X-Planes: ESAero X-57 Maxwell

Of the thirty-one X designations the register carries, the longest mission statement belongs to the aeroplane that flew the least. The register is the list of designations allocated since August 1998 that Andreas Parsch compiles from data the Department of Defense has released, and every count in this article is taken from all 539 rows of the copy he last updated on 23 August 2026. The X-57A statement runs to 328 characters, leaving aside the compiler’s reference to his own note, which is more than double the median for an X row, and it describes a propulsion architecture in the present tense [Parsch, DOD 4120.15-L Addendum, MDS Designators Allocated After 19 August 1998].

This is the fifty-eighth article in the X-Planes series, following the X-1, the X-2, the X-3, the X-4, the X-5, the X-6, the X-7, the X-8, the X-9, the X-10, the X-11, the X-12, the X-13, the X-14, the X-15, the X-16, the X-17, the X-18, the X-19, the X-20, the X-21, the X-22, the X-23, the X-24, the X-25, the X-26, the X-27, the X-28, the X-29, the X-30, the X-31, the X-32, the X-33, the X-34, the X-35, the X-36, the X-37, the X-38, the X-39, the X-40, the X-41, the X-42, the X-43, the X-44, the X-45, the X-46, the X-47, the X-48, the X-49, the X-50, the X-51, the X-52, the X-53, the X-54, the X-55, and the X-56.

The X-57 Maxwell never flew. The project started in 2015, received its X designation in 2016 and ran until 2023 [Parsch, DOD 4120.15-L Addendum, MDS Designators Allocated After 19 August 1998] [Kushner et al] [Maliska et al. 2024] [X-57 Project Creates Paths Toward Electric Aviation, NASA]. It delivered an aeroplane, tested it on the ground, and was closed out without the aircraft leaving the runway. It was not shown to be unflyable. A redesigned cruise motor was in work when the schedule and the budget ended, and that distinction is carried through this article to its conclusion.

The Research Question

The question the X-57 existed to settle is whether a wing sized for cruise can be made to land by blowing it. The register states the architecture as smaller electric motors across the wing leading edge acting as a high lift device, larger motors on each wing tip for cruise, and a wing designed for that arrangement [Parsch, DOD 4120.15-L Addendum, MDS Designators Allocated After 19 August 1998]. The flight performance report states the quantity that would have answered it, a stall speed for the highly loaded small wing comparable to that of the aeroplane with its original wing [Borer].

The question was never answered in flight. No configuration carrying the small wing left the ground [Kushner et al]. The sizing analysis below works the question as far as the published numbers allow. It finds that blowing seventy percent of the span could not alone have made up the lift deficit on the installed power, and that it did not have to, because the flap of the small wing supplies a factor of 1.51 of the 2.38.

The article carries a second question that the programme did not set itself, namely why an aeroplane whose architecture was fully worked out on paper by 2016 did not fly. [Borer et al. 2016] Its answer lies in the motor controllers, the cruise motors and the readiness assessment, and the account of the flight test record argues it.

Programme Origin

The programme’s origin is recorded in two places, the designation register and the plan of modifications. The register entry of 3 May 2016 names the contractors, the sponsor and the architecture, and the project, which had started in 2015, ran until 2023 [Parsch, DOD 4120.15-L Addendum, MDS Designators Allocated After 19 August 1998] [Kushner et al]. The three parts of this section take the entry as written, test one reading of it that the register does not support, and set out the conversion the programme planned to build.

The Registry Entry Is the Primary Document

The register records the following against X-57A, allocated on 3 May 2016 jointly to Empirical Systems Aerospace and Joby Aviation, sponsored by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA [Parsch, DOD 4120.15-L Addendum, MDS Designators Allocated After 19 August 1998] [DOD 4120.15-L, Model Designation of Military Aerospace Vehicles] [Allocation of Official Aerospace Vehicle MDS Designations].

All electric aircraft makes use of a new propulsion technology known as Distributed Electric Propulsion (DEP). DEP uses smaller electric motors across the wing leading edge as a high lift device, and larger motors mounted on each wing tip for cruise, coupled with a wing designed optimally for this electric motor configuration.

A note attached to the row adds that the X-57A Maxwell is a highly modified Tecnam P2006T aircraft [Tecnam P2006T]. The aeroplane is named after James Clerk Maxwell, whose work on electromagnetism made an electric aeroplane thinkable at all [James Clerk Maxwell] [X-57 Maxwell Overview, NASA].

Of the 539 allocation rows the addendum carries, this is the only one containing the phrase all electric, the only one containing the phrase propulsion technology, the only one naming a high lift device, the only one naming a wing tip, and the only one naming a leading edge. Four entries mention electricity at all [Parsch, DOD 4120.15-L Addendum, MDS Designators Allocated After 19 August 1998].

It is also one of only four rows naming two contractors joined by the word and, the others being the X-48, the X-49 and a missile [Parsch, DOD 4120.15-L Addendum, MDS Designators Allocated After 19 August 1998].

And it reads as a specification rather than as an intention. The register’s ordinary grammar is a purpose clause. This entry explains a mechanism, names its parts, says where each part is mounted and what each is for, and asserts that the wing was designed optimally for the configuration. It is the only entry in the register that teaches the reader how something works.

A Tempting Reading That the Register Does Not Support

The engines column for this row is empty, but the blank is not the finding it appears to be.

An all-electric aeroplane has no engines in the sense a designation register means, so an empty cell looks like the document quietly acknowledging that the category does not apply. That reading is wrong and the register refutes it. Ninety-four of the 539 rows have an empty engines cell, and among the thirty-one X rows the other three are the X-37B, the X-59A and the X-60A [Parsch, DOD 4120.15-L Addendum, MDS Designators Allocated After 19 August 1998]. The X-59A is a single-engined supersonic demonstrator and the X-60A is a rocket [Lockheed Martin X-59 Quesst] [Generation Orbit X-60]. Both plainly have engines and both cells are empty.

The blank is a gap in the compilation, with no bearing on electric propulsion. It is recorded here because it is the first thing an argument would want to reach for.

The copy these counts come from is later than this article’s date. The version current on that date, the compiler’s update of 11 August 2025 as the Internet Archive captured it on 25 November 2025, held 526 rows, twenty-nine of them X rows, and ninety-one of its rows had an empty engines cell [Parsch, DOD 4120.15-L Addendum, 11 August 2025]. Every finding about the X-57A row holds in both versions, being the longest X statement at more than double the X median, the five phrases found in no other row, the four entries that mention electricity, the four rows naming two contractors, and the same three other X rows with an empty engines cell.

What the Aeroplane Was Going to Be

The X-57 was a conversion, and the thing being converted matters. The Tecnam P2006T is a certified Italian light twin with two Rotax 912S piston engines of about 100 horsepower each [Tecnam P2006T] [Rotax 912].

The prime contractor was Empirical Systems Aerospace, which integrated the aircraft [ESAero, Empirical Systems Aerospace], with Joby Aviation supplying the motors, the propellers and a carbon fibre wing section [Joby Aviation], and Scaled Composites carrying out the modification and assembly [Scaled Composites]. The work was led from Armstrong Flight Research Center with aerodynamic and structural support from Langley [Armstrong Flight Research Center] [Langley Research Center], and the programme published its technical output as it went [X-57 Technical Papers, NASA Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate].

The X-57 grew out of a ground experiment. NASA’s Leading Edge Asynchronous Propeller Technology effort, LEAPTech, mounted a wing carrying eighteen small electric motors and propellers on a large truck, drove it at speed over the dry lakebed at Armstrong under the name Hybrid Electric Integration Systems Test, and showed that blowing the wing gave a high aspect ratio wing more lift at low speed [Kushner et al]. In 2015 the follow-on became one of the first activities of NASA’s Convergent Aeronautics Solutions project, and in 2016 it became a Small Business Innovative Research flight demonstrator, the Scalable Convergent Electric Propulsion Technology and Operations Research project, SCEPTOR, with Empirical Systems Aerospace as prime contractor and lead integrator. By 2017 SCEPTOR had become the X-57 and had moved to NASA’s Flight Demonstrations and Capabilities project, which maintains the Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate’s flight research aircraft [Kushner et al] [Maliska et al. 2024].

The programme was organised as a sequence of modifications, each flyable in principle [Maliska and Clarke] [Borer].

Mod I was the unmodified aeroplane, flown to establish a baseline. Mod II replaced the two piston engines with two electric motors in the original inboard positions on the same wing, which changes the powerplant and nothing else. Mod III replaced the wing with a much smaller one and moved the cruise motors to the wingtips. Mod IV added twelve small propellers along the leading edge of that wing, to be used for takeoff and landing and folded away in cruise [Kushner et al] [Borer] [X-57 Maxwell Overview, NASA].

The four were not approved together. The project was approved in 2015 for Mods I, II and III only, and Mod IV was formally approved late in 2017 [Kushner et al]. Borer describes Mod III as a programmatic risk mitigation for that reason, since Mod IV had not yet been approved for funding when the project started [Borer].

Mod II changed more than the engines. The two piston engines of 73.5 kilowatts each, driving two-bladed propellers of 178 centimetres, gave way to electric units of 72.1 kilowatts driving three-bladed variable-pitch propellers of 152 centimetres. The rear seats came out for battery modules, the co-pilot’s seat for instrumentation, and a large air data boom went on the nose. The maximum takeoff mass rose from 1,230 kilograms for the production aeroplane to 1,361 kilograms for Mod II, and later Mod III and IV estimates allowed up to 1,452 kilograms [Borer].

Only the first of those four ever flew, and it flew as a Tecnam. [Kushner et al]

Sizing From First Principles

There was an aeroplane to size, and the published numbers allow its central trade to be worked from first principles. The flight performance report gives the areas, spans, wetted areas and powers of the original and the modified configurations [Borer]. This section works from those figures through the wing loading the small wing imposes, whether blowing can recover it, what the cut saved in drag, and whether the published geometry is consistent with itself. Every result here is a computation on predicted figures, since the small wing never flew.

