966] [Configuration Design and Scale 2021] [Conway 1961] [Coolican 2002] [Cornes 2019] [Cotton 1967] [Courtin and Hansman 2019] [Crafa and Reed 1980] [Dansby et al 1964] [Deckert 1977] [Deckert 1979] [Deckert and Franklin 1985] [Deckert and Hickey 1967] [Deckert and Hickey 1970] [Deckert and Holzhauser 1973] [Defense Science Board Washington Dc 1979] [Desilets] [Deveaux 1965] [Diekmann 2017] [Diekmann 2019] [Kidwell and Rapp 1985] [Nelms and Durston 1980] [Nelms et al 1980] [Nelms et al 1981] [Samuels and Payne 1990] [Scientific and Technical Information Division 1966] [Durbin and McGeer 1982] [Durston and Smith 1981] [Egerton and Fitzpatrick 1967] [Eisler] [English et al 1966] [eVTOL 2026] [Experimental Development and Evaluation 2006] [Fatima et al 2020] [Feistel et al 1966] [Feistel et al 1972] [Firsov and Kulik 2017] [Fishbach and Strack 1968] [Flaig 1977] [Frey 2011] [Fry 1968] [Fry and Zabinsky 1967] [Galloway 1989] [Gamon 1988] [Gappa 1964] [Garner 1967] [Gawenda 2025] [Girfanov and Pavlov 2010] [Glizde and Urbaha 2019] [Goto and Miwa 2017] [Gowanlock 2025] [Grady and Lindenbaum 2000] [Green and Andrews 1989] [Ground tests of piasecki 1958] [Gunnarson 2014] [Ha et al 2020] [Hafer and Sachs 1982] [Hamilton and Richardson 1988] [Harding] [Harper 1966] [Harris 1956] [Harris and Dow 2015] [Hasbrook 1957] [Hellyar 1970] [Henderson 1964] [Herbst et al 2015] [Hine et al 2024] [Hirschberg 1997] [Hirsh 1965] [Hiscock 1981] [Hoffert 1964] [How to Tackle The 2022] [Howze 1969] [Hu et al 2025] [Issues Associated with Development] [Jain and Mukkamala 2016] [Johansen 1970] [Campbell 1964] [Joshi et al 2019] [Kalemaris and Cea 1977] [Kappus 1969] [Kelley 1970] [Kelly et al 1977] [Kibens et al 1988] [Kikuhara and Tokuda 1965] [Kikuhara and Tokuda 1966] [Kim et al 2023] [Kimberlin and Sinha 1983] [Kinzer 2008] [Koenig et al 1977] [Kondoleon 1968] [Kuhn 1967] [Kuhn 1979] [Kuhn 1980] [LaBiche 2003] [Lacey 1977] [Landfield and Henderson 1984] [Levine and Inglis 1989] [Levinsky and Ramsey 1972] [Lewandowski 1980] [Lightfoot 1968] [Likhite 2022] [Lim] [Lind and Tamplin 1981] [Liseitsev 2025] [Littell 2019] [Loh and Jacob 2014] [Love 2020] [Macdonald] [Marchese 1963] [Marchinski 1974] [Marsh 1967] [Marsh 1967] [Matheis and Norrefeldt 2026] [Mazzitelli 1957] [McCormick 1976] [McElreath 1972] [McKinney and Newsom 1962] [Merrick 1982] [Metreveli 2002] [Mistree 1987] [Mohd Ali et al 2023] [Muse 1961] [Conference on V/Stol Aircraft 1960] [NASA 1960, NASA Conference on V/STOL Aircraft] [Nicholson and lowry 1966] [Novak 1970] [O’Brien and Delgado 2024] [O’Mallei 1957] [O’Malley 1959] [O’Malley and Landphair 1958] [Ogden 2023] [Page et al 2005] [Patire et al 2016] [Paxhia and Cord 1963] [Pinson and Ryan 1972] [Pittsburgh Univ Washington Dc Research Staff 1966] [Price 1964] [Qanbari and Skorupski 2025] [Qin 2023] [Raymer 2012] [Raymer 2018] [Razak and Craig 1961] [Reber 1981] [Representative Operations of V/STOL 2002] [Research directed toward determination 1968] [Kirby 1960] [Roberts 1989] [Roberts and Anderson 1977] [Roberts and Deckert 1982] [Roberts et al 1981] [Rodriguez-Alfaro et al 2015] [Rubbert 1969] [Russo and Tan 2023] [Saemi and Benedict 2023] [Saj et al 2023] [Salkind 1973] [Sanders 1964] [Sarames 1967] [Schaefer 2016] [Schaefer and Velten 1970] [Schaefer and Velten 1971] [Schneider 1989] [Schrage and Meyer 1986] [Schwaiger and Wills 2016] [Scott 1970] [Seckel 1964] [Seitz and Goodson 1973] [Selegan 1983] [Simpson 1969] [Sinha and Ananthkrishnan 2002] [Sisák and Škultéty 2020] [Sivan 1971] [Sloman 2019] [Sloman and Scott 2018] [Smith 1996] [Smith 1997] [Smith and Belina 1974] [Statler 1966] [Stepniewski and Schneider 1964] [Suppes and Suppes 2026] [Sutherland 1973] [Syrovy and Yassini 2003] [Szlenkier 1972] [Terpecz 2023] [Terpecz and Schuster 2024] [The Jet Lift Controversy 1962] [Tokuoka et al 2025] [Tremblay 2026] [Tuccillo and Ruocco 2025] [Turner 1969] [Udroiu and Blaj 2016] [Uehara et al 2019] [Ugwueze et al 2023] [V/STOL Conference, Palo Alto 1977] [V/STOL R and D 1971] [V/STOL World wide view 1971] [Venusamy et al 2023] [Vertical Flight 2013] [Vertical take-off aircraft 2001] [Vertical Takeoff and Landing 2014] [Virasak 2022] [VTOL ‘a matter of 1971] [VTOL - 1968 1969] [Nelms and Anderson 1984] [Wachtell 1970] [Waesche and Migdal 1977] [Wardwell et al 1986] [Wetmore 1965] [Wetmore 1966] [White 1968] [White et al 1985] [Whitten 1960] [Willis and Genever-Watling 1977] [Wilson and Bennett 1983] [Winborn 1969] [Winborn 1970] [Windolph 1969] [Wood 1967] [Yanev and Staack 2026] [Yang and Wang 2017] [Yang et al 2025] [Yoeli 2003] [Yuan 2024] [Zabinsky 1966] [Zabinsky and Burnham 1975] [Zafirov 2013] [Zha et al 2019] [Zhang 2017] [Ziakkas et al 2024] [Zimmerman 1957] [Zimmerman 1960] [Zimmermann 1963]
Engines, lift jets and propulsion
The engine, which is most of the aeroplane. Lift jets and lift fans, propulsion systems for vertical take-off aircraft, engine control and thrust response, inlets and their distortion, and hybrid-electric propulsion. 129 titles name a lift engine, a lift fan or a vertical take-off aircraft.