A Wing Too Small to Land On

The Mod III wing is 42 percent of the area of the wing it replaced. The report gives both directly, 14.76 square metres becoming 6.19, with the root chord falling from 1.39 metres to 0.76 [Borer].

\[\frac{S_1}{S_0} = \frac{6.19}{14.76} = 0.419 \tag{1}\]

A wing that small cannot land the aeroplane. At the same mass the wing loading rises by the reciprocal of that ratio.

\[\frac{W}{S} \quad\text{is what a wing must carry per unit of its own area} \tag{2}\] \[\frac{(W/S)_1}{(W/S)_0} = \frac{S_0}{S_1} = 2.38 \tag{3}\]

Lift is the product of dynamic pressure, wing area and a lift coefficient [Lift Coefficient].

\[L = \tfrac{1}{2}\rho V^{2} S\, C_L \tag{4}\]

Stall speed depends on wing loading and on the maximum lift coefficient the wing can reach [Wing Loading] [Stall, Fluid Dynamics] [Lift Coefficient].

\[V_s = \sqrt{\frac{2}{\rho}\,\frac{W}{S}\,\frac{1}{C_{L,max}}} \tag{5}\]

So holding the stall speed while multiplying the wing loading by 2.38 requires multiplying the maximum lift coefficient by 2.38. The twelve propellers along the leading edge exist to supply most of that factor, and the report says so in as many words, that the high-lift propellers were designed to increase the dynamic pressure over the wing at low speeds to reduce the stall speed of the highly loaded wing to be comparable to that of the Mod II configuration [Borer]. The flap on the new wing supplies the rest, and a later subsection divides the factor between the two.

Distributed propulsion is an old idea whose economics changed when the machinery got small [Distributed Propulsion] [Electric Aircraft], because the efficiency of an electric motor is relatively insensitive to its size and power [Borer et al. 2016] [Hughes and Drury, Electric motors and drives], while the combustion engines of light aircraft struggle to reach the efficiency of the engines of larger aircraft [Borer], so fourteen small motors became a sensible thing to build where fourteen small engines never were.

The architecture fits in one sentence. The wing is too small to land on, so the aeroplane blows air over it until it is not [Blown Flap] [Powered Lift] [Slipstream].

\[q_w = \tfrac{1}{2}\rho\,(V + \Delta V)^{2} \;>\; \tfrac{1}{2}\rho V^{2} \tag{6}\]

A propeller ahead of a wing raises the local dynamic pressure [Dynamic Pressure] [U.S. Standard Atmosphere], and lift goes as dynamic pressure, so a wing in a slipstream makes more lift at the same airspeed and the same angle of attack [Litherland et al] [Borer and Patterson].

Whether the Blowing Can Do It

Suppose first that the twelve propellers had to supply the whole factor of 2.38 by themselves. The published figures permit that computation, and its answer shows that they could not have.

Only part of the wing is blown. Twelve propellers of 1.89 feet diameter, 0.576 metres, taken here as 1.9 feet, cover about 6.95 metres of a 9.94 metre span [Borer and Patterson] [Propeller, Aeronautics].

\[f = \frac{12\,d}{b_1} = \frac{6.95}{9.94} = 0.70 \tag{7}\] \[A_h = 12\,\frac{\pi d^{2}}{4} = 3.16 \tag{8}\]

So roughly seventy percent of the span sits in a slipstream and the rest of the wing makes its lift the ordinary way. If the blown fraction sees a velocity higher by a factor of one plus some increment, and the rest sees the free stream, then the whole wing’s lift multiple is a weighted sum [Lift Coefficient] [Slipstream].

\[f\,(1+x)^{2} + (1-f) = \frac{S_0}{S_1} \tag{9}\]

Blowing the whole wing would need a 54 percent velocity increase. Blowing seventy percent of it needs 73 percent [Dynamic Pressure].

\[x_{whole} = \sqrt{2.38} - 1 = 0.544 \tag{10}\] \[x = \sqrt{1 + \frac{2.38 - 1}{0.70}} - 1 = 0.726 \tag{11}\] \[\Delta V = x\,V_s = 0.726 \times 29.8 = 21.7 \tag{12}\]

At a stall speed of 58 knots the blown part of the wing must see an airflow moving 22 metres per second faster than the aeroplane is.

What that costs can be bounded from below by treating the propellers as ideal actuator discs [Momentum Theory] [Glauert, The elements of aerofoil and airscrew theory].

\[T = 2\rho A_h v_i \,(V_s + v_i), \qquad v_i = \tfrac{1}{2}\Delta V \tag{13}\] \[P_i = T\,(V_s + v_i) = 139 \tag{14}\] \[\frac{P_i}{P_h} = \frac{139}{151} = 0.92 \tag{15}\]

The ideal requirement is 139 kilowatts against 151 installed, which is 92 percent [Borer]. An actuator disc has no profile drag, no swirl loss, no tip loss, no motor loss and no controller loss. The real requirement is larger than the ideal one, and at the propulsive efficiency of 75 percent assumed here it exceeds the installed power.

\[\frac{P_i}{\eta_{pr}} = \frac{139}{0.75} = 185 \;>\; P_h \tag{16}\]

This does not mean the design was wrong. It means the propellers were never asked for all of it.

A slipstream does more to a wing than speed the air up. It arrives with swirl, it changes the local angle of attack, and it re-energises the boundary layer so that the wing separates later than it otherwise would. The high-lift literature is largely about those effects rather than about dynamic pressure [Blown Flap] [Powered Lift] [McCormick, Aerodynamics, aeronautics and flight mechanics], and the programme’s own testing was aimed at measuring thrust and slipstream velocities rather than at assuming them [Litherland et al].

What the Flap Does and What the Propellers Do

The published stall speeds divide the factor of 2.38 between the wing and the propellers. The flight performance report tabulates the estimated minimum steady flight speed of every configuration. In the landing configuration it gives 55 knots calibrated airspeed for the production aeroplane, 58 for Mod II, 73 for Mod III and for Mod IV with its propellers stopped, and 58 for Mod IV with the high-lift propellers running [Borer]. The Mod II figures are the production aeroplane’s published stall speeds scaled for the heavier mass at an unchanged maximum lift coefficient, and the scaling can be checked.

\[V_{s,II} = V_{s,I}\sqrt{\frac{m_{II}}{m_{I}}} = 55\sqrt{\frac{1361}{1230}} = 57.9 \tag{17}\]

Every lift coefficient follows from a stall speed, a mass and a wing area [Lift Coefficient]. At 1,361 kilograms and sea level density the three landing stall speeds give these.

\[C_{L,max} = \frac{2\,m\,g}{\rho\,V_{s0}^{2}\,S} \tag{18}\] \[C_{L,II} = 1.658, \qquad C_{L,IV} = 2.496, \qquad C_{L,hl} = 3.954 \tag{19}\]

The blown figure is the design figure. Borer and Patterson give the lift coefficient at the target stall speed of 58 knots as 3.95, referred to the reference wing area of 66.67 square feet, which is 6.19 square metres, and the value recomputed here from the tabulated speed agrees [Borer and Patterson].

\[\frac{C_{L,IV}}{C_{L,II}} = 1.505, \qquad \frac{C_{L,hl}}{C_{L,IV}} = \left(\frac{73}{58}\right)^{2} = 1.584, \qquad 1.505 \times 1.584 = 2.384 \tag{20}\]

The small wing with its flap already reaches a maximum lift coefficient half as large again as the production wing, and the propellers have to supply the remaining factor of 1.58, not 2.38. The high-lift system was sized with a margin, a design lift coefficient of 4.35, ten percent above the requirement, because the interaction of twelve slipstreams with a wing was not expected to be captured fully by the design tools [Borer and Patterson].

\[\frac{C_{L,goal}}{C_{L,IV}} = \frac{4.35}{2.496} = 1.743 \tag{21}\]

Put back into the same slipstream model, that factor asks for a much smaller velocity increase.

\[x = \sqrt{1 + \frac{1.743 - 1}{0.699}} - 1 = 0.436 \tag{22}\] \[P_i = 66.6, \qquad \frac{P_i}{\eta_{pr}} = \frac{66.6}{0.75} = 88.7 \;<\; P_h \tag{23}\]

On the same assumed propulsive efficiency the requirement is now 59 percent of the installed power, rather than more than all of it [Momentum Theory].

The design point of the propeller confirms this from the other direction. At 58 knots equivalent airspeed and sea level each high-lift propeller was designed to absorb 10.7 kilowatts and produce 215 newtons of thrust at 4,550 revolutions per minute, a tip speed of 450 feet per second [Borer and Patterson].

\[P_s = 12 \times 10.7 = 128.4, \qquad T = 12 \times 215 = 2580 \tag{24}\]

That shaft power is 85 percent of the 12.6 kilowatt motor rating. Treating the design thrust as twelve actuator discs of the published 0.576 metre diameter gives the induced velocity, the ideal power and the velocity added in the far wake.

\[v_i = 8.73, \qquad P_i = T\,(V_s + v_i) = 99.5, \qquad \frac{P_i}{P_s} = 0.775 \tag{25}\] \[\frac{2\,v_i}{V_s} = 0.585 \;>\; 0.436 \tag{26}\]

The design thrust implies a slipstream 58 percent faster than the aeroplane, against the 44 percent the credited model needs. The report reaches the same conclusion in its own terms, that more detailed investigations indicated the high-lift propeller system may have been able to provide an even higher maximum lift coefficient, so that the minimum steady flight speed observed in flight would likely have been lower [Borer]. The design also had to turn the propellers about 400 revolutions per minute faster than first intended, because the passively folding blades were predicted to deploy to about 80 degrees from the axis rather than 90, losing 2.5 to 4.5 degrees of pitch [Borer and Patterson].

The regulation shaped the definition as much as the aerodynamics did. Under the stall rule for normal category aeroplanes, a propulsion system used for high lift is set at a nominal thrust when the minimum steady flight speed is determined, while one used primarily for thrust is set at idle or zero thrust, so the X-57’s cruise propellers were idled for every stall determination and its high-lift propellers were run [Borer] [14 CFR Part 23, Airworthiness Standards for Normal Category Aeroplanes]. NASA lists that use of paragraph b of section 23.2110 among the programme’s contributions to the rules [Maliska and Clarke].

The calculation establishes that the blowing closes once the flap is credited. Raising the dynamic pressure over seventy percent of the span could not on its own have supplied the factor of 2.38 on this installed power, and it was never meant to. The flapped wing supplies a factor of 1.51 and the propellers the remaining 1.58, and on that division the simple model, the design point and the programme’s own estimate agree. Flight never tested any of it.

The Prize Was Smaller Than the Wing Cut Suggests

Cutting the wing to 42 percent of its area does not cut the drag to 42 percent of its value, and the margin between those two statements is most of this aeroplane’s difficulty.

Parasite drag scales with wetted area rather than with wing area [Parasitic Drag] [Wetted Area] [Hoerner, Fluid-dynamic drag], and the new configuration has to carry twelve nacelles that the old one did not. Sizing an aeroplane around that trade is the oldest problem in aircraft design [Raymer, Aircraft design, a conceptual approach] [Torenbeek, Synthesis of subsonic airplane design] [Roskam, Airplane design].

\[\frac{S_{w,1}}{S_{w,0}} = \frac{55.5}{67.8} = 0.819 \tag{27}\]

The wing area fell by 58 percent and the wetted area fell by 18 percent. The report gives 67.8 square metres becoming 55.5, a figure that already includes the high-lift nacelles [Borer].

The induced drag went the wrong way. Induced drag at a given lift and speed is set by span, not by aspect ratio [Lift-Induced Drag] [Aspect Ratio, Aeronautics].

\[D_i = \frac{L^{2}}{\tfrac{1}{2}\rho V^{2}\,\pi\, b^{2} e} \tag{28}\]

The new wing has almost twice the aspect ratio of the old one and a shorter span, 9.94 metres against 11.40 [Borer].

\[\frac{D_{i,1}}{D_{i,0}} = \left(\frac{b_0}{b_1}\right)^{2}= \left(\frac{11.40}{9.94}\right)^{2} = 1.32 \tag{29}\]

So the induced drag rose by 32 percent while the parasite drag fell by 18. Borer states the same result independently, that the reduction in span led to higher induced drag for Mod III and IV despite the higher aspect ratio of the Mod III/IV wing, and increased the importance of the aeropropulsive benefit of the wingtip-mounted propellers [Borer].

The wingtip propellers are therefore not a refinement. They are load-bearing. A propeller at the tip turning against the wingtip vortex recovers some of the energy that vortex carries away. The effect lies in the momentum of the wake rather than in the blade [Momentum Theory] [Propeller, Aeronautics] [Glauert, The elements of aerofoil and airscrew theory] [McCormick, Aerodynamics, aeronautics and flight mechanics], so it is measured in the lift to drag ratio of the complete aeroplane and not in the efficiency of the propeller [Lift-to-Drag Ratio]. The configuration needs that recovery to make the sums work at all [Wingtip Vortices] [Yoo et al].

The report’s estimates show what the trade achieved. At equal mass and with no propeller thrust, the peak lift to drag ratios of the two wings are almost the same, 14.7 for Mod II and 14.8 for Mod III, but the Mod III peak occurs about 40 knots true airspeed faster. At the project’s cruise target of 150 knots true airspeed at 8,000 feet the zero-thrust ratios are 9.5 and 13.3, and with cruise thrust applied they are 8.8 and 13.5 [Borer].

\[\frac{13.3}{9.5} = 1.40, \qquad \frac{13.5}{8.8} = 1.53 \tag{30}\]

The small wing is worth 40 percent at the cruise point, and putting the propellers at the tips raises that to 53. The difference lies in what thrust does to each aeroplane.

\[\frac{8.8}{9.5} = 0.93, \qquad \frac{13.5}{13.3} = 1.02 \tag{31}\]

Thrust costs Mod II seven percent of its lift to drag ratio and gains Mod III about one and a half percent. The report accounts for the difference this way. On Mod II the slipstream scrubs the wing and nacelle and its swirl disturbs the lift distribution, while on Mod III less wetted area sits in the slipstream and the swirl counters the wingtip vortex [Borer].

The Published Geometry Does Not Close

Three quantities describe a wing and only two of them are independent, so a published set of three can be checked [Aspect Ratio, Aeronautics] [Torenbeek, Synthesis of subsonic airplane design].

\[AR = \frac{b^{2}}{S} \tag{32}\]

For the original wing the three agree to better than one percent. For the new wing they do not. A span of 9.94 metres and an area of 6.19 square metres give an aspect ratio of 15.96, against the 15.0 the same paragraph states, a disagreement of 6.4 percent.

The report notes that the span is quoted without the wingtip propeller, which would make the span larger and the disagreement worse rather than better [Borer]. This article does not adjudicate it. It uses the area and the span, which are the two quantities that enter every computation above, and does not use the aspect ratio, which enters none of them.

Dependent Systems

The small wing depends on two systems that a piston twin does not carry, a second set of propellers and a battery to drive every propeller on the aeroplane. The high-lift motors exist only to make the small wing survivable at low speed, and the battery sets the energy against which every aerodynamic gain is spent. The motor controllers that convert the battery’s direct current for the motors are a third dependent system, and because they and the cruise motors are what ended the programme they are treated with the flight test record.

The Second Propulsion System

The twelve high-lift motors are 12.6 kilowatts each, and they are used only below the speed at which the wing can support the aeroplane by itself [Borer].

\[P_h = 12 \times 12.6 = 151.2, \qquad P_c = 2 \times 72 = 144 \tag{33}\]

That installation is more powerful than the two piston engines it replaced. The two Rotax engines were rated at 73.5 kilowatts each, 147 kilowatts between them, and drove the aeroplane through its entire flight envelope [Borer]. The high-lift propellers produce 151 kilowatts and are switched off in cruise, then folded flat against their nacelles [Litherland and Derlaga 2019].

\[\frac{P_h}{P_0} = \frac{151.2}{147.0} = 1.03 \tag{34}\]

The two propeller sets are designed for different jobs and the advance ratio shows it [Propeller, Aeronautics].

\[J = \frac{V}{n\,d} \tag{35}\] \[J_{cruise} = 1.34, \qquad J_{lift} = 0.68 \tag{36}\]

The high-lift propellers run at half the advance ratio of the cruise pair, the mark of a propeller built to move a lot of air slowly beside one built to move a little air quickly.

The motors are also less of an advance over the engines than the architecture suggests [Rotax 912] [Rotax 912 ULS/S, BRP-Rotax] [Hughes and Drury, Electric motors and drives].

\[\frac{72}{53.1} = 1.36 \quad \text{against} \quad \frac{73.5}{56.6} = 1.30 \tag{37}\]

A cruise motor with its propeller manages 1.36 kilowatts per kilogram against about 1.30 for the Rotax it replaced, on the combined motor and propeller mass of 117 pounds that NASA’s specification table gives [X-57 Maxwell Overview, NASA] and the 56.6 kilogram engine with its reduction gearbox and without a propeller [Rotax 912 ULS/S, BRP-Rotax]. That comparison charges the motor with a propeller and the engine with none. The cruise propeller was budgeted at 15.4 kilograms at the preliminary design review [SCEPTOR X-57 Critical Design Review, Day 1 Package, NASA], so the bare motor is about 37.7 kilograms and gives about 1.9 kilowatts per kilogram, nearly half as much again as the Rotax. The bare figure leaves out the two controllers that each motor needs [Clarke and Terry]. Each controller delivers 39 kilowatts nominal and 55 in emergency overdrive at about 7 kilowatts per kilogram [Terry et al, X-57 Cruise Motor Controller Design and Testing], so a pair adds between about 11 and 16 kilograms, and the motor with its controllers gives between 1.35 and 1.48 kilowatts per kilogram, between 4 and 14 percent above the Rotax. Once the controllers are counted, the gain is real and it is modest. The same NASA page also describes each cruise motor and propeller as weighing about 57 pounds, in a sentence that gives the Rotax with its propeller as about 125 pounds. As a motor and propeller mass the 57 cannot be right, because after the 15.4 kilogram propeller it would leave about 10.5 kilograms for a motor whose designers gave its active electromagnetic parts alone 22.2 kilograms against a system target of 35 kilograms [Dubois et al. 2016a]. That target and the propeller come to about 111 pounds, close to the table’s 117. The 57 matches the Rotax’s 56.6 kilograms, and the likelier reading, which the page does not confirm, is that the engine’s mass was restated in kilograms under the wrong unit. What distributed electric propulsion offers is not power density but divisibility, since an electric motor loses little efficiency as it is made smaller [Borer et al. 2016].

The aeroplane carries a complete second propulsion system whose one job is to hold the wing up at low speed, and that system is slightly larger than the whole propulsive installation of the aeroplane it was built from.

The cruise motors are torque machines. Each is a dual-winding, three-phase, air-cooled outrunner built by Joby Aviation, rated at 72 kilowatts peak at 2,700 revolutions per minute and 60 kilowatts continuous at 2,250, on a 461 volt nominal bus [Clarke et al]. Power is torque times rotational speed.

\[Q = \frac{P}{\Omega} = \frac{72\,000}{2\pi \times 2700/60} = 255 \tag{38}\]

Both ratings give the same torque, 255 newton metres, the figure the controller documentation states at 2,700 revolutions per minute [Clarke and Terry], so the continuous rating is the peak torque at a lower speed.

Moving those motors to the wingtips made losing one of them far more violent. In piloted simulation of Mod III, a full-power failure of one cruise motor during takeoff produced roll and yaw rates that NASA’s test pilots judged potentially catastrophic, with three times the moment arm of Mod II and a propeller strike at 7.3 degrees of bank on touchdown [Wallace et al] [Borer et al]. The preferred mitigation was an automatic system that halves the power of the healthy motor within half a second. Mod IV offered a second remedy, which was to take off with the high-lift propellers at a fixed 4,800 revolutions per minute so that thrust was spread along the span, and to run the cruise motors at 1,800 rather than 2,700 revolutions per minute [Borer et al] [Borer et al].

\[\frac{P_{1800}}{P_{2700}} = \frac{1800}{2700} = 0.67 \tag{39}\]

At full torque the cruise motors then deliver two thirds of their peak power, and the asymmetry on a failure falls with it. The wingtip propellers that the drag trade needed are also the configuration’s most dangerous failure.

What a Battery Can and Cannot Carry

A battery is not a fuel tank, and this section is about the difference [Linden, Handbook of batteries] [Thermal Runaway].

The X-57 was designed to carry 47 kilowatt hours of effective energy in 860 pounds of battery, sixteen modules at 461 volts nominal, in the battery team’s 2018 account [Hernandez Lugo et al. 2018] [NASA X-57 Maxwell].

\[e_b = \frac{E}{m} = \frac{47\times 10^{3}}{390} = 120\ \text{watt hours per kilogram} \tag{40}\]

The pack is built up from a commercial cell. The cell is the Samsung INR18650-30Q, of 3.0 ampere hours at 3.6 volts nominal and 4.2 volts maximum. Twenty cells in parallel make a brick, sixteen bricks in series make a module of 320 cells, and eight modules make each of the two packs, 2,560 cells to a pack and 5,120 on the aeroplane [Clarke] [Hernandez Lugo et al. 2018].

\[V_m = 16 \times 3.6 = 57.6, \qquad C_m = 20 \times 3.0 = 60, \qquad E_m = 57.6 \times 60 = 3456 \tag{41}\] \[E_{nom} = 16 \times 3.456 = 55.3, \qquad V_{nom} = 128 \times 3.6 = 461, \qquad V_{max} = 128 \times 4.2 = 538 \tag{42}\]

The pack’s 538 volt ceiling is 128 cells at full charge, the bus voltage the motor controllers were built for, and its 320 volt floor is 2.5 volts a cell [Clarke] [Clarke and Terry]. Of the nominal 55.3 kilowatt hours the design counted 47 as effective.

\[\frac{E}{E_{nom}} = \frac{47}{55.3} = 0.85 \tag{43}\]

The as-built figure is lower again, two batteries of 23 kilowatt hours usable capacity each [Wallace et al]. The sources do not itemise the difference, but two of its causes are documented. The flight plan required landing above 340 volts, because below that voltage the cruise motor controllers cannot deliver full torque at full speed, and cell imbalance reduces the energy available unless charge is shuttled between cells or the pack is derated [Reynolds et al] [Clarke].