280 records. [A New Aero-Engine Dynamometer 1932] [Abbott et al 1978] [Aiken 1977] [Aircraft Sizing, Engine Matching 2010] [Airey 1969] [Al-Tael et al 2003] [Alothman 2025] [Anderson 1967] [Anderson et al 2024] [Andrei et al 2017] [Appendix E Aircraft Engine 2002] [Arnold and Maunder 1961] [Barbosa Marques and Silva 2021] [Barrack and Kirk 1968] [Barrett 1952] [Batterton and Blaha 1987] [Batterton and Blaha 1988] [Baxter 1959] [Becker and Frounfelker 1992] [Beneda et al 2018] [Biesiadny et al 1993] [Bitondo et al 1954] [Bittrick 1980] [Boles et al 1984] [Brase 1988] [Brelje and Martins 2018] [Brown 1981] [Brun et al 2014] [Burley 1984] [Burley and Hwang 1982] [Burnell et al 1973] [Burstadt and Johns 1983] [Campbell and Quinn 1974] [Ciepluch et al 1979] [Giurca 2025] [Huang et al 2020] [Hubble and Smith 1979] [Hutcheson 1976] [Irmawan 2026] [L’Ecuyer et al 1971] [Li et al 2026] [Maghsoudi et al 2020] [Overall 1976] [Sedlock 1985] [Shain 1978] [Snyder] [Chu et al 1983] [Ciminera 1980] [Clough 1990] [Cäsar et al 2025] [Dantsker et al 2018] [Darling et al 1970] [Denning 1962] [Determination of Engine Power 2003] [Diedrich et al 1971] [Digital Engine Control for 1982] [Dillenius and Mendenhall 1979] [Douglass 1963] [Driggers et al 1982] [Duan 2022] [Dugas 1968] [Eccles 1983] [Ehrich and Glessner 1964] [Evans et al 1974] [Fawke and Saravanamuttoo 1971] [Foley and Woodrey 1980] [Foy and Lawrence 2005] [Franke and Hafer 1963] [Franklin and Stortz 1989] [Franklin et al 1990] [Fredericks et al 2013] [Friedrich and Robertson 2013] [Friedrich and Robertson 2015] [Fuel consumption, range and 1992] [Főző and Andoga 2022] [Gainutdinov et al 2026] [Garcia et al 2026] [Garg and Mattern 1994] [Gerend 1971] [Gerolymos et al 2009] [Gertsma and Zigan 1973] [Giurca 2014] [Glasgow and Skarshaug 1980] [Glasgow et al 1981] [Glasgow et al 1983] [Goraj and Cichocka 2016] [Harris 1969] [Hatta and Matsuki 1964] [Havey and Kline 1989] [Hess 2019] [Hewson 1959] [Hill 1971] [Hill and Jenkins 1979] [Hill and Schmitt 1964] [Hladik et al 2020] [Holdhusen and Perusse 1965] [Hoskin 1993] [Hrabovsky et al 2014] [Hua et al 2014] [Hua et al 2015] [Hwang 1983] [Hwang 1984] [Hwang and Abbott 1982] [Hwang and Diedrich 1981] [Hybrid-electric aircraft propulsion mission] [Ismail et al 2026] [Jacobson 1964] [Jacobson 1965] [Jacocks and Kneile 1975] [Jenkins and Hess 2016] [Jet Engine 2005] [Jet engine exhaust gas 1957] [Jie and Xu 2024] [Kanishk Mahaveer Jain 2025] [Kawauchi 2026] [Kelly and Tolhurst 1966] [Kentfield 1967] [Kohn 1972] [Korn 1974] [Kotsiopoulos et al 1997] [Kress 1980] [Kutney 1964] [Kutney 1966] [Lampkin 1980] [Lancey and Cooper 1989] [Lander and Palcza 1974] [Langston 2016] [Large 1981] [Laskowitz 1963] [Lavi 1967] [Lee 2026] [Lee and Yee 2024] [Lee et al 2022] [Lemmin 1986] [Lepicovsky 2008] [Lewis 1989] [Lewis and Lewis 1981] [Li and Jiang 2026] [Li et al 2024] [Li et al 2025] [Lilley et al 1991] [Lilley et al 1992] [Litt and Guo 2008] [Litt and Sowers 2006] [Liu et al 2025] [Long Lu and Turkoglu 2015] [Lowry 1979] [Lu] [Luidens et al 1981] [Lykyanov and Adler 2023] [Saari 1958] [Maggitti 1965] [Mahmood et al 2005] [Matsuki and Torisaki 1967] [Matsuki et al 1971] [McDonald 2014] [McIntire and Monson 1970] [Mello and Kotansky 1985] [Milde 2003] [Milde Jr. et al 2003] [Miller et al 1981] [Mo et al 2024] [Mohammadi et al 2026] [Moller 1985] [Myers and Walsh 1988] [Nelms and Durston 1981] [Ng and Datta 2018] [Ng and Datta 2019] [Ng et al 2019] [Ng et al 2021] [Nichols 1960] [Nishimura 1980] [Obertino et al 2023] [Ortamevzi 2025] [Ouyang et al 2024] [Palko 1973] [Pang et al 2024] [Park 2025] [Park 2026] [Park and Park 2025] [Park and Park 2026] [Park et al 2022] [Park et al 2022] [Park et al 2026] [Patel et al 2018] [Pieper 1965] [Pilsch 1975] [Platzer and Margason 1976] [PlCKERELL and Cresswell 1968] [Podguzov et al 2024] [Portlock and Cubero] [Pushpangathan et al 2018] [Pyle 1971] [Qi et al] [Qi et al 1992] [Razinsky 1988] [Reed 1980] [Ricci et al 2020] [Richardson 1966] [Robbins 1967] [Rodenbaugh and Veno 1965] [Romeu 2018] [Roth et al 1980] [Ryan et al 1975] [Saboe 1963] [Saddington and Knowles 2001] [Sallee 1964] [Salter 1975] [Sawata and Dinu 2025] [Schmitz et al 2026] [Scholz 2021] [Sekar et al 2021] [Sellers and Szuch 1973] [Serovy and Kavanagh 1974] [Sheridan 1985] [Sheridan 1986] [Sherman 1964] [Slyusar 2021] [Smith and McArdle 1992] [Snyder 2020] [Song et al 2024] [Stephenson 1961] [Stepniewski 1959] [Stockman 1974] [Stockman 1975] [Stockman 1979] [Strack 1973] [Streiff and Henderson 1974] [Sulkoske et al 1977] [Swick and Skarvan 1967] [Szuch 1978] [Tagashira et al 2009] [Tao et al 2024] [Terrier and Lu 2005] [The Creation of Thrust 2003] [The Creation of Thrust 2015] [Thrust-to-Weight Ratio and Wing 2024] [Tindell 1966] [Tudosie 2012] [Tudosie 2012] [Tudosie 2017] [Tudosie 2017] [Tudosie 2017] [Tudosie 2018] [Tudosie 2023] [Tudosie 2024] [Turbojet Engines 2022] [Tyson 1964] [Tărăbîc et al 2026] [V/STOL propulsion control analysis 1981] [Valeriya 2026] [Villarreal-Valderrama et al 2020] [Wall and Meyer 2017] [Wang et al 2023] [Warsch et al 2026] [Wei et al 2021] [Wei et al 2022] [Whitfield and Blackburn 1965] [Whittely 1979] [Willis 1980] [Willis 1980] [Willis 1981] [Wilson and Mahoney 1988] [Wilson et al 1981] [Woollett 1981] [Wu et al 2024] [Yamanaka 1972] [Yang et al 2026] [Ybarra et al 1978] [Young 1961] [Yunusov et al 2006] [Zabinsky 1964] [Zagranski et al 1974] [Zhang et al 2024] [Zhao et al 1995] [Zhao et al 1996] [Zhou and Xin 2020] [Zong et al 2022] [Zvegintsev 2022] [Zvegintsev 2023]
Hover, station keeping and disturbance
The hover as a flight condition. Rotor performance and aerodynamics in the hover, hover control and station keeping, and the response of hovering aircraft to gusts, wind and turbulence. 156 titles name a rotor, which is where the modern literature of hovering lives.
255 records. [Aboudorra et al 2024] [Agarwal and Deese 1986] [Agarwal et al 2022] [Aircraft Hovering Control 2007] [Albachten 1956] [Albang and Roberts 1974] [Aldebrez et al 2004] [Andrisani et al 2016] [Andronikos et al 2021] [Asper and Sirohi 2024] [Axten and Johnson 2020] [Bachelder et al 2002] [Bailey 1987] [Balch 1983] [Balch 1984] [Balch 1985] [Ballard et al 1979] [Ballard et al 1980] [Bannwarth et al 2016] [Benedict et al 2013] [Benedict et al 2015] [Bertelsen 2016] [Bhagwat et al 2006] [Biezad 1994] [Binyamin et al 2026] [Blaser 1969] [Bondyra et al 2022] [Buffum and Robertson 1966] [Buffum and Robertson 1967] [Carmichael and McNay 1961] [Carnes and Coder 2019] [Carnes and Coder 2022] [Carpenter and Hodgkinson 1981] [Chapter 14. Control of 1994] [Chen and Hubner 2020] [Chen and Wang 2019] [Chen et al 1987] [Cheng and Wang 2023] [Ciann-Dong Yang and Wen-Hsiung Liu] [Connors and Swaim 1968] [Cox-Gross and Collins 2025] [Crim 1959] [Culpepper et al 1979] [Curtiss and Sumantran 1985] [Dai et al 2025] [Datta et al 2009] [Datta et al 2013] [Dawson 1982] [Deal et al 1967] [Denham and Paines 2008] [Drinkwater et al 1965] [Du et al 2016] [Elliott and Schreiber 1964] [Eshcol et al 2018] [Euler/Navier-Stokes Computations of the 1990] [Fang 2025] [Feil et al 2016] [Felker and Light 1986] [Fortin and Ahuja 2024] [Fourie and Jones 2015] [Fullmer et al] [Fulton et al 2026] [Ganchaudhuri and Bhawal 2025] [Ganti and Baeder 2012] [García Carrillo et al 2013] [Garren et al 1965] [Gerdes and Rolls 1969] [Gilbert 1985] [Gordillo et al 2025] [Granata et al 2024] [Gray et al 1953] [Gress 2003] [Grunwald 2005] [Gupta and Bryson 1976] [Gust Response Equations of 1988] [Hah and Lakshminarayana 1980] [Hammond 1966] [Han et al 2021] [Harada et al 2012] [Hariharan et al 2015] [Harris 1999] [Heintz et al 2024] [Herzog et al 1975] [Hill 1966] [Hnidka and Rozehnal 2019] [Hodges et al 1988] [Huo] [Huo et al 2019] [Hwang and Kwon 2015] [Jain 2017] [Jain 2018] [Ji et al 2026] [Jiang and Zhang 2016] [Jiao et al 2018] [Jimenez and Singh 2015] [Jimenez-Garcia and Barakos 2017] [Johnson and Sirohi 2024] [Kawachi 1982] [Kazan and Krause 1967] [Kazan and Krause 1968] [Kellen and Benedict 2018] [Kenwright et al 1998] [Kim et al 2020] [Kirby 1954] [Klimchenko et al 2023] [Klinar and Craig 1961] [Klingloff et al 1965] [Komerath et al 1985] [Kong et al 2020] [Kung and Yang 2003] [Lakshminarayan et al 2019] [Lampl and Armanini 2023] [Landgrebe 1971] [Landgrebe 1972] [Landi and Caccetta 2025] [Lee and Kim 1993] [Lee and Park 2022] [Lee et al 2010] [Lei and Lin 2019] [Lei et al 2020] [Lei et al 