The fuel it replaced carries about 43.5 megajoules per kilogram, the lower heating value the flight performance report uses to turn the Mod I fuel burn into energy [Borer], close to the figure for aviation kerosene [Jet Fuel] [Specific Energy] [Energy Density].

\[e_f = \frac{43.5 \times 10^{6}}{3600} = 1.21 \times 10^{4} \tag{44}\] \[\frac{e_f}{e_b} = 100 \tag{45}\]

Fuel carries a hundred times more energy per kilogram than this battery pack did.

The pack is asked to deliver its energy quickly as well as to store it.

\[C_r = \frac{P}{E} = \frac{295.2}{47} = 6.3 \tag{46}\] \[t = \frac{E}{P} = \frac{47}{295.2} = 0.159 \tag{47}\]

Running everything at once would empty the pack in under ten minutes and would draw six times its own capacity per hour, which is a demanding discharge for a pack sized by energy rather than by power [Lithium-Ion Battery] [Linden, Handbook of batteries]. Nothing in the mission asks for that, since the high-lift motors are used only at the ends of the flight, but it bounds what the pack and its wiring had to be built for [Clarke].

The requirement set for the battery was more modest than running everything at once. Each of the two battery subsystems had to supply 60 kilowatts continuously, 74 kilowatts for at least three minutes and 132 kilowatts for at least 45 seconds, and the baseline flight profile was predicted to need 46.2 kilowatt hours with a peak of about 145 kilowatts [Hernandez Lugo et al. 2018].

\[\frac{E_{prof}}{E} = \frac{46.2}{47.0} = 0.98 \tag{48}\]

The baseline flight was predicted to use 98 percent of the effective energy. For that reason the battery dominated the flight planning set out below. At the 120 kilowatts the two subsystems had to sustain continuously, the effective energy lasts under 24 minutes.

\[t = \frac{E}{P} = \frac{47}{120} = 0.39 \tag{49}\]

The current a pack must carry rises as its voltage falls, since the power the motors ask for does not fall with it [Clarke et al].

\[I = \frac{P}{V_b}, \qquad \frac{60\,000}{461} = 130, \qquad \frac{60\,000}{340} = 176 \tag{50}\]

At 60 kilowatts a pack at its 461 volt nominal delivers 130 amperes, and at 340 volts it must deliver 176. The modelled reference mission drew more than 175 amperes during takeoff and about 150 during climb and cruise, against an inline fuse rated at 200 amperes that derates for steady current to 160 amperes at 25 degrees Celsius and 143 at 50 [Clarke] [Clarke et al]. A larger fuse would not have protected the ground crew from arc flash during maintenance, so the fuse was slightly undersized for the loads at the temperatures a cabin could reach [Clarke et al].

The electric drive gives most of that back only once. On the flight performance report’s figures, the piston engines of Mod I turned roughly thirty percent of their fuel’s energy into shaft work and the electric drivetrain of Mod II turns roughly ninety percent of its stored energy into the same thing [Borer] [Lithium-Ion Battery] [Synchronous Motor].

\[\frac{e_f\,\eta_p}{e_b\,\eta_e} = \frac{100 \times 0.30}{0.90} = 33 \tag{51}\]

The efficiency advantage is a factor of three and the energy deficit is a factor of a hundred, so the aeroplane is still thirty-three times worse off per kilogram. Better packaging does not close a gap of that size. It is why X-57 flight planning was constrained to missions of less than thirty minutes [Borer].

The report’s comparison at equal flight conditions bears the factor of three out. Converting the Mod I fuel burn at 43.5 megajoules per kilogram, the production aeroplane would use 2.6 to 2.9 times the energy of Mod II at the same flight condition, a little under three because Mod II is heavier and its three-bladed propellers are slightly less efficient [Borer]. The goal set at the start was larger, five times lower energy use than the production aeroplane at 175 miles an hour, made up of a gain from 28 to 92 percent in conversion efficiency and a further factor of about 1.5 from integrating the propulsion with the wing [Hernandez Lugo et al. 2018].

\[\frac{0.92}{0.28} \times 1.5 = 3.29 \times 1.5 = 4.9 \tag{52}\]

Mod III adds its 53 percent lift to drag gain at the cruise point to the Mod II ratios.

\[2.6 \times 1.53 = 4.0, \qquad 2.9 \times 1.53 = 4.4 \tag{53}\]

On the report’s estimates the full configuration would have come within reach of the goal at cruise. These are products of estimates made at different conditions, so the result is an inference, and the report states no such figure.

The range that energy allows can be bounded. For an electric aeroplane in steady cruise the range is the stored energy times the drivetrain and propulsive efficiencies, divided by the weight, times the lift to drag ratio, with no weight lost along the way [Range, Aeronautics] [Lift-to-Drag Ratio].

\[R = \frac{E\,\eta_e\,\eta_{pr}}{m\,g}\;\frac{L}{D} \tag{54}\] \[R_{II} = 75, \qquad R_{III} = 116 \tag{55}\]

Spending all 47 kilowatt hours at the 150 knot cruise point, with the report’s 90 percent drivetrain efficiency, the 75 percent propulsive efficiency assumed here and the powered lift to drag ratios of 8.8 and 13.5, gives 75 kilometres for Mod II and 116 for Mod III. That is an upper bound, since it leaves nothing for takeoff, climb, descent or reserve, and the flight test plan described below shows how much less was usable in practice.

Every aerodynamic gain in this aeroplane exists to be spent against that ratio. The smaller wing, the higher aspect ratio, the wingtip propellers and the blown leading edge are all attempts to buy back efficiency in an airframe carrying an energy source two orders of magnitude worse than the one it replaced.

The First Battery Burned

The battery was expected to be a packaging exercise and became a development programme. The first module design followed the published practice for cylindrical cells of the time, an air gap of a few millimetres between cells, with a sealed case vented through a permeable membrane [Clarke et al] [Clarke]. Its destructive testing was conducted in December 2016 [Hernandez Lugo et al. 2018]. In the propagation test a cell in a module populated with 320 of its designed 640 cells was driven into thermal runaway by heating its can with nichrome wire. The runaway spread to all 320 live cells, flame escaped the case within seconds, and the pack burned for several hours [Clarke et al]. The membrane had neither equalised the pressure fast enough nor burst.

The redesign took its template from human spaceflight. NASA had packaged cylindrical cells for crewed spaceflight by embedding them in a heat-absorbing block that also shields each cell from a failed neighbour, and the X-57 module adopted that approach, iterating the clearance of each cell’s bore until a runaway cell’s heat was absorbed by its neighbours without driving them into runaway in turn. Each cell received a fusible link etched into the nickel bus bar. A 640-cell module was trending towards 110 to 120 pounds, too heavy to handle safely, so the module was halved to the 320-cell form above and the disconnect switches moved to the battery control modules [Clarke et al]. The redesigned modules were retested in November 2017 at 51 pounds each [Hernandez Lugo et al. 2018].

The qualification test had to be harder than the failed one. Heating a cell’s can no longer worked, because the new block absorbed the heat, so corner cells were replaced with cells carrying internal short circuit devices that fail at about 70 degrees Celsius rather than the usual threshold above 120, and were then charged and discharged rapidly with the rest of the module at its maximum credible temperature. Three such runaways produced no propagation and full containment [Clarke et al]. The vent at the top of the module peaked at 197 degrees Celsius against a vent material rated to 340 [Clarke]. The battery is the one subsystem whose defect was found early enough to be redesigned, in the judgement of the lessons learned report [Maliska et al. 2024].

The Flight Test Record

The flight test record holds no flight of the aeroplane the register describes. Of the four planned modifications only the first flew, and it was the unmodified Tecnam flown to establish a baseline [Maliska and Clarke]. The Mod I flights gathered the production aeroplane’s energy consumption and validated the stability and control models used in the Mod II piloted simulator, and the Mod I label also covered the truck-mounted ground demonstration of a blown wing [Borer] [Kushner et al]. The documents read here report the Mod I flights only through the corrections they made to the performance models. The project ran from 2015 to 2023 and was closed out without the modified aircraft leaving the runway.

What the record does hold is ground testing, and the ground testing is where the programme stopped. The parts of this section set out the flight test that was planned, the controller and motor failures found on the ground, the scoping decision that left no reserves to absorb them, and the order in which the flights were given up. The cruise motors in their then-current configuration were deemed an unacceptable risk for flight, and a modified motor was still in work at close-out [Maliska et al. 2024].

The Flight Test That Was Planned

The Mod II flight programme was written around the battery. Its purpose was a functional checkout of the traction battery and motors, an airworthiness assessment of the modified aeroplane, and baseline performance, stability and acoustic data for comparison with later modifications [Reynolds et al]. It was to run in four phases, taxi tests on the ramp and taxiways, high-speed taxi tests at 40 and 60 knots with cruise motor power raised in steps to 72 kilowatts, four basic airworthiness and system functionality flights, and 12 to 14 data collection flights.

Every flight was to stay within gliding distance of a runway or a lakebed, because both cruise motors were experimental and the pilots were to assume that a failure of one made a failure of the other more likely. For the same reason the pilots adopted a stop-oriented technique on takeoff, landing straight ahead on the 15,000 foot main runway or its 9,000 feet of lakebed overrun after any failure below 700 feet above ground level. Test points were to be flown at 6,000 or 8,000 feet along an 18 nautical mile elongated orbit giving 6 to 8 minutes a leg [Reynolds et al].

A battery has no fuel gauge that a test pilot can trust. The pack’s computed state of charge proved unreliable, mainly because of its current sensor, so the pilots were to set a fixed power and read the pack voltage against the battery model instead. The return thresholds were set so that the aeroplane would land above 340 volts, a bingo state of charge of 18 percent from 6,000 feet and 22 percent from 8,000, with joker levels of 28 and 32 percent allowing a five minute pattern orbit in place of the two minute orbit of the standard descent. A go-around was not possible within the planned energy. The time available on condition was between 5 and 20 minutes, and at 8,000 feet and 100 knots calibrated airspeed it was 10.3 minutes [Reynolds et al]. Below 340 volts the cruise motor controllers cannot deliver full torque at full speed, because the motor’s back electromotive force overcomes the supply [Clarke].