2020] [Lei et al 2021] [Lei et al 2021] [Lei et al 2023] [Li et al 2015] [Li et al 2023] [Lim and Moerder 2007] [Liu et al 1983] [Lobb et al 2026] [Lohar 2000] [Lovas 2026] [Lu and Terrier 2003] [Magier and Fellouah 2025] [Makeev 2026] [Makeev 2026] [Malyar and Shcheholskyi 2026] [Marpu et al 2014] [Martin et al 1999] [Martinez et al 2019] [Masajedi et al 2012] [McCaskill 1953] [McHugh and Taylor 1976] [Merabet and Laurendeau 2022] [Mihaila et al 2026] [Miller 1948] [Miller 1982] [Miller 1983] [Min and Wake 2015] [Mobley et al 2021] [Mortimer and Sirohi 2024] [Mortimer et al 2026] [Murakami et al 2019] [Murat Koc et al 2016] [Naumowicz and Smith 1992] [Overmeyer and Martin 2017] [Overmeyer and Martin 2017] [P.S. and Muruga Lal 2022] [Panayotov et al 2019] [Panayotov et al 2020] [Parwani and Coder 2018] [Peddle et al 2009] [Pieper] [Pieper et al] [Platzer et al 2016] [Pomin and Wagner 2001] [Putman et al 1977] [Pérez Gordillo et al 2019] [Qu et al 2026] [Quackenbush and Wachspress 2006] [Quackenbush et al 2019] [Rajagopalan 1988] [Rajendiran Vijayaraj et al 2024] [Ramachandran et al 1989] [Raza et al 2018] [Reid 1982] [Riboldi and Rolando 2023] [Robinson et al 2014] [Roh et al 2020] [Roltgen and Byrnes 1991] [Rondon et al 2013] [Rossow 1985] [Runco et al 2019] [Sankar and Komerath 1988] [Sankar et al 2015] [Saripalli 1995] [Sato et al 2009] [Scicluna et al 2019] [Seher-Weiß and Jones 2021] [Seher-Weiß et al 2021] [Setiawan] [Shahmiri 2017] [Sheen et al 2023] [Sheng 2018] [Sheng and Zhao 2026] [Sheng et al 2014] [Sheng et al 2015] [Sheng et al 2018] [Shenoy and Gray 1981] [Shree et al 2017] [Silwal and Raghav 2020] [Singh et al 2019] [Sirohi 2013] [Son and Kim 2023] [Sridhar and Phatak 1989] [Srinathkumar 2019] [Stahl et al 2018] [Stapleford 1980] [Stauffer et al 1990] [Steils 1965] [Steils 1966] [Stephens et al 2025] [Stewart et al 2026] [Strawn and Djomehri 2002] [Swaim 1971] [Swaim and Connor 1968] [Swanson 1993] [Tinney and Valdez 2024] [Tischler et al 1996] [Tiwari] [Torshizi et al 2026] [Totah and Patterson 1988] [Valdez and Tinney 2022] [Vasilescu and Dancila 2006] [Velkoff and Parker 1982] [Velkoff et al 1971] [Wang 2025] [Warsett 1953] [Watanabe et al 2021] [Watanabe et al 2025] [Weber 1982] [Webster et al 1995] [Weilenmann and Geering 1993] [Weilenmann and Geering 1994] [Welsch and Fichter 2021] [Whidborne and Cooke 2017] [Whidborne et al 2022] [Whitaker et al 1977] [Willshire and Martin 1984] [Wong 2008] [Wong et al 2005] [Wu et al 2021] [Xu et al 2015] [Xu et al 2018] [Yamaguchi 2026] [Yang et al 2023] [Zha et al 2024] [Zhao 2018] [Zhao and Sheng 2015] [Zhao and Sheng 2021] [Zhao and Sheng 2022] [Zhao and Sheng 2024] [Zhao et al 2014] [Zhao et al 2025] [Zheng et al 2016] [Zhu et al 2017]
Urban air mobility and the vertiport
The prepared surface as infrastructure. Vertiport siting, design, capacity and operations, the urban air mobility aircraft that use them, and the terminal area of the V/STOL aircraft of the 1960s. 152 titles name a vertiport or heliport and 59 a location, siting or placement problem. The word vertiport appears in a title from 1967, and 13 records date from before 1990, so the civil planning problem the review describes was first posed for the period’s V/STOL transports.
235 records. [Abraham et al 2026] [Adebimpe 2023] [Aires et al 2022] [Aires et al 2022] [Al labbad] [Almasabi and Zhang 2026] [Ariante and Papa 2024] [Babu and Ramamoorthy 2026] [Bae et al 2022] [Baltazar et al 2026] [Bassey 2025] [Bernyk et al 2023] [Bhandari and Chakraborty 2025] [Brignardello 2023] [Bris and Nguyen 2022] [Bris and Nguyen 2023] [Brunelli et al 2023] [Buley 1970] [Cacciavillani and Ielmini 2019] [Cakin et al 2020] [Cha et al 2025] [Chae et al 2023] [Chakraborty et al 2023] [Chakraborty et al 2024] [Chamberlain et al 2026] [Champine 1971] [Chapman 2019] [Chati et al 2026] [Chen et al 2026] [Cheng et al 2026] [Cheyno 1967] [Choi et al 2021] [Choi et al 2026] [Cohen 1996] [Comer and Chakraborty 2023] [Conrad et al 2024] [Cureton 2020] [Doff-Sotta et al 2022] [Donateo and Çinar 2022] [Ellis et al 2023] [Ferrare] [Fujisawa and Maki 2025] [Fujisawa et al 2022] [Furlan et al 2026] [Garcia Perez et al 2023] [García Crespillo et al 2024] [Garman and Andrisani 2003] [Garren et al 1970] [Garren et al 1970] [Gerdes and Hynes 1971] [Gilmore 2025] [Gottschalg et al 2025] [Gottschalg et al 2026] [Gouveia et al 2022] [Guo et al 2025] [Guo et al 2025] [Ha et al 2026] [Hascaryo and Merret 2020] [He et al 2023] [Heilein and Crespillo 2024] [Hendricks et al 2019] [Heo and Lee 2024] [Heo et al 2026] [Hess et al 2024] [Hijazeen et al 2026] [Hollister 1969] [Hollister et al 1970] [Homola and Tiwari 2023] [Horton et al 2025] [Huh et al 2026] [Huynh et al 2025] [Janetzko et al 2024] [Cornelius] [Jensen 1990] [Jeong et al 2024] [Aires et al] [Jiang et al 2025] [Jin and Ma 2025] [Jin et al 2024] [Johnson and Silva 2018] [Johnson et al 2018] [Johnson et al 2024] [Johnson et al 2025] [Jäckel et al 2021] [Kai et al 2022] [Kawamura et al 2024] [Kim 2025] [Kim and Hong 2024] [Kim and Park 2022] [Kim et al 2024] [Kim et al 2024] [Kotwicz Herniczek and German 2024] [Kotwicz Herniczek et al 2024] [Kraenzler et al 2019] [Krois et al 2024] [Kumar 2026] [Köse and Özuysal 2023] [Nunes et al 2025] [Shin et al 2022] [Vu et al 2025] [Laghrib et al 2024] [Le Bris and Nguyen 2023] [Le Bris and Nguyen 2025] [Lebacqz and Radford 1978] [Lebacqz and Scott 1985] [Lee et al 2024] [Lee et al 2025] [Lepe and Huynh 2026] [Lerro 2020] [Li et al 2023] [Li et al 2025] [Li et al 2026] [Li et al 2026] [Lippoldt et al 2023] [Liu and Wang 2024] [Liu et al 2023] [Liu et al 2026] [Liu et al 2026] [Louis-Ferdinand et al 2025] [Lu et al 2025] [Luo and Chen 2026] [Lv et al 2026] [Lyu and Feng 2026] [Ma and Xiao 2026] [Maksoud et al 2025] [Maleki et al 2024] [Maleki et al 2025] [Maleki et al 2026] [Malpica et al 2023] [Mannan and Hassanalian 2024] [mao et al 2026] [Marzouk 2025] [McKercher] [Mendonca et al 2022] [Mercan et al 2025] [Miccio et al 2024] [Mihara and Nakano 2021] [Mirković and Sindik 2024] [Mirković et al 2026] [Mishra and Chakraborty 2024] [Mishra and Chakraborty 2024] [Mishra et al 2025] [Moore and Hassanalian 2025] [Mulyanto et al 2026] [Niemiec et al 2020] [Zawodny et al 2023] [Omorodion 2023] [Palaia et al 2021] [Park and Kim 2022] [Park and Kim 2026] [Park et al 2022] [Patil and García-Sánchez 2025] [Diaz and Yoon] [Darmstadt et al 2021] [Pavel 2022] [Peisen and Ferguson 1996] [Peksa et al 2023] [Peng et al 2022] [Petit and Ribeiro 2025] [Preis and Cheng 2022] [Preis and Hornung 2022] [Preis and Hornung 2022] [Preis and Hornung 2022] [Qiao et al 2026] [Qin et al 2026] [Quantifying pilot visual attention 2012] [Rakas 2022] [Rawat and Kupietz 2026] [Reeder 1965] [Reeder 1967] [Rimjha and Trani 2021] [Rohrmeier et al 2025] [Sagaga and Lee 2020] [Santhosh 2023] [Schade 1968] [Schiltgen et al 2014] [Schrage et al 2018] [Schweiger and Knabe 2023] [Schweiger and Preis 2022] [Schweiger et al 2023] [Scontre et al 2026] [Shaik 2026] [Sheth 2023] [Shukla et al 2026] [Silva et al 2018] [Son et al 2023] [Stefana et al 2024] [Tang et al 2026] [Taylor et al 2020] [Theron et al 2020] [Tonannavar and Garg 2026] [Unverricht et al 2024] [Vandy 2026] [Vascik and Hansman 2019] [Vasiloff et al 2025] [Veldhuizen et al 2026] [Veneruso et al 2023] [Venkatesh et al 2020] [Vertiports - Infrastructure and] [Vieira et al 2019] [Volakakis and Mahmassani 2024] [Volakakis and Mahmassani 2025] [Waithe and Deere 2003] [Wang and Xu 2026] [Wang et al 2025] [Wang et al 2026] [Wilhelms et al 2026] [Wille et al 2026] [Hindson et al 1993] [Wing et al 2020] [Winter et al 2025] [Wu et al 2025] [Xie et al 2026] [Xiong et al 2023] [Yan et al 2026] [Yang et al 2026] [Yilmaz et al 2019] [Yoon et al 2025] [Young and Rajagopalan 2013] [Yu 2023] [Zare et al 2025] [Zare et al 2026] [Zelinski 2020] [Zhang and Hwang 2025] [Zhang and Wang 2026] [Zhang et al 2022] [Zhang et al 2025] [Zhang et al 2026] [Zhao and Feng 2024] [Zhao and Han 2026] [Zhao et al 2025] [Zhou et al 2026] [Zhou et al 2026] [Zhou et al 2026] [Zintl et al 2024]
The transition and the control handover
The article’s keystone, as the field names it. Transition and conversion between the hover and wingborne flight, its corridors, trajectories, control and aerodynamics, from the jet and tilt-wing models of the 1960s to the drones of the present. 84 titles name a tilting configuration, and the vertical-attitude transition of the X-13 is the minority case.
190 records. [Akhtar and Maqsood 2024] [Angelov and Holzapfel 2022] [Ansari et al 2018] [Appleton et al 2021] [Arumugam and Chidambaram 2025] [Axten and Johnson 2021] [Bhardwaj and Holzapfel 2024] [Bhardwaj et al 2019] [Boekfah 2017] [Burton et al 2026] [Casau et al 2011] [Casau et al 2011] [Chen 2019] [Chen et al 2021] [Chen et al 2026] [Cheng and Pei 2020] [Cheng and Pei 2021] [Cheng et al 2020] [Cheng et al 2022] [Chi et al 2022] [Chu et al 2009] [Clark et al 1982] [Combey et al 2026] [Comer et al 2026] [Cook and Hauser 2018] [Dawe et al 2025] [De Blauwe et al 2007] [de Paula et al 2025] [Doff-Sotta et al 2023] [Dollinger et al 2021] [Dorr et al 1992] [Dorr et al 1994] [Drinkwater 1960] [Drinkwater 1961] [Droandi et al 2018] [Elanchezhian and Anitha 2023] [Engelland 1991] [Englar and Kirkpatrick 1969] [Equations of Motion for 2002] [Erhard et al 2025] [Experimental Investigation of Control-Display 1978] [Favaro et al 2025] [Favaro et al 2025] [Fearn and Margason 1969] [Flores and Lozano 2013] [Forge et al 1990] [Foster et al 1987] [Frank et al 2007] [Franklin et al 1988] [Franklin et al 1989] [Fu et al 2018] [Fu et al 2020] [Gai et al 2014] [Gao et al 2024] [Gao et al 2025] [Garcia Perez et al 2024] [Garg et al 1990] [Gentry and Margason 1968] [Grahame 1968] [Grahame 1969] [Gress 2024] [Guan et al 2025] [Hadytama and Sasongko 2016] [Hartmann et al 2016] [Hegde et al 2021] [Holsten and Moormann 2014] [Hsu et al 2023] [Hsu et al 2024] [Hu et al 2024] [Huang and German 2025] [Huntley 1972] [jian-jian et al 2019] [Jiang and Zhang 2016] [Jin and Zhao 2025] [Bullock et al] [Johnson and Craig 1974] [Johnson and Craig 1976] [Kelley 1962] [Key 1970] [Kim 2026] [Kim et al 2025] [Krishnakumar et al 2014] [Kuhn 1981] [Kuhn and Vogler 1965] [Lebacqz and Aiken 1975] [Lee et al 2024] [Levinsky et al 1969] [Levinsky et al 1970] [Li 2008] [Li et al 2023] [Li et al 2024] [Li et al 2024] [Li et al 2025] [Li et al 2026] [Li et al 2026] [Liang et al 2025] [Lin et al 2023] [Liu et al 2017] [Liu et al 2021] [Liu et al 2025] [Lou et al 2024] [Lou et al 2025] [Lovell and Parlett 1956] [Magee and Taylor 1971] [Maqsood and Go 2010] [Margason and Hoad 1979] [May et al 2024] [May et al 2026] [May et al 2026] [McCormick 1956] [Muraoka et al 2024] [Naldi and Marconi 2011] [Naldi and Marconi 2013] [Nardizzi et al 1971] [Nayak et al 2026] [Nie et al 2024] [O’Rourke and Rutherford 1991] [Paiva et al 2018] [Panish and Bacic 2022] [Panish and Bacic 2023] [Panish and Bacic 2025] [Pfeifle and Fichter 2021] [Pfeifle and Fichter 2023] [Pierson and Ong 1989] [Pirera 1983] [Prabhakar et al 2025] [Propeller Slipstream Effects on 2025] [Raab et al 2018] [Rae 1973] [Ramnath 1969] [Ramnath 1970] [Rampy 1966] [Reiss et al 2021] [Ren and Zha 2024] [Roth 1993] [Saetti 2025] [Sagan et al 2021] [Sagan et al 2025] [Salahudden 2025] [Salahudden et al 2023] [Salahudden et al 2024] [Sanchez-Laulhe et al 2022] [Sanchez-Rivera et al 2020] [Setiawarman and Sasongko 2026] [Shimizu and Miwa 2018] [Shimizu and Miwa 2019] [Shinozuka et al 2024] [Skelton 1968] [Song et al 2024] [Spreemann 1966] [Spreemann 1968] [Stoll and Veble Mikić 2022] [Takahashi et al 2016] [Takahashi et al 2017] [Takii et al 2020] [Tapscott and Kelley 1960] [Tosti 1961] [Transition Dynamics of VTOL 2010] [Trenka 1967] [Verma and Junkins 2000] [Wang and Jin 2025] [Wang et al 2018] [Wang et al 2021] [Wang et al 2026] [Westcott et al 2025] [Wilson et al 1975] [Woods 1957] [Xi et al 2025] [Xiang et al 2025] [Xili et al 2008] [Yan et al 2021] [Yan et al 2023] [Yang et al 2024] [Yang et al 2026] [Ye et al 2023] [Ye et al 2026] [Ying and Liang 2013] [Yu et al 2022] [Yuan et al 2015] [Zhang et al 2013] [Zhang et al 2015] [Zhang et al 2018] [Zhang et al 2019] [Zhang et al 2019] [Zhang et al 2023] [Zhang et al 2023] [Zhao et al 2025] [Zhao et al 2026] [Zhu et al 2025] [Zikyamov and Panayotov 2025]
Sizing, energy and hover endurance
The hover’s fuel cost, carried into design. Conceptual design and sizing of vertical take-off and electric aircraft, hover power and energy, mission analysis, batteries, hybrid powertrains and their thermal management. 40 titles name a battery.
171 records. [Aboelela et al 2026] [Adelt 1981] [Adelt 1983] [Adesh and Arun 2024] [Aircraft Design Optimization 2013] [Aircraft Performance 2003] [Aircraft Performance 2014] [Aircraft Performance 2024] [Aircraft Performance 2026] [Aircraft Range and Endurance 2011, 11. Aircraft Range and Endurance] [Aircraft Range and Endurance 2011, Aircraft Range and Endurance in S] [Airspeed Vs Flight Path 2003] [Akash et al 2021] [Alford and Harris 1966] [Alford and Luoma 1960] [Alulema et al 2026] [Applications of advanced V/STOL 1977] [Arace and Datta 2024] [Aulehla and Kissel 1981] [Ayyaswamy et al 2023] [Bagdatli et al 2019] [Bakhshi and Dubey 2022] [Batra et al 2024] [Battery Testing for The 2023] [Belia Alfiko et al 2025] [Bermperis et al 2024] [Beyne and Castro 2022] [Bills et al 2023] [Bisht et al 2024] [Bode et al 1978] [Boggan and Clarke 2026] [Bondi and Robinson 1971] [Brown 1989] [Campagna et al 2021] [Cheng et al 2025] [Cheng et al 2025] [Cole et al 2021] [Dixit 2023] [Goshtasbi et al 2024] [Hatherall et al 2024] [Nakayama et al 2026] [Silva and Johnson] [Coen and Foss 1985] [Coen and Foss 1986] [Corliss and Gossett 1969] [Corliss and Gossett 1971] [Courtin et al 2021] [Cox and Roskam 1990] [Daniel 1964] [Das Biswas et al 2026] [de Vries et al 2020] [Donateo et al 2019] [Englar et al 1977] [Finger et al 2022] [Fisler and Datta 2019] [Flight Vehicle Performance 2001] [Fredericks et al 2018] [Gomes de Souza and Silva 2025] [Goshtasbi et al 2024] [Gothing 2025] [Govindarajan and Sridharan 2020] [Gregoire 2023] [Hebert et al 1970] [Hebert et al 1970] [Hebert et al 1973] [Heidary and Kosari 2024] [Howe 2000] [Hu et al 2026] [Hughes Tool Co Culver City Ca 1963] [Hybrid Electric Aircraft 2024] [Initial Unmanned Aircraft Sizing 2014] [Initial Unmanned-Aircraft Sizing 2012] [Irvin and Swan 1956] [Jana et al 2025] [Janetzko et al 2026] [Jeong et al 2024] [Johnson 1995] [Kamal and Ramirez-Serrano 2019] [Kang et al 2023] [Kang et al 2025] [Kaya 2026] [Kesling 1968] [Kesselyak 1974] [Khreish and Sinha 2006] [Kidwell 1981] [Kuwamura and Hara 2017] [Kwak et al 2026] [Kwak et al 2026] [Liu and Wu 2003] [Liu et al 2026] [Logan 1989] [Loth et al 1974] [Loth et al 1976] [López et al 2022] [Mallimoggala and Devi 2025] [May and Widdison 1971] [May and Widdison 1971] [Miguel et al 2025] [Mitici et al 2023] [Mohaghegh 2025] [Mokotoff et al 2026] [Nam et al 2005] [Nelms 1984] [Neufeld 2021] [Overfield and Crawford 1967] [Paek 2025] [Paek et al 2021] [Park and Yee 2025] [Park and Yee 2026] [Park et al 2022] [Park et al 2024] [Park et al 2025] [Park et al 2025] [Parker 1986] [Pham et al 2022] [Prabhakar et al 2023] [Prabhakar et al 2026] [Pradeep and Wei 2018] [Price 1964] [Qiao and Zhou 2026] [Radmanesh 2026] [Range and Endurance 2003] [Raymer 1988] [Rosenstein 1989] [Rosenthal et al 1988] [Roskam 1985] [Roskam 1986] [Schmidt et al 2025] [Schoser et al 2022] [Schwoerer 1978] [Scott 2021] [Senkans et al 2020] [Silva and Johnson 2021] [Silva] [Singh et al 2026] [Sissingh 1960] [Smetana 2001] [Snyder 1950] [Song and Underwood 2007] [Sorenson 1974] [Spillman 1965] [Spillman 1967] [Stutz and Price 1964] [Tiberio fernandez] [Truong et al 2023] [Tu et al 2025] [Tumuluru Ramesh and Pandurangi 2022] [Uehara and Matthies 2019] [Ugwueze et al 2022] [Verberne et al 2024] [Vos 2019] [Vos 2019] [Waesche and Midgal 1975] [Wang et al 2015] [Wang et al 2023] [Wang et al 2025] [Wild 2021] [Wilson et al 1981] [Wiston and Yan 2025] [Wood et al 2007] [Yan and Wiston 2026] [Yan et al 2021] [Yanan et al 2024] [Yang et al 2021] [Yang et al 2024] [Yang et al 2026] [Yingtao et al 2025] [Zabinsky and Burnham 1977] [Zhao et al 2024] [Zhao et al 2024] [Çelik et al 2023]
Vertical-attitude aircraft and the tail-sitter programmes
The aircraft and its family. The X-13’s own reports, the Convair XFY-1 and Lockheed XFV-1 propeller tail-sitters, the vertically rising airplane models of the 1950s, the later vertical-attitude fighter studies, and modern tail-sitters whose titles name no uncrewed aircraft. 19 titles name the XFY-1 or the XFV-1 and 6 the X-13. 36 date from before 1960 and 41 from 2000 or later.