The Machinery That Stopped It

The X-57 was not stopped by its wing or its aerodynamics. It was stopped by the machinery that turns stored energy into shaft power, first by the transistors in its motor controllers and finally by the motors themselves.

Converting stored direct current into the alternating current a motor wants is the business of power electronics, a mature discipline with a large literature [Mohan and Robbins, Power electronics]. The cruise and high-lift motor controllers both used silicon carbide metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors to convert the battery’s direct current into the three-phase alternating current the motors need [Clarke and Terry] [MOSFET] [Silicon Carbide] [Power Inverter].

\[V_{dc} = 538, \qquad I_{pk} = 200 \tag{56}\]

The cruise motor controller switched at 538 volts and 200 amperes peak per phase. The typical failure mode is a short circuit with the potential for material ejection, which often destroys the drive circuit and the printed circuit board with it [Clarke and Terry].

Three separate causes were found and each is mundane.

Vibration. The initial cruise motor controller module could not survive its vibration test, a random profile of 7.7 g root mean square for twenty minutes per axis. It failed by short circuit across the direct current bus. The tests were run at ten kilowatts or less, and the deck records that the module case stayed intact but that material ejection was probable at higher power [Clarke and Terry].

Heat. The thermal gap pad between a high-lift controller transistor and its heat sink was too thin. Imperfections in the transistor case wore through the pad, the junction overheated, and the internals were ejected out of the case [Clarke and Terry].

Software. An early high-lift controller software version commanded shoot-through, which is both transistors in a half bridge conducting at once and shorting the battery across itself [Half-Bridge Converter]. On the cruise side, improper control law tuning destroyed all three phases [Clarke and Terry].

Electromagnetic interference was a fourth and separate problem, and it surfaced only when the X-57’s own batteries were first run with the qualified controllers, because the controllers’ acceptance and qualification testing had used laboratory power supplies [Clarke et al] [Electromagnetic Interference]. The systems engineering account names electromagnetic interference among the issues that an iron bird, a ground duplicate of the aircraft’s systems, would have allowed to be found and debugged in parallel before installation on the aircraft [Kushner et al].

The deck summarising these failures for a standards committee contains the sentence that best describes the programme. Under assembly, it reads that one loose washer can cause catastrophic failure [Clarke and Terry].

The cruise controller was rebuilt rather than repaired. The original controller, designed by Joby Aviation and QDESys, used one Wolfspeed CAS300M12BM2 half-bridge module per phase, and those modules could not survive the project’s acceptance vibration level. Further analysis found deficiencies in the current sensing, the gate drive and the heat sink, and a direct current bus voltage ripple of roughly 40 percent. NASA redesigned the controller with Empirical Systems Aerospace around the CAB400M12XM3 module, rated at 1,200 volts and 400 amperes against the 300 amperes of its predecessor, in a stiffened aluminium case with an integral heat sink, an optically isolated gate drive with desaturation protection, and cascaded bus filtering. Three prototype revisions were built before the design was accepted [Clarke et al]. Each controller drives one of a cruise motor’s two windings, with a nominal peak of 36 kilowatts and up to 45 if its partner fails [Clarke et al].

The high-lift controller was a separate development with a harder thermal problem. Each of the twelve had to weigh 1 kilogram, run on the same traction bus, and be cooled passively without breaking the nacelle’s outer mould line, at better than 97 percent efficiency. The team expressed the requirement as a heat limit of 330 watts in every operating mode.

\[P_{loss} = (1 - \eta_c)\,P, \qquad \frac{330}{0.03} = 11\,000 \tag{57}\]

At 97 percent that limit corresponds to 11 kilowatts of throughput, and the fast-switching discrete silicon carbide design measured 98.3 percent [Clarke et al].

Running the flight hardware together showed where the interference came from. Dynamometer testing on laboratory power supplies showed no concern, but when the X-57’s batteries, battery control modules, motors and cruise motor controllers were first run together, on a hardware-in-the-loop rig off the aircraft, the battery modules’ monitoring communications dropped out as soon as the controllers were armed. The silicon carbide switching edges, passing through an extremely low-inductance flat bus cable, coupled common-mode current into battery sensor boards that had no filtering, and the remedy was a common-mode filter tuned to the flight hardware. Tight clearances in the nacelle produced unintended ground paths, and current induced between rotor and stator flowed through the bearings into the structure until a spare slip-ring channel was used to drain it [Clarke] [Clarke et al].

The motors ended it. The cruise motors were built by Joby Aviation and assembled by Empirical Systems Aerospace, and NASA tested them for endurance against the objectives of the aircraft engine standard, Part 33 of the Federal Aviation Regulations, because, in the traction power team’s account, a flight qualification standard for electric motors did not exist at the time. Defects in bearing installation and in the electrical isolation between stator winding and chassis led to a stator redesign and a new batch of motors. Through acceptance testing and ground running further discrepancies appeared, especially in the bearing type and housing, and the design was finally judged not flightworthy without a major stator redesign. The project closed out before that redesign could be developed [Clarke et al]. The lessons learned report records that problems with the motors’ rotors were resolved operationally, by extra inspections and limited ground running, when hardware issues arose in 2018, 2021 and 2023, which delayed finding their root cause until late in the project [Maliska et al. 2024].

Why the Programme Was Surprised

The lessons learned report is unusually direct about the root cause, and it is not a technical one [Maliska et al. 2024] [Kushner et al].

The project was scoped as an integration effort rather than a development effort. The initial technology readiness assessment concluded that the subsystems existed and could be bought, so the plan assumed that funding and time were not needed to develop them [Technology Readiness Level] [Technology Readiness Level, NASA]. The team was selected to integrate a distributed electric propulsion wing, not to develop the components that make one. Because no subsystem development was expected, few subsystem risks were identified, and because few risks were identified, no reserves were held against them [Maliska et al. 2024].

A single direction then invalidated the assessment without triggering a new one.

The readiness assessment rested in part on the existence of, and assumed ability to access, overseas flight-proven hardware. The direction from senior leadership was to use technology available from United States industry only. The report states plainly that when that direction was given, the project may have benefitted from reassessing the readiness of American components, and that it did not [Maliska et al. 2024] [Kushner et al].

During execution the actual readiness proved significantly lower than assumed. The cruise motors, the cruise motor controllers, the battery control modules and the high-lift motor controllers all had to be redesigned. A programme staffed for integration found itself developing four subsystems, first one after another and then in parallel, which raised the technical risk further and delayed the subsystems that had been ready [Maliska et al. 2024].

The report sums up the consequence as a delay to the integration and test of the mature subsystems, which increased the probability of cost and schedule impacts arriving late in the project, at a point when there was no schedule and no funding left to absorb them [Maliska et al. 2024].

Six Years a Year From Flight

The schedule record shows the same mismatch from the outside. At kickoff the contractor was expected to buy commercially available motors, controllers and batteries, integrate them, and deliver a flight-ready Mod II, with NASA’s role limited to minimal system-level verification. By 2018 it was clear that the delivery date would not be met. NASA took delivery of the Mod II aircraft in October 2019 in a non-airworthy state, with no operable battery or propulsive system, after a spring and summer in which both motors had been spun on ground power through a single controller each instead of the dual controllers that flight required. The same year NASA set a firm end date of 30 September 2023 [Kushner et al].

The planned flights then fell away from the top. Delays to the battery control modules held up ground testing on the aircraft’s own battery power until the middle of 2021 [Maliska et al. 2024]. Flight of Mod IV was removed from the project in the summer of 2021 and flight of Mod III in the autumn of 2022, in each case because no achievable path to first flight before the end date remained. In the summer of 2023 latent design issues in the cruise motors required a lengthy modification to be made airworthy, NASA elected not to extend the project, and Mod II was not flown [Kushner et al]. The motors in their existing configuration had been judged an unacceptable risk for flight with the concurrence of the centre’s airworthiness review board, and work was proceeding toward a critical design review of a modified motor [Maliska et al. 2024]. The project’s chart of forecast days to first flight shows that Mod II was a year from flight for six years of the subproject [Maliska and Clarke].

The work that was finished was ground work. NASA ran ground vibration tests of the Mod II aircraft, with battery mass simulators in place of the energised packs, and of the Mod III wing, and qualification load-tested the new wing in its Flight Loads Laboratory [Spivey et al] [Truong et al] [Miller et al]. The systems engineering account ends on extended, successful ground runs of the Mod II powertrain once the electromagnetic and thermal problems had been addressed [Kushner et al].

Comparison With Ground Prediction

Nothing the X-57 was built to demonstrate was flown, so flight returned no data to set beside the ground predictions. The small wing, the twelve high-lift propellers and the wingtip cruise propellers exist in the record only as estimates, analyses and ground tests. The single configuration that flew was the unmodified aeroplane, and this article states no flight data from it.

The predictions themselves are specific. The flight performance report predicted a stall speed for the highly loaded wing comparable to that of the configuration with the original wing, and induced drag for the shorter span higher than that of the original despite the higher aspect ratio [Borer]. It predicted lift to drag ratios at the cruise point 40 percent higher for the small wing without thrust and 53 percent higher with it. The programme’s propeller testing measured thrust and slipstream velocities on the ground [Litherland et al]. Flight tested none of them.

This article can compare one ground figure against another, and it does so in four places. The subsection on the flap and the propellers recomputes the blown lift coefficient of 3.95 that the propeller designers state from the tabulated stall speeds, and reproduces the Mod II stall speeds from the production aeroplane’s by mass scaling. The drag trade derives the 32 percent rise in induced drag from the published spans, and the report states the same result. The section headed The Second Propulsion System recovers the 255 newton metre torque stated for the cruise motor from its power and speed. The battery section rebuilds the pack’s 538 volt ceiling and 55.3 kilowatt hour nominal energy from the cell.

The one prediction that met a test and failed was not aerodynamic. The initial readiness assessment predicted that the subsystems existed and could be bought, and ground testing of the motor controllers returned short circuits under vibration, overheating at a worn thermal pad, and shoot-through commanded by software, and ground running of the cruise motors returned defects in their bearings and in the isolation of their windings [Clarke and Terry] [Maliska et al. 2024] [Clarke et al]. That comparison is set out in full under The Flight Test Record.