97 records. [Ajel et al 2021] [Argyle et al 2014] [Banazadeh and Taymourtash 2016] [Bates et al 1951] [Bates et al 1951] [Baxter and Finvold 1958] [Beach et al 2014] [Bowman 1955] [Bowman 1955] [Bowman 1957] [Chana and Coleman 1996] [Coleman 2025] [Eilertson 1975] [Eilertson 1975] [Flores and Flores 2021] [Fortenbaugh 1980] [Fortenbaugh 1980] [Fortenbaugh 1980] [Garcia et al 2011] [Gerhardt and Chen 1978] [Girard and Everett 1963] [Grafton and Anglin 1975] [Han et al 2025] [Hastings and Mitcham 1954] [Hastings and Mitcham 1954] [Hill 1981] [Hill 1983] [Hollinger and Mitcham 1955] [Hou et al 2021] [Hu et al 2025] [Husain et al 2023] [Immenschuh 1990] [Islas-Narvaez et al 2022] [Johnson 1954] [Kelly and Smaus 1952] [Kim] [Kirby 1954] [Kirby 1956] [Kodera and Miwa 2017] [Kuang et al 2017] [Lee 1952] [Lee 1953] [Li et al 2018] [Li et al 2018] [Lovell 1953] [Lovell 1954] [Lovell 1955] [Lovell and Parlett 1957] [Lovell et al 1951] [Lovell et al 1953] [Lu et al 2023] [Marubashi and Miwa 2015] [Marubashi and Miwa 2016] [McIntosh et al 2024] [McKinney 1954] [Naldi and Marconi 2010] [Newsom and Anglin 1975] [Noaman et al 2024] [Papadales 1979] [Queijo et al 1953] [Queijo et al 1953] [Queijo et al 1953] [Queijo et al 1953] [Ren et al 2025] [Robins et al 1985] [Saghafi and Banazadeh 2006] [Saghafi and Banazadeh 2007] [Sansou et al 2022] [Schade et al 1954] [Shanks and Smith 1959] [Shanks and Smith 1960] [Singh et al 2014] [Smith 1958] [Smith 1958] [Smith 1961] [Smith and Lovell 1954] [Smith and Meyer 1981] [Smith et al 1951] [Sun et al 2020] [Sutton and Buell 1952] [Tianchun et al 2023] [Tosti et al 1954] [Van Der Mass 1966] [Verling et al 2017] [Vertically Rising Planes 1954] [Wang et al 2015] [Wang et al 2017] [Wang et al 2019] [Xu et al 2026] [Xu et al 2026] [Yang et al 2021] [Zhang et al 2017] [Zhao et al 2018] [Zhaoying et al 2021] [Zimmerman 1955] [Zou et al 2021] [Zou et al 2023]
Landing gear, arresting and recovery systems
The undercarriage that was not carried, and what replaced it. Landing gear design and weight, unconventional gear such as the air cushion and adaptive legs, crashworthy gear, arresting systems and hooks, and parachute and net recovery. 60 titles name a landing gear or undercarriage and 17 an arresting system or hook.
85 records. [Kim et al 2023] [León et al 2021] [Rajesh and Bt 2015] [Addendum 1 Landing Gear 2000] [Airfield Compatibility Key Principles 2022] [Ayre and Abrams 1958] [Baker 1963] [Baumgartner et al 1979] [Berry 2000] [Boudria et al 2024] [Cetinkaya and Ozkol 2017] [Chai and Mason 1996] [Chaloff et al 1974] [Chester 1995] [Crashworthy Landing Gear Design] [Crashworthy landing gear for 1998] [Currey 1988] [Deng et al 2021] [Dewispelare and Stager 1981] [DeWispelare and Stager 1983] [Douglas et al 2021] [Earl 1967] [Eldred 1953] [Gibson et al 1968] [Goh et al 2016] [Goodall 1977] [Gudmundsson 2014] [Gudmundsson 2022] [Hoare 1968] [Huang and Dai 2021] [Kelek et al 2026] [Kling and Hornung 2019] [Kneeling landing gear 1973] [Komov 2022] [Landing gear 1973] [Landing gear 1974] [Landing Gear 1975] [Landing Gear 1986] [Landing Gear and Subsystems 2024] [Landing Gear Design 2012] [Lee and Chiou 1994] [Lee and Swegle 1963] [Lee et al 1973] [Leland and Thompson 1975] [Liang Lihua et al 2011] [Liseitsev 2025] [Lloyd et al 1978] [Logan 1976] [Morrison et al] [Peng et al 2020] [Peng et al 2023] [Phillips et al 1973] [Karthikeyan et al 2022] [Rhody 1965] [Richards and Tate 2023] [Sati et al 2011] [Schmidt 2015] [Schmidt 2021] [Sen 1990] [Sen 1990] [Sforza 2014] [Shao et al 2023] [Singh et al] [Some Current Types of 1968] [Song and Du 2005] [Suszyński et al 2025] [Tartaruga et al 2019] [The Complete Landing Gear 1989] [Udayakumar and Ibrahim 2019] [Unorthodox Landing Gears 1988] [Veaux 1988] [Walker 1940] [Wang et al 2016] [Wharton 1960] [Wu 2024] [Wu et al 2022] [Wyllie 2001] [Yang 1970] [Yang 1971] [Yang et al 2017] [Yin et al 2025] [Yntema and Milwitzky 1952] [Yoon et al 2009] [Zhu et al 2012] [Zhu et al 2013]
Other aeronautical literature
The residual, reported and not hidden. On-subject records that belong to no cluster above, being flight envelopes and flight safety, drag and lift determination in flight, the Dutch roll, the standard atmosphere, the ogee delta wing, the blast of a rocket exhaust on lunar soil, a ring-wing propulsor at incidence, and the operator tasks of a small drone and of simplified vehicle operations. No coherent subject in it is large enough to name.
15 records. [Debry et al 1992] [Diaz 2007] [Drinkwater and Rolls 1965] [Drinkwater et al 1965] [Flight Envelope 2021] [Flight Envelopes 2012] [Flight Safety 2015] [Flight Vehicle Lift-Drag Characteristics 2001] [Goodrich 2016] [Methods for Drag Determination 2003] [Phillips 2000] [Pomranky 2006] [Rolls 1965] [US Standard Atmosphere Model 2014] [Werle 2022]
Where the Framing Breaks Down
The control-power criteria are borrowed from later work. The half a radian per second squared in pitch and one in roll used throughout are figures drawn from experiments made after the X-13 flew, the roll figure rounded up from the roughly three quarters that Garren et al 1965 found to be the lower limit of satisfactory control power, and applying them to the X-13 is anachronistic. It is done here because they are the best available statement of what adequate means, and because the article’s conclusion, that the crossover falls well below the stall speed, survives a large error in the criterion, since the ratio grows only as its square root and would reach one only if the criterion were three times larger.
The control criteria fit the X-13 better in one respect than their date suggests, since they were measured on aircraft with artificial rate damping and the X-13 had it. The visual flight experiments of Garren et al 1965 held angular velocity damping at the minimum the requirements of the day specified, and the X-13 flew with dampers and a stability augmentation system, which the Smithsonian record reports and the model tests of Smith 1958 show to have been necessary.
The elevon and aileron effectiveness figures are assumed. A pitching-moment increment of 0.10 and a rolling-moment increment of 0.05 are plausible for a tailless delta and are not measured values for this aircraft. They are referred to the geometric mean chord of 2.77 metres, while the mean aerodynamic chord that Bowman 1957 tabulates is 145.49 inches, or 3.70 metres, so what is assumed is the product of chord and coefficient. The crossover speed varies as the inverse square root of the assumed effectiveness,
\[V_{\text{cross}} \propto (\Delta C_{m})^{-1/2}\]so the exposure is direct.
| Elevon effectiveness relative to the assumption | Crossover speed | Ratio to stall |
|---|---|---|
| half | 42.6 m/s | 0.813 |
| three quarters | 34.8 m/s | 0.663 |
| as assumed | 30.2 m/s | 0.575 |
| one and a half times | 24.6 m/s | 0.469 |
| twice | 21.3 m/s | 0.406 |
If the elevons were half as effective as assumed the crossover would still sit nearly a fifth below the stall speed, and the central claim would invert only if they were less than a third as effective as assumed, since the ratio grows as the inverse square root of the effectiveness and $0.575^{2} = 0.33$. That remains the single largest exposure in the analysis and it rests on a coefficient nobody measured for this aircraft.
The fuel figure is derived from tabulated loadings, not reported as a capacity. The 1,400 pound fuel load follows from the differences between the full, quarter and twentieth fuel loadings of the spin-tunnel table, which agree exactly, but those are loadings possible on the airplane rather than measured ones, and no document found states a tank capacity. The thirteen minute hover endurance moves in direct proportion.
The control-power criteria have themselves been contested throughout. Treating them as settled is a convenience. Carpenter and Jenny 1964 approaches low-speed control criteria statistically, Goldberger 1966 argues about the relative importance of the requirement at all, and the longitudinal criteria were still being evaluated and re-evaluated in Gertsen and Shomber 1965, Martin 1963, and Eney 1967. A number this article uses as though it were a physical constant was an active dispute for two decades, and the later comparison of the VAK-191B with AGARD report 577 and MIL-F-83300 in Anderson 1979 is measuring a real aircraft against requirements that had by then changed several times.
The hover analysis assumes a rigid aircraft and a still atmosphere separately, and the real case is neither. The drift table and the crosswind table are computed independently and then discussed together, which is not the same as solving them together. A pilot correcting a wind-induced drift is holding a tilt that is itself producing drift, and the handling-qualities literature measures the coupled problem.
The side area and drag coefficient in the crosswind table are guesses. Ten square metres and 0.8 are plausible for a vertical aircraft of this size and are not derived from its geometry, and the forces scale directly with both.
Treating the programme as a failure of concept understates the demonstration. The aircraft did what it was built to do, and both examples survived it. An article organised around why the idea did not proceed can read as though the vehicle did not work, and it worked.
What the X-13 Was Worth
It established that a pure jet can complete the cycle. This was genuinely open when the Air Force contract was let and closed in 1957, and no aircraft since has needed to ask it again.
It established that the control handover is clean for this configuration. The crossover computed above is a prediction and the flight is the confirmation.
It established the shape of the operational objection. The fuel, the pilot’s sight line, and the ground loading are all visible in the X-13’s own numbers, and a programme that had gone to a prototype fighter would have discovered them more expensively.
It established nothing about combat capability, and the aircraft carried nothing.
It did not establish that the configuration is a bad idea. The idea returned as soon as the pilot could be removed from it, which is the correct reading of what the X-13 proved.
The Designation Returns to Normal
For five consecutive articles this series has recorded a designation attached to something that was not a research aircraft. The X-13 ends that run. It is a manufacturer’s prototype built in two examples under an Air Force contract for demonstrators, flown by company test pilots, with no production plan, which is the pattern the X-1 established and the X-3 and X-5 continued.
That matters for the argument the closing article of this series will have to make. The run of five was an interruption and not a redefinition. Whatever mechanism attached X numbers to the X-8 through the X-12, it did not replace the original one, and the two coexisted. A closing article that describes the series as having drifted from research aircraft to weapons would be contradicted by its own next entry.
The Source Base
The survey rests on 7,114 research records drawn from Crossref, the NASA Technical Reports Server and the Defense Technical Information Center, of which 1,271 are report primaries, being 17.9 percent, by the identifier rule set out under The Definition of Primary. Their median year is 2011. Of the 6,944 dated records, 162, being 2.3 percent, date from before 1960, the years in which the X-13 and the Navy’s propeller tail-sitters were designed, tested and flown, and 3,162, being 45.5 percent, date from 2015 or later.
The X-13’s own record is thin and its family’s record is thick. Querying the technical archive of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA, for the popular name returns nothing at all, and querying for the manufacturer and designation together returns a small set, of which the spin tunnel series and the one-fifth-scale hovering and transition tests are the substance. The lesson is the same one the X-10 taught in a different form, which is that a vehicle is indexed under the name its engineers used and not the name the public learned.
Around that thin core sits an unusually complete literature on the configuration class, because the Navy’s two propeller tail-sitters were studied exhaustively at Langley before either flew. An article about the X-13 is therefore better supported than an article about the X-13 alone would be, and most of the aerodynamic statements here rest on documents about the XFY-1 and the XFV-1. The exceptions are the airplane’s own dimensions, loadings and moments of inertia, which come from the tables of Bowman 1957, and the roll-nozzle geometry, which comes from the one-fifth model of Smith 1958.
The aircraft’s own history rests on institutional records. The Smithsonian record, the Air Force museum’s fact sheet and NASA’s inventory of X-vehicles are the sources for the programme’s dates, and they disagree about the Washington demonstration and the last flight, as the flight test record notes. The Smithsonian record lists a curatorial file and a 2002 magazine history among its sources, and neither is available here. Two later documents about the aircraft itself are known here by their titles only, a test pilot’s report on the X-13 and the VZ-3RY in Girard and Everett 1963 and a paper on the lessons of the programme in Immenschuh 1990. Six research records name the X-13 in their titles, being those two, the three spin-tunnel reports and the one-fifth-scale model tests.
The contrast with the X-11 and X-12 is instructive. Those vehicles left a thick archive because they became launch vehicles and flew for sixty years. The X-13 left almost nothing because it stopped, and what survives is the research literature of the question rather than the engineering record of the article.
A third asymmetry is worth naming because it runs the other way from the previous two articles. The Atlas record is thick and classified, and the geodesy the Atlas depended on is thick and open. The X-13’s record is thin and open, and there is no classified layer underneath it, because a two-aircraft demonstration programme with no weapon and no production intent generated nothing worth withholding. The whole of what is knowable about this aircraft is knowable, which is not true of any vehicle in the five that precede it, and it makes the X-13 the easiest article in this run to verify and the hardest to say anything new about.
The defence archive contributes little here and that absence is itself informative. Querying it returns work on vertical take-off as a concept, on site preparation, and on handling qualities criteria, in Butler and Thomas 1964, Irvin and Swan 1956, Boeing Co Morton Pa Vertol Div 1956, Friend 1964, Hoffman 1971, and Johnston et al 1965, and it returns nothing at all about this airframe. The Air Force studied the idea and the Navy’s laboratories studied the aerodynamics and Ryan built the aeroplane, and only the middle of those three left a public record of the vehicle itself.
The shape of the surviving literature is worth one more observation, because it inverts the usual complaint. Almost nothing in this article rests on a document about the X-13. It rests on documents about the configuration, the flight condition, the test technique, and the pilot’s task, written before and after the aircraft flew and mostly about other aircraft. An article about a vehicle with almost no record of its own can still be dense, provided the question it asked was one other people were also asking. That is true of the X-13 and it was not true of the X-10, whose keystone was peculiar to a cancelled programme, and the difference is a property of the question rather than of the archive.
The Definition of Primary
Primacy is a property of the document, and this survey derives it from the identifier. A record is a report primary when it is a NASA Technical Reports Server record or carries a digital object identifier under the 10.21236 prefix, which Crossref registers for Defense Technical Information Center reports. By that rule 871 primaries are Technical Reports Server records and 400 are Defense Technical Information Center reports. The Langley reports that carry this article’s numbers are report primaries under that rule, the spin-tunnel series and the one-fifth-scale model tests among them.
The rule undercounts what is first-hand. Conference papers of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, abbreviated AIAA, and of the Vertical Flight Society, and journal papers by the engineers and pilots who built and flew aircraft of this class, are primary by any reading and are not reached by an identifier rule. The institutional records of the aircraft are cited as curated references and are not counted in the survey at all. 17.9 percent is therefore a lower bound on how much of the survey is first-hand.
Thin Subjects
Seven subjects that this article’s derivations depend on have thin literatures. Each count below is the number of research records in this survey whose title carries at least one of the listed terms, with a hyphen read as a space. Where a row joins two groups of terms with the words together with, a title must carry a term from each group.
| Subject | Title terms counted | Records |
|---|---|---|
| the crossover of vectored-thrust and aerodynamic control authority | crossover, cross over, handover, hand over, control blending, blended control | 0 |
| the jet-powered vertical-attitude aircraft | jet, jets, turbojet, jet powered together with tail sitter, tail sitters, tailsitter, tailsitters, vertical attitude, vertically rising, X-13, vertijet | 6 |
| the gyroscopic moment of the engine | gyroscopic | 9 |
| Froude scaling of free-flight models | Froude, dynamic similarity, dynamically scaled, dynamic scaling, similitude | 7 |
| the thrust response of the engine | thrust response, engine response, spool up, spool time, acceleration time | 7 |
| the hook, the cable and the trailer | hook, hooks, cable, cables, trailer, trailers | 10 |
| the tilting pilot seat | seat, seats | 3 |
The keystone has no name in the literature. No title uses crossover, handover or control blending for the exchange of authority between deflected thrust and aerodynamic surfaces. The field files the problem under transition, and 332 titles in the survey name a transition or a conversion, so the crossover speed this article computes is a construct of its own analysis rather than a quantity the literature reports.