What the Data Changed

Working the blowing through on the published numbers divides the central claim in two. If the twelve propellers had to supply the whole factor of 2.38 by raising the dynamic pressure, ideal actuator discs would need 139 kilowatts against 151 installed, and any realistic efficiency would exceed the installed power. The tabulated stall speeds show that they did not have to. The flapped small wing reaches a maximum lift coefficient of about 2.5 against 1.66 for the production wing, the propellers supply the remaining factor of 1.58, and on that division the requirement falls to about 59 percent of the installed power. The propeller’s design thrust implies more slipstream velocity than the model needs, and the flight performance report expected a lower stall speed in flight than the target. None of that was tested, so it remains a prediction checked only against other predictions.

The battery constrained the flight test before it constrained the design. The baseline flight profile was predicted to need 98 percent of the effective energy, the pack’s computed state of charge could not be trusted, and the Mod II flight plan allowed between 5 and 20 minutes on condition with no go-around. A still-air cruise bound using the report’s lift to drag ratios gives 75 kilometres for Mod II and 116 for Mod III on the full pack.

Working the power density showed the motors to be a smaller advance than the architecture suggests. A cruise motor with its propeller gives 1.36 kilowatts per kilogram against about 1.30 for the piston engine it replaced. The bare motor gives about 1.9, and with the two controllers it needs it gives between 1.35 and 1.48, a gain of between 4 and 14 percent. The advantage of distributed electric propulsion is divisibility instead of power density, because a small electric motor is nearly as efficient as a large one, while the combustion engines of light aircraft fall short of the efficiency of larger engines.

The published geometry does not close. The report gives a wing area, a span and an aspect ratio for the same wing, and any two of those determine the third. For the original wing they agree to better than one percent. For the new wing they disagree by 6.4 percent. The article uses the two quantities that enter its computations and does not use the third.

The empty engines cell is not a finding about electric propulsion. The engines cell for this row is empty, which invites the reading that the register had no category for an aeroplane without engines. Ninety-four rows have an empty engines cell, and the other X rows that do include a supersonic demonstrator and a rocket. The blank is a gap in the compilation.

The induced drag result is derived independently, and the primary source states it. Working from the published spans, a shorter span at higher aspect ratio gives 32 percent more induced drag at the same lift and speed. Borer makes the same point in prose. Agreement between an independent derivation and the source is worth more than either alone.

The Contemporary Literature

Cluster	Records
Distributed electric propulsion, which is the thing the register names	326
Blowing a wing so that it can be smaller	165
Propellers at the wingtip, and the vortex they turn against	31
The battery, which is the constraint the whole architecture is built around	308
Motors, inverters and the switching devices that ended this programme	233
Keeping it cool, which a piston engine does with its own exhaust	57
Electric aeroplanes as a class, and whether the sums work	328
Propeller theory, which is older than any of this	147
The drag the smaller wing was meant to save	72
Lift, stall and the wing that had to be made smaller	248
Sizing an aeroplane around a new kind of engine	63
Proving it is safe, which is where this one stopped	23
Measuring it, on the ground and in the air	45
The atmosphere and the flight condition	30
Other aeronautical, propulsion and electrical literature	5
Total	2,081

The survey divides into 15 clusters, and the largest is electric aeroplanes as a class rather than this one. That cluster holds 328 records, ahead of the 326 on the distributed electric propulsion that the register names and the 308 on the battery.

Every research record below is cited exactly once, in one cluster. A record sits in the cluster that its title names, and the clusters run from the architecture the register describes, through the aerodynamics and the machinery it depends on, to the flight condition and a short last cluster.

Distributed electric propulsion, which is the thing the register names

This cluster holds titles that name distributed propulsion or distributed electric propulsion, or the X-57 and its predecessors SCEPTOR and LEAPTech, the programme’s own reports among them.

326 records. [Acevedo Giraldo] [Agrawal et al. 2018] [Ahmed et al. 2024] [Ahuja et al. 2026] [Alonso Castilla et al. 2021] [Anibal and Duensing 2025] [Anibal et al. 2020] [Athanasakos et al. 2021] [Avanesian et al. 2023] [Awad and Stumpf 2022] [Ballano Martinez et al. 2025] [Barry et al. 2023] [Bendarkar et al. 2021] [Benjamin 2023] [Benjamin et al. 2025] [Benyamen and Keshmiri 2022] [Bhamidipati] [Bhamidipati et al] [Bhamidipati et al] [Bhamidipati et al. 2024b] [Biser et al. 2020] [Bollman et al. 2015] [Borer] [Borer 2024] [Borer and Moore 2015] [Borer and Patterson] [Borer et al] [Borer et al] [Borer et al] [Borer et al] [Borer et al. 2016] [Borer et al. 2017] [Borer et al. 2019] [Borer et al. 2023] [Bowen 2025] [Bowen et al. 2023] [Bravo et al. 2021] [Busan et al. 2021] [Böhnisch et al. 2022] [Cao et al. 2024] [Chau et al. 2025] [Chaudhary et al. 2026] [Chen et al. 2025a] [Chen et al. 2025b] [Chin et al. 2017] [Chin et al. 2019] [Chin et al. 2020] [Choi 2014] [Choi et al. 2014] [Christie et al. 2017] [Ciliberti and Nicolosi 2026] [Clarke] [Clarke and Harris] [Clarke and Terry] [Clarke et al] [Clarke et al] [Clarke et al. 2016] [Comunian et al. 2024] [Comunian et al. 2025] [Comunian et al. 2026] [Corcau et al. 2026] [Cunningham et al. 2022] [Curry et al] [Cusati et al. 2023] [Daniel and Hendrick 2023] [Dannier et al. 2019] [Davies et al. 2013] [Davies et al. 2015] [de Rosa et al. 2022] [de Vries and Vos 2023] [de Vries et al. 2019a] [de Vries et al. 2019b] [Deere et al. 2017b] [Deere et al. 2017c] [Deere et al. 2017a] [Deere et al. 2018] [Deere et al. 2022] [Deere et al. 2025] [Denham et al] [Dippold 2016] [Dorfling and Traub 2023] [Dubois et al. 2016b] [Dubois et al. 2016a] [Duensing et al. 2019a] [Duensing et al. 2019b] [Dumanli et al. 2026] [Durmaz et al. 2018] [Edwards and Smith 2019] [Eqbal et al. 2022] [Eqbal et al. 2023] [Erhard and Alonso 2022] [Erhard et al. 2021] [Fard et al. 2022] [Fazelzadeh et al. 2023] [Felder et al. 2012] [Felder et al. 2025] [Filippoli et al. 2026a] [Filippoli et al. 2026b] [Firnhaber Beckers et al. 2022] [Firnhaber Beckers et al. 2023a] [Firnhaber Beckers et al. 2023b] [Frederick et al. 2025] [Freeman and Klunk 2018] [Furlan et al. 2014] [Gallani et al. 2020] [Gan et al. 2021] [Garrett et al. 2019] [Gilbrook et al. 2023] [Gilbrook et al. 2025] [Gohardani 2013] [Gohardani et al. 2011] [Goldberg et al. 2016] [Goldberg et al. 2017] [Gothow et al. 2023] [Gothow et al. 2024] [Green et al. 2023] [Habermann 2020] [Hall et al. 2019] [Harada 2022] [Harris 2021] [Harris 2022] [Harris 2023] [Heeg et al. 2018] [Heer et al. 2023] [Hernandez Lugo et al. 2018] [Herzog et al. 2021] [Herzog et al. 2023] [Herzog et al. 2024] [Hoogreef et al. 2019] [Hoover 2024] [Huangfu et al. 2024] [Jedamski et al. 2023] [Jia et al. 2024] [Jimenez et al. 2022] [Jois et al. 2024] [Keller 2021] [Keller 2023] [Keller 2025] [Kerho 2015] [Kettenhofen et al. 2025] [Kim et al. 2018a] [Kim et al. 2018b] [Kirner et al. 2015] [Kirner et al. 2016] [Kirsch and Friedrichs 2023] [Klunk and Freeman 2018] [Kou et al. 2023] [Kowalewski 2024] [Kowalewski et al. 2023] [Kunwar et al. 2026] [Kushner 2023] [Kushner et al] [Kuzniar et al. 2020] [Laskaridis 2015] [Laskaridis et al. 2014] [Lawhorn et al. 2018] [Lechniak 2018] [Lechniak et al. 2018] [Legrand et al. 2025] [Lei and Zhao 2023] [Li et al. 2022d] [Li et al. 2025a] [Li et al. 2026a] [Lindner et al. 2023] [Lindner et al. 2024] [Litherland et al] [Litherland et al] [Litt 2024] [Litt 2026] [Litt et al. 2026] [Liu et al. 2012] [Liu et al. 2025] [Love 2022] [Luo et al. 2024b] [Ma et al. 2020b] [Ma et al. 2022] [Ma et al. 2025a] [Ma et al. 2025b] [Machado et al] [Machado et al. 2025] [Maliska and Clarke] [Maliska and Clarke] [Maliska and Clarke] [Maliska et al. 2024] [Markov et al. 2021] [Marrufo and Kloesel 2019] [Melo] [Melvin and Zhao 2023] [Melvin and Zhao 2024] [Mikhalyov et al. 2019] [Miller et al] [Minervino et al. 2022] [Moore and Ning 2018] [Moore and Ning 2019] [Morani et al. 2024] [Nalianda and Singh 2014] [Nark et al. 2017] [Nathan 2026] [Nemie 2024] [Newton and Wallace] [Nguyen et al. 2016] [Nguyen et al. 2018] [Nicolosi et al. 2022] [Nishikawa and Rinoie 2024] [Nisi and Tang 2025] [Odukoya and Jo 2026] [Oldeweme et al. 2024a] [Oldeweme et al. 2024b] [Orefice et al. 2019] [Orefice et al. 2020] [Pagliaroli and Peri 2026] [Papathakis] [Papathakis et al. 2016b] [Papathakis et al. 2016a] [Papathakis et al. 2017b] [Pascioni and Rizzi 2018] [Pascioni et al. 2019] [Patterson et al. 2016a] [Patterson et al. 2021] [Perry et al. 2018] [Perry et al. 2019] [Perry et al. 2021] [Perry et al. 2023] [Pieper et al. 2018] [Qiao and Barakos 2025] [Qiao et al. 2023] [Raja Sekaran et al. 2013] [Raush et al. 2016] [Reynolds et al] [Reynolds et al] [Reynolds et al. 2014] [Rizzi et al. 2017] [Sarikaya et al. 2026] [Satria Palar et al. 2024] [Schetz et al. 2010] [Schiltgen and Freeman 2019] [Schiltgen et al. 2012] [Schiltgen et al. 2013b] [Schiltgen et al. 2013a] [Schiltgen et al. 2014] [Schlickenmaier et al. 2023] [Schneehagen et al. 2025] [Schnulo and Hall] [Schnulo et al. 2017] [Schnulo et al. 2019] [Schollenberger et al. 2025] [Sha et al. 2025] [Shang et al. 2025] [Sharma et al. 2022] [Sharpe and Agarwal 2019b] [Shen et al. 2026a] [Shi et al. 2021] [Shi et al. 2024] [Simmons 2023] [Simmons and Murphy 2021] [Simmons and Murphy 2022] [Sinha 2026] [Soikkeli et al. 2023] [Song et al. 2026] [Sorensen et al. 2025] [Spada et al. 2025] [Spivey et al] [Stoll 2015] [Stoll and Veble Mikic 2016] [Stoll et al. 2014] [Strathoff et al. 2019] [Sun et al. 2024a] [Suppes and Suppes 2024a] [Suppes and Suppes 2024b] [Suzuki et al. 2019] [Synodinos et al. 2018] [Synodinos et al. 2024] [Thapa et al. 2025] [Thosar et al. 2026] [Trainelli 2026] [Traub 2021] [Traub 2022] [Truong et al] [Tsoi et al. 2014] [Turhan et al. 2023] [Turhan et al. 2026] [Upadhyay and Zaman 2021] [Valencia et al. 2015a] [Valencia et al. 2015b] [Valencia et al. 2019b] [Valencia et al. 2019a] [Varela Martínez] [Viken and Li] [Viken et al. 2017] [Waite et al] [Wallace et al] [Wallace et al] [Wallace et al] [Wang and Hu 2026] [Wang et al. 2021] [Wang et al. 2023a] [Wang et al. 2025e] [Wang et al. 2026g] [Wang et al. 2026e] [Wang et al. 2026b] [Wick et al. 2015] [Wickersheim et al. 2023] [Wilhite et al] [Williams] [Wisniewski and Fagley 2019] [Wu et al. 2023a] [Xie et al. 2023] [Xie et al. 2026a] [Xue and Zhou 2020a] [Yan 2025] [Yan et al. 2014] [Yan Zhou et al. 2018] [Yang et al. 2025b] [Yoo et al] [Yu and Kim 2024] [Yu et al. 2021] [Yu et al. 2026b] [Yu et al. 2026a] [Zhang et al. 2019a] [Zhang et al. 2023b] [Zhang et al. 2026b] [Zhao et al. 2022] [Zheng et al. 2025] [Zhou et al. 2024a] [Zong et al. 2024] [Łukasik 2017]

83 of the 326 titles name the X-57, SCEPTOR, LEAPTech or HEIST, being 25.5 percent of the cluster, and the rest treats aero-propulsive coupling, noise, control allocation and sizing for other configurations.

Blowing a wing so that it can be smaller

This cluster holds titles on blowing a wing, which are the propeller slipstream over a wing, powered lift, blown and Coanda flaps, circulation control and short takeoff and landing.

165 records. [Agostinelli et al. 2015] [Ahuja and Litherland 2023] [Airspeed vs Flight Path 2003] [Aminaei et al. 2018] [Andriesen and Honaker 1987] [Arumugam and Chidambaram 2025] [Barberie et al. 2013] [Beck et al. 2014] [Beck et al. 2015] [Belák and Hromčík 2023] [Biber 2005] [Biber 2011] [Bobbitt and Margason 2007] [Bohari et al. 2018] [Borer] [Bouquet and Vos 2017] [Butler et al. 1966] [Campbell et al. 1978] [Cao et al. 2023] [Carr 1986] [Casses et al. 2022] [Catalano 2004] [Chauhan and Martins 2020] [Chen and Yang 2022] [Chen et al. 2015] [Chen et al. 2016b] [Chiocchia and Pignataro 1995] [Cochrane and Carros 1975] [Cochrane and Carros 1976] [Conlon and Bowles 1977] [Conlon and Bowles 1978] [Duivenvoorden et al. 2022] [Duivenvoorden et al. 2025] [Duivenvoorden et al. 2026] [Durai 2014] [El Sayed M. et al. 2018] [Ellis 1966] [Elsaadawy and Britcher 2000] [Elsaadawy and Britcher 2002a] [Elsaadawy and Britcher 2002b] [Elsaadawy and Britcher 2003] [Elsaadawy and Britcher 2004] [Empey and Nahon 2022] [Engar and Huson 1983] [Englar 1987] [Englar 1988] [Englar and Campbell 2002b] [Englar and Campbell 2002a] [Experimental Development and Evaluation 2006] [Fei 2019] [Fei et al. 2018] [Ferraro et al. 2014] [Franklin et al. 1985] [Fu et al. 2012] [Furey 1980] [Furusawa et al. 2024b] [Furusawa et al. 2024a] [Goland et al. 1964] [Gologan et al. 2009] [Hansing et al. 2004] [Hard] [Hawkswell et al. 2022] [Hawkswell et al. 2024] [Heathcote et al. 2026] [Hebbar et al. 2022] [Herfray and Nahon 2024] [Howard and Miley 1989] [Howard et al. 1985] [Ikami et al. 2019] [Ikami et al. 2021] [Ikami et al. 2022] [Jenkins 1971] [Jewell et al. 1979] [Jie et al. 2017] [Katz et al. 1980] [Keller and Rudnik 2016] [Khan and Nahon 2014] [Khan and Nahon 2015] [Khan et al. 2013] [Kimberlin 1987] [Kleckner 1973] [Koenig and Aoyagi 1975] [Konishi et al. 2015] [Kubo et al. 2009] [Kubo et al. 2010] [Kuijvenhoven 1990] [Kurane et al. 2018] [Lan 1975] [Lan et al. 2026] [Leksono et al. 2014] [Lenfers et al. 2017] [Li and Da Ronch 2026] [Li et al. 2022b] [Long et al. 2021] [Long et al. 2026] [Love 1993] [Maita et al. 1982] [Maita et al. 1983] [Makino and Nagai 2014] [Mendenhall and Spangler 1976] [Meng et al. 2023] [Metcalfe 1985] [Miley et al. 1988] [Mishra and Joshi 2024] [Murnieks et al. 2024b] [Murnieks et al. 2024a] [Müller et al. 2012] [Müller et al. 2014] [Nishida et al. 1991] [Okawa et al. 2023] [Patterson and Borer 2017] [Patterson et al. 2016b] [Peri and Mishra 2026] [Petrov 1993] [Pfingsten and Radespiel] [Phillips 2002] [Piñero 2026] [Plijter et al. 2025] [Popowski and Dąbrowski 2018] [Raj and Chidambaram 2025] [Qin et al. 1998] [Ralston and Hultburg 2010] [Rauhut and Slingerland 2003] [Ren and Liu 2022] [Renooij and Slingerland 2004] [Reveles et al. 2020] [Ribeiro et al. 2023] [Riddle et al. 1981] [Roosenboom and Schröder 2009] [Roosenboom et al. 2007] [Roosenboom et al. 2009b] [Roosenboom et al. 2009a] [Roosenboom et al. 2010] [Roth 1997] [Schouten 1993] [Schouten 1999] [Schroijen and Slingerland 2007] [Schumacher 1970] [Schwartzberg 1959] [Selig 2010] [Shahjahan et al. 2026] [Shao et al. 2025a] [Sheng et al. 2026] [Sheridan et al. 2021] [Shruti and Sivapragasam 2021] [Slotnick et al. 2000] [Solies 1992] [Srivathsan and Rauleder 2023] [Stewart 1985] [Stone 2002] [Sudhakar et al. 2016] [Swift and Bartel 1989] [Van Den Borne and Van Hengst 1990] [Walters and Ashworth 1974] [Wang et al. 2025d] [Wardwell et al. 1986] [Watson et al. 1986] [Westcott et al. 2025] [Xiong et al. 2026a] [Xu et al. 2012] [Xue and Zhou 2020b] [Yan et al. 2025] [Ying et al. 2015] [Zawodny et al. 2018] [Zheng et al. 2024]

Blowing a wing is an old subject that distributed electric propulsion revived. 37 of the 162 dated records predate 1990, and 72 were published in 2015 or later.

Propellers at the wingtip, and the vortex they turn against

This cluster holds titles on propellers mounted at the wingtip and on the wingtip vortex they work against, together with the induced drag that recovering it reduces.

31 records. [Поваров and Зінченко 2019] [Anderson et al. 2000] [Beckers et al. 2026] [Ben Miloud et al. 2017] [Chatterjee et al. 2021] [Dacles-Mariani et al. 1995] [Ginevsky and Zhelannikov 2009] [Hooker et al. 2020] [Içke and Baysal 2021] [Jayasundara et al. 2020] [Kurochkin 2022] [Lin et al. 2023a] [Loth and Loth 1984] [Lu et al. 2019] [Meneghetti Bomfim et al. 2024] [Miranda and Brennan 1986] [Morelli et al. 2022] [Nederlof et al. 2023] [O’Regan et al. 2012] [Pfeifle et al. 2022] [Scala et al. 2026] [Schollenberger et al. 2022] [Schollenberger et al. 2026] [Sharpe and Agarwal 2019a] [Silva] [Sinnige et al. 2021] [Snyder and Zumwalt 1969] [Sudak] [Van der Leer and Hoogreef 2022] [Zheng and Ramaprian 1993] [Zhou et al. 2020]

The battery, which is the constraint the whole architecture is built around

This cluster holds titles on the battery as an energy store, which are cells and packs, specific energy, battery management and state of charge, and thermal runaway and its propagation.