The jet-powered tail-sitter is nearly a literature of one aircraft. Of the six titles that name a jet together with a vertical attitude, four are the Langley reports on the one-fifth-scale model of a jet-powered vertical-attitude research airplane.
The engine’s gyroscopic moment is the subject of nine titles, and three of them concern a vertical take-off aircraft, so the full-scale angular momentum this article scales from the model flywheel rests on the model tests and not on a literature.
Froude scaling is used far more often than it is named. Seven titles name dynamic scaling, dynamic similarity or similitude and none names Froude, while 147 titles name a free-flight, scale or subscale model.
The thrust response of the engine is the subject of seven titles, three of them about a lift engine or a hovering aircraft, so the one second spool time the height analysis assumes is an assumption with little literature to test it against.
No record treats the hook landing of a hovering aircraft. Of the ten titles that name a hook, a cable or a trailer, five concern the arresting gear of conventional aircraft, most of it carrier-based, two the rope-hook recovery of fixed-wing drones, and three use the words in other senses.
The tilting seat has no literature. Of the three titles that name a seat, one tests a reclined cockpit seat as an aid to tolerance of acceleration, one a seat that cues motion in a simulator, and one names the seating of the tilt-rotor electric aircraft whose proprotor it tests, so the X-13’s pivoting seat stands on the institutional record of the aircraft.
What the Survey Admits
A record is admitted only when a person reading its title finds it on this article’s subject, being the aircraft, its configuration class, the hover and the transition, the systems the configuration depends on, the test technique, the pilot’s task, and the uncrewed and electric aircraft that inherited the layout. Many words this subject depends on also name something else, and a record that shares only such a word is excluded. Hover also names the hovercraft and a pointer gesture, spin also names the spin of an electron, and tumbling also names mills, particles and falling plates. Transition also names the transition of a boundary layer, and brownout also names a power-limiting method in computing and a condition of occupational health. Ground effect also belongs to racing cars and wing-in-ground craft, jet impingement also cools turbine blades and electronics and erodes industrial surfaces, and hot-gas ingestion also names the leakage of a turbine’s rim seal. Slipstream also names a kind of speculative fiction and a mode of program execution, disc loading also names a record player and an antibiotic test, and workload also names the load on a computing cluster. Thrust vectoring of spacecraft and ion thrusters, engine bleed air for cabin conditioning and anti-icing, fuels and exhaust emissions, the component engineering of conventional landing gear, the air traffic management of urban air mobility and its market, acceptance and policy studies, and drones used only as instruments for some other task are excluded as well. So are the noise and acoustics of vertical take-off aircraft, which none of the article’s relations uses, rotor and airframe aeroelasticity, vibration, loads and structural design, engine health monitoring, the navigation equipment of drones and the path planning that avoids obstacles, the design and sizing of conventional aircraft that carry hybrid-electric or distributed propulsion, and the air traffic control of V/STOL terminals. Correction, erratum and withdrawal notices, trade news, forum keynotes, specifications, standards and recommended practices, dictionary entries and records that are parts of works are excluded, because a survey counts research works. A signed comment on a paper, a discussion of a paper, the author’s reply and a signed letter on a research subject argue about a result and are research works, so they are kept when their subject is this article’s, while an unsigned item of these kinds and a referee’s report on a manuscript are not. A shared exclusion list refuses head-up and helmet-mounted display titles elsewhere, and they are admitted here because the pilot’s view is this article’s subject.
Some records of doubtful relevance are kept. Control allocation theory stated for over-actuated systems in general is kept, because allocation is the handover in its modern form. Secondary-injection and aerospike thrust vectoring studied on rocket nozzles is kept as the mechanism of turning a jet whatever the nozzle. Handling qualities and workload studies of conventional aircraft, engine control and fuel control, the design and weight of conventional landing gear, landing mats and pavements, and the flight control of airships are kept for the criteria, the engine response, the undercarriage trade and the prepared surface that the article reasons with, and a reader may weigh each accordingly. The residual cluster admits a record that bears on a relation, a quantity or a test method the article uses and belongs to no named cluster, and a record whose only link is general aeronautics is excluded from it.
Reviews of books, reference and definition entries and notices are not admitted, and a document deposited twice is admitted once. An authored encyclopedia article of more than two pages and a chapter of a textbook are research works and are kept, and where one document is held twice the journal or report version is the one admitted.
Every research title has been read for relevance, so the off-topic share that remains is a matter of reading judgement. Records read as off topic have been removed, together with other deposits of the same works.
Epistemic State
Historical fact, well supported. Two X-13 aircraft were built by Ryan, serials 54-1619 and 54-1620. The Navy Bureau of Aeronautics contracted Ryan in 1947 to study vertically launched jet fighters, and a jet test rig made the first manned jet hovering flight on 24 November 1953. The powerplant is a Rolls-Royce Avon of 10,000 pounds thrust. The first conventional flight was 10 December 1955, the first vertical take-off and landing 28 May 1956, the first transition 28 November 1956, and the first complete cycle from the trailer 11 April 1957. The second aircraft was demonstrated at the Pentagon in July 1957. Pitch and yaw control in hover came from vectored engine thrust, the wingtips carried bleed-air jets, and the aircraft flew with dampers and a stability augmentation system. The pilot’s seat pivoted forty-five degrees. The aircraft launched from and recovered onto a cable on a tilting trailer using a nose hook, with a ground observer talking the pilot down and a graduated pole on the trailer as a distance reference. Both aircraft survive, 54-1619 with the San Diego Air and Space Museum on loan from the Smithsonian and 54-1620 at the National Museum of the United States Air Force. The airplane’s span, length, wing area and mean aerodynamic chord, its tabulated loadings and its moments of inertia are those of the Langley spin-tunnel reports, which also find that it would not tumble end over end, that a power failure in the hover leads to a spin, and that about 4,200 feet are needed to recover. The one-fifth model needed pitch and yaw dampers to hover once the engine’s gyroscopic effect was represented, and showed a rolled and sideslipped trim between about 25 and 45 degrees angle of attack.
Reported, with sources in disagreement. The Air Force contract year, July 1954 in the Smithsonian record and 1953 in compilations. The date of the Washington demonstration, 30 July 1957 in the Smithsonian record and 28 and 29 July in a compilation. The last flight, 30 September 1957 in the Smithsonian record and 30 July 1957 in NASA’s inventory. The engine designation, RA.28-49 in the Smithsonian record and R.A. 14 in the spin-tunnel report. The reason the programme ended, which is funding and limited operational potential in the two museum records, size, payload and the lack of a larger engine in NASA’s inventory, and the absence of an operational requirement in a compilation. The gross weight, 6,730 pounds in compilations against 6,696 and 6,958 pounds in the spin-tunnel loadings, 7,313 pounds in the Smithsonian record and a 7,200 pound maximum in the Air Force museum’s. The axis the wingtip jets served, roll in a compilation and in the wing-tip nozzles of the one-fifth model and pitch and yaw in the Smithsonian record.
Reported in compilations and museum records but in no programme document found. The company designation Model 69 and the F3R designation. The 15 feet 2 inches height. The 5,334 pound empty weight. The identification of the test pilots. The statement that the first transitions were flown at altitude.
Assumed for the purpose of calculation and stated as such. The specific fuel consumption of 0.93 pounds per pound of thrust per hour, which is a figure quoted for an Avon variant rather than for the RA.28. The maximum lift coefficient of 1.0. The elevon pitching-moment increment of 0.10, the aileron rolling-moment increment of 0.05, and the rudder yawing-moment increment of 0.06, all referred to the geometric mean chord or the span. The control power criteria of 0.5, 1.0, and 0.3 radians per second squared in pitch, roll, and yaw. The full-scale roll-nozzle arm of 10.16 feet, scaled from the one-fifth model. The battery specific energy of 250 watt-hours per kilogramme, the battery mass fraction of thirty percent assumed for the modern reference vehicles and of 0.208 chosen to match the X-13’s fuel fraction in the equal-fraction comparison, and the rotor figure of merit of 0.70 used in the electric comparison. The independent success probability of 0.8 used to illustrate the value of testing in sequence. The 3.5 metre nozzle moment arm. The engine mass flow of 70 kilogrammes per second and exhaust density of 0.35 kilogrammes per cubic metre. The bleed velocity of 500 metres per second. The cruise speed of 200 metres per second and lift-to-drag ratio of six. The 1,500 pascal disc loading taken as a conservative figure for the XFY-1 class, whose published gross weight and propeller diameter give about 3,400. The ten square metre side area and drag coefficient of 0.8 for the crosswind case. The one second engine spool time. The 0.3 metre hook tolerance and the closure rates used against it. The undercarriage weight fraction of three to five percent of gross used for the table, which the spin-tunnel loadings place at 3.8 percent. The 0.3 metre arresting stroke.