308 records. [Yashi Garg 2024] [Aircraft Storage-Battery Design 1944] [Anderman] [Anker and Noland 2022] [Anker et al. 2023] [Annapragada et al. 2018] [Anthony et al. 2024] [Arazi et al. 2017] [Ardeshiri et al. 2022] [Atanasov and Silberhorn 2026] [Avanzini and Giulietti 2013] [Baliyan 2025] [Balkas et al. 2025] [Battery Energy Storage 2010] [Bhat et al. 2021b] [Bhat et al. 2021a] [Bhide et al. 2024] [Bills et al. 2020] [Bills et al. 2023] [Boggan and Clarke 2025b] [Boggan and Clarke 2025a] [Bossi and Damiano 2024] [Breban 2016] [Bugryniec and Brown 2025] [Böse et al. 2026] [Cao et al. 2025] [Chaiworn] [Chen 2016] [Chen et al. 2020] [Chen et al. 2024a] [Chen et al. 2024b] [Cheng et al. 2019] [Cheng et al. 2022] [Cheng et al. 2023] [Chin et al. 2021] [Choate et al. 2014] [Choi et al. 2025] [Chuang et al. 2025] [Clarke and Alonso 2022] [Clarke and Alonso 2023] [Corcau and Dinca 2024] [Corcau et al. 2012] [Corcau et al. 2017] [Dang 2026] [Deng et al. 2019] [Design and Development of] [Diecke 2025] [Diecke et al. 2025] [Ding et al. 2023] [Ding et al. 2024] [Donateo et al. 2023a] [Donateo et al. 2023b] [Dong and Sun 2023] [Düzgün et al. 2026] [El Idrissi and D’Arpino 2024] [Epp et al. 2022] [Fachao et al. 2021] [Fathabadi 2014] [Feng et al. 2015] [Ferreira and Tang 2024] [Fisler and Datta 2019] [Fu et al. 2023b] [Fu et al. 2023a] [García et al. 2022] [Giuffré et al. 2025] [Gong et al. 2023] [Gong et al. 2025] [Gothing 2025] [Green 1998] [Gryszka and Castro 2026] [Guan and Chen 2026] [Guaraco-Figueira] [Guibert et al. 2025a] [Guibert et al. 2025b] [Göbel et al. 2026] [Hallock 2024] [Han and Ezekoye 2026] [Han et al. 2025a] [Han et al. 2025b] [Harrison et al. 2019] [He] [Heit and Liscouet-Hanke 2023] [Helmchen et al. 2025] [Hess 2019] [Hoelle et al. 2024] [Hoenicke and Willich 2025] [Horton et al. 2024] [Hu et al. 2022] [Hu et al. 2025] [Huang et al. 2024] [Huang et al. 2025] [Hui et al. 2024] [Husain 2021] [Hussaini and Wang 2022] [Hyun 2026] [IEEE Guide for Design] [Javia et al. 2023] [Jeon et al. 2022] [Jia and Xu 2019] [Jiang et al. 2023] [Jiang et al. 2026] [Jiao and Yang 2026] [Johnson 1995] [Joshi and Geyer 2024] [Kaliaperumal and Chidambaram 2024] [Karimi and Dehghan 2014] [Kaya 2026] [Kellermann et al. 2022] [Keçeci and Oktal 2026] [Kiesewetter and Shah 2024] [Kiesewetter et al. 2025] [Kim et al. 2023a] [Kolluri et al. 2021] [Kugener et al. 2025] [Kuijpers et al. 2024] [Kulkarni et al. 2018] [Kwak et al. 2026] [Lampo 2025] [Landi et al. 2013] [LeBel et al. 2019] [Lee et al. 2025] [Lei et al. 2023] [Leng] [Li 2024a] [Li et al. 2022a] [Li et al. 2022c] [Li et al. 2023a] [Li et al. 2023b] [Li et al. 2026b] [Liang et al. 2025b] [Liang et al. 2025a] [Liang et al. 2026] [Lin et al. 2023b] [Linse and Kuhn 2015] [Liu] [Liu and Li 2022] [Liu and Zhang 2026] [Liu et al. 2021a] [Liu et al. 2022b] [Liu et al. 2024b] [Liu et al. 2024a] [Liu et al. 2026c] [Liu et al. 2026a] [Liu et al. 2026b] [Lotfy] [Lu et al. 2026] [Luo et al. 2024a] [Maaradji et al. 2026] [Macdonald et al. 2020] [Maddipatla et al. 2026] [Mahalingam et al. 2024] [Mallick and Gayen 2023] [Marchand 1989] [Martinelli et al. 1980] [Meng et al. 2025] [Metwly and He 2023] [Meydan] [Misley et al. 2023a] [Misley et al. 2023b] [Mohamed et al. 2021] [Molloy et al. 2026] [Mondoha] [Mooney et al. 2024] [Mulhall and Emadi 2009] [Naylor-Marlow et al. 2023] [Niedzballa and Schmitt 2001] [O’Haver 1984] [Ouyang et al. 2024b] [Paek et al. 2020] [Pan and Wei 2025] [Park et al. 2025b] [Patel and Rathod 2024] [Patil 2022] [Patra et al. 2025] [Peng et al. 2019] [Peng et al. 2023] [Petchsart et al. 2024] [Pierce 1994] [Propulsion-Motor Options in Battery-Powered 1994] [Qiao et al. 2019] [Qin et al. 2026] [Qiu et al. 2024] [Quintiere 2020] [Rahmanivahid et al. 2025] [Raoofi et al. 2026] [Rassolkin and Muur 2015] [Read et al. 2024] [Reuel et al. 2026] [Rosewater 2022] [Roy et al. 2024] [Ryan and Bricker 1977] [Sadeghi and Restuccia 2025] [Saechan and Dhuchakallaya 2026] [Safety and Degradation Mechanisms 2025] [Sakthimurugan et al. 2025] [Satpute 2025] [Sauer et al. 2024] [Schroeter et al. 2024] [Shamberger and Forero 2011] [Shan 2017] [Shareef and Rao 2026] [Shekar and Clarke 2024] [Shekar and Clarke 2026] [Shen et al. 2026b] [Sheng et al. 2025] [Shijina et al. 2024] [Shiva Prasad 2024a] [Shiva Prasad 2024b] [Shushnar] [Sorokina et al. 2024] [Spierling et al. 2024] [Spierling et al. 2025] [Srimathi et al. 2024] [Stein et al. 2000] [Sun et al. 2024b] [Sun et al. 2026b] [Sun et al. 2026a] [Swamy and Verma 2025] [Tarhan et al. 2021] [Tariq] [The Handbook of Lithium-Ion 2015] [The Handbook of Lithium-Ion 2024] [Mi et al. 2025] [Traub 2011] [Traub 2016] [Tsenter and James 2006] [USABC 12-V Stop/Start Battery 2015] [USABC 48-V Battery Pack 2015] [USABC HEV Battery Pack 2015] [USABC PHEV Battery Pack 2015] [Uwitonze et al. 2024] [Veilleux et al. 2024] [Veilleux et al. 2025] [Verberne et al. 2024] [Viswanathan and Charkey 1986] [Viswanathan and Charkey 1988] [Vyroubal et al. 2021] [Wahab et al. 2026] [Wang et al. 2020] [Wang et al. 2023b] [Wang et al. 2024b] [Wang et al. 2025f] [Wang et al. 2025c] [Wang et al. 2025b] [Wang et al. 2026c] [Wang et al. 2026d] [Wang et al. 2026f] [Wang et al. 2026j] [Wang et al. 2026k] [Wang et al. 2026l] [Wang et al. 2026h] [Wang et al. 2026i] [Warner 2015e] [Warner 2015b] [Warner 2015d] [Warner 2015c] [Warner 2015a] [Warner 2024e] [Warner 2024b] [Warner 2024d] [Warner 2024a] [Warner 2024c] [Wen et al. 2023a] [Wen et al. 2023b] [Wheeler et al. 2023] [Whitehead 1979] [Winanta et al. 2023] [Wise et al. 2026] [Wiston and Yan 2025] [Witzenhausen et al. 2012] [Worrell et al. 1977] [Wu et al. 2022] [Wu et al. 2023b] [Wu et al. 2025b] [Xiao et al. 2024b] [Xie 2025] [Xie et al. 2024] [Xing et al. 2024] [Xu et al. 2023] [Xu et al. 2024a] [Xu et al. 2024c] [Yang and Yang 2024] [yang et al 2025] [Yang et al. 2026] [Yetik and Karakoc 2020] [Yetik and Karakoc 2021] [Yildiz 2023] [Yong et al. 2024] [Yu et al. 2024b] [Yu et al. 2025] [Yu Wen et al. 2015] [Zadeh et al. 2022] [Zdunich et al. 2023] [Zdunich et al. 2024] [Zhang et al. 2023a] [Zhang et al. 2024] [Zhang et al. 2025] [Zhang et al. 2026a] [Zhang et al. 2026c] [Zhao et al. 2024a] [Zhao et al. 2024b] [Zheng 2025] [Zhou] [Zhou and Xiao 2026] [Zhou et al. 2024b] [Zhuang et al. 2021] [Zimmerman and Speckman 1987] [Zolla 1981]

111 of the 308 titles name thermal runaway, the failure that the X-57’s first battery met in its propagation test, and 119 name an aircraft, aviation or aerospace.

Motors, inverters and the switching devices that ended this programme

This cluster holds titles on electric machines, their inverters and drives, and the semiconductor switches inside them, silicon carbide among them.

233 records. [Abido et al] [AI-Based Electric Motor Fault 2023] [Akshat et al. 2025] [Alfares 2026] [Alvarez] [Attaianese et al] [Aware et al] [Ayyar et al. 2016] [Balachandran et al. 2020] [Balaji et al. 2023] [Batzel 2001] [Behera et al. 2007] [Boldea 2025] [Boldea et al. 1990] [Boroyevich 2004] [Borsboom et al. 2023] [Bourne et al. 2008] [Caras 1965] [Carlos and Martin 1999] [Chakraborty and Bharadwaj 2024] [Chang and Campbell 1963] [Chao and Liaw 2000] [Chattopadhyay et al. 1991] [Chen and Huang 2013] [Chen et al. 2016a] [Chiang and Tseng 2004] [Chiasson 2006] [Ching 2005] [Ching 2006] [Chirantan and Pati 2024] [Choi et al. 2017] [Ciezki and Ashton 1999] [Cong et al. 2023] [Cooper et al. 2000] [Daryabeigi et al. 2011] [Dassarma and Roy 1983] [De et al. 2011] [Deshpande et al. 2020] [Xin-tong et al. 2023] [Dey et al. 2011] [Dhangar 2024] [Diebold et al. 2021] [Dong et al. 2019] [Dotihal et al. 1990] [Dyanamina et al. 2012] [Ebrahimian et al. 2023] [Ehsani 2012] [El Hajji et al. 2024] [Elantably 2000] [Eldigair et al. 2015] [Elmas and Yigit 2007] [Ewanchuk and Salmon 2010] [Faa-Jeng Lin et al. 1998] [Fan] [Fard et al. 2021] [Faruqe et al. 2021] [Fauziah et al. 2019] [Fronista 1996] [Fundamentals of Electric Motor 2014] [Gair 1998] [Ganesan et al. 2014] [Ganev and Salam 2019] [Gao et al. 2020] [Ghezzo 2001] [Gholamian et al. 2025] [Ghosh and Saha 2024] [Griffin 2006] [Guinee 2009] [Guo et al. 2023] [Halawa et al. 2025] [Harshavardhan Reddy et al. 2014] [Hodkinson and Fenton 2000] [Holloran 1989] [Houmsi et al. 2023] [Huang