Engineering analysis, derived here and independently checkable. The fuel load of 1,400 pounds from the differences between the tabulated loadings, and the 224 pounds by which the wheeled zero-fuel weight exceeds the published empty weight. The pitch, roll and yaw inertias of 5,480, 2,092 and 6,553 kilogramme square metres converted from the tabulated values. The distinction between the equal-authority crossing at 94.7 metres per second and the adequacy crossing at 30.2, and the table of the aerodynamic share of available authority showing that at the adequacy crossing the elevons still supply only about a tenth of what is there. The vanishing of the nozzle’s rolling moment as a cross-product identity rather than an approximation. The linear growth of required over available control moment with size, and the resulting bleed fractions of 1.9, 3.9, and 5.8 percent at one, two, and three times scale. The crossover sensitivity table showing that halving the assumed elevon effectiveness moves the ratio only to 0.813, and that the ratio reaches one only below a third of the assumed effectiveness. The pitch-rotation table, giving 0.20 seconds and 5.8 degrees of arc at one radian per second with the engine running. The full-scale engine angular momentum of about 16,200 kilogramme square metres per second scaled from the model flywheel, and the gyroscopic yawing moment of 1,615 newton metres at a pitch rate of 0.1 radians per second. The sum of 4,200 feet for recovery after a flame-out in the hover, and the 680 feet that free fall over the stated 6.5 seconds gives against the report’s 900. The Froude scaling relations and the one-fifth model table, giving 23.5 metres per second, 2.19 seconds, 25.6 metres, and 24.4 kilogrammes, with a Reynolds number 11.2 times lower, and the model’s weight at 0.73 of the scaled value. The undercarriage saving expressed as hover time, at 1.94 to 3.22 minutes across the assumed range and 2.51 minutes for the tabulated 262 pounds. The sight-line relation and the finding that the landing point bears 135 degrees from the tail-sitter pilot against about 45 for a horizontal jet-lift aircraft. The height-loss relation and its table. The steady tilt required to hold station in a crosswind, at 0.94 degrees in ten metres per second against a drift budget of 0.47. The observation that a disc loading equal to the wing loading of 1,687 pascals puts stall-level dynamic pressure on the controls in a hover. The 1,966 newton metre yaw requirement, the 0.72 degree nozzle deflection that meets it, the 21.7 metre per second rudder crossover, and the resulting table showing that the three axes hand over in sequence at 0.41, 0.47, and 0.57 of the stall speed. The hover drift table, which shows that holding position to a metre over five seconds requires holding the mean tilt below half a degree. The crosswind force table and the finding that a ten metre per second wind is 17.9 percent of the pitch requirement as a moment and 72 metres of drift in thirty seconds as a position error. The vertical acceleration and thrust-change table and the asymmetry between bounded upward and unbounded downward authority. The loop-delay relation, by which 0.3 seconds consumes the whole hook tolerance at one metre per second. The sortie fuel table showing a cautious profile spending 44.7 percent of the fuel. The undercarriage weight table and the 19.2 percent of fuel load a four percent gear would have cost. The arresting deceleration of 0.17 gravities at one metre per second over 0.3 metres. The scaling of disc loading as the first power of length. The control power cost of about 193 pounds of thrust and its six percent of the hover margin. The lift coefficient sensitivity table for the crossover ratio. The nozzle deflection table. The thrust-to-weight ratios at gross and maximum weight, the vertical acceleration, and the time and speed at thirty metres. The aspect ratio, mean chord, and wing loading. The hover fuel flow of 104.3 pounds per minute and the resulting endurance of 13.4 minutes. The stall speed of 52.5 metres per second and its sensitivity to the lift coefficient. The pitch requirement of 2,740 newton metres. The aerodynamic pitching moment relation and its coefficient of 3.013. The crossover speed of 30.2 metres per second, its ratio of 0.575 to the stall speed, and the argument that the ratio is independent of aircraft size. The vectored thrust moments and the margin of 9.87 over the criterion. The axial thrust loss with nozzle deflection. The puffer force of 338 newtons, its 1.5 percent of thrust, and the 1.9 percent bleed. The aileron crossover at 24.5 metres per second and its ratio of 0.47 to the stall speed. The maximum transition tilt of 47.7 degrees, the horizontal acceleration of 10.78 metres per second squared, the 4.9 second and 128 metre transition, the 12.6 pounds of fuel, and the tilt table. The propeller slipstream velocity of 49.5 metres per second and its comparison with the stall dynamic pressure. The Breguet range and radius, and the table charging hover time against radius. The exhaust velocity, dynamic pressure, nozzle area, and the disc loading ratio of 102 against a rotor of the same span. The intervals of 170, 184 and 134 days, which sum to the 488 days from first flight to full cycle.
Inference, argued but not established. That the near equality between the X-13’s thirteen and a half minutes of hovering and the 15.8 minutes an electric rotorcraft manages at the same energy mass fraction reflects two large factors largely cancelling, a battery forty-eight times worse per kilogramme and a rotor seventeen times better at converting power into thrust, rather than anything deeper, which the arithmetic shows and which no source states. That the three-axis handover sequence would have been perceptible to the pilot as the aircraft becoming conventional one axis at a time, which the relations imply and which no pilot report available here describes, the test pilot’s own report in Girard and Everett 1963 being known here by its title only. That deleting the undercarriage was a deliberate performance decision rather than only a consequence of the launch method. That the ground observer is best understood as a delayed sensor inside the control loop, which is this article’s framing and not the period’s. That the control crossover falling well below the stall speed is what makes the configuration workable rather than a fortunate accident. That the published empty weight of 5,334 pounds describes the aircraft on wheels. That the fuel arithmetic, the pilot’s sight line, and the ground loading are the operative reasons the concept did not proceed, which the numbers support but which no document found here states in those terms. That the programme’s ground testing addressed the wrong difficulty because the difficulty was not aerodynamic. That the return of the vertical-attitude concept as a remotely piloted vehicle is a recognition that the pilot was the binding constraint.
Engineering analysis of the modern comparison, derived here and independently checkable. The three modern reference vehicles and their disc loadings, wing loadings, ratios, and hover endurances. The finding that a small electric tail-sitter’s disc loading and wing loading are the same quantity to within a factor of two, against the X-13’s ratio of 84. The effective specific consumption relation for a rotor, its evaluation at 250 and 400 watt-hours per kilogramme, and the comparison with the Avon showing the modern vehicle fifteen percent ahead. The endurance of 15.8 minutes at the X-13’s own energy mass fraction against its 13.4, an improvement of about eighteen percent. The decomposition into a battery forty-eight times worse per kilogramme and a rotor seventeen times better at converting power into thrust.
A caution about the modern reference vehicles. The three vehicles in the comparison table are representative rather than actual. Their masses, spans, wing areas, rotor counts, and rotor diameters were chosen as plausible for their classes and are not taken from any specific aircraft, and the battery specific energy of 250 watt-hours per kilogramme and figure of merit of 0.70 are likewise estimates. The conclusions drawn from them are ratios and orders and are insensitive to reasonable variation, and the specific endurances are not.
Written from current knowledge. This article is dated 2025-10-19 and draws on literature published after that date where the modern discussion continues the period problem.
Out of Scope
The Convair XFY-1 and Lockheed XFV-1 as programmes in their own right, which are used here only as the configuration comparison. The Ryan FR-1 Fireball. The submarine-launched fighter concept the 1947 study addressed. The Rolls-Royce Avon as an engine programme. The later jet-lift aircraft, the Hawker P.1127 line, and the lift-fan configurations, which solved the same problem a different way and belong with the aircraft that carry those designations. The X-14, which is the next article and which established the control criteria used here. Carrier and shipboard operation. The aerodynamics of the delta wing at high angle of attack in any depth. The remotely piloted vertical-attitude proposals of the 1970s beyond noting that they exist.
Conclusion
The X-13 was built to find out whether a jet could take off vertically, become an aeroplane, become a hovering machine again, and land on the spot it left. It could, and both aircraft survived the programme.
The reason it worked is an ordering that is not an accident. Aerodynamic control authority grows as the square of speed and vectored thrust does not depend on speed at all, so the two hand over exactly once, and for this aircraft the handover falls at 30 metres per second against a stall speed of 52. The control surfaces start working at well under three fifths of the speed at which the wing starts working, so there is no band in which the aircraft is flying and cannot be pointed. That ratio depends on the configuration and not on the size, which is why the layout has outlived the aeroplane.
The reason it led nowhere is arithmetic of a different kind. The entire fuel load is thirteen minutes of hovering, the transition that the programme existed to demonstrate costs twelve pounds of it, and the hovering at either end costs everything else. A minute at each end takes a sixth of the radius. The exhaust loads the ground a hundred times harder than a helicopter of the same span, so the aircraft needs a prepared surface and a particular trailer. And the pilot cannot see the hook he is aiming at.
Each of those is a reason the concept did not become a fighter, and none of them is a reason the aircraft failed. The X-13 answered its question completely and the answer was that the question had been the wrong one to ask about a manned aeroplane. Two decades later the same configuration came back with nobody in it, and it is now a common way to build a small aircraft that has to take off from somewhere without a runway.
References
Books
- Jenkins Landis and Miller 2003 American X-Vehicles, An Inventory X-1 to X-50
- Miller 2001 The X-Planes, X-1 to X-45
- Rogers 1989 VTOL, Military Research Aircraft
Reference
- American X-Vehicles, An Inventory X-1 to X-50, SP-2003-4531
- Convair XFY Pogo
- Hawker Siddeley P.1127
- Lockheed XFV
- National Air and Space Museum, Ryan X-13 Vertijet, A19600018000
- National Museum of the United States Air Force, Ryan X-13 Vertijet
- Rolls-Royce Avon
- Ryan X-13 Vertijet
- Tail-sitter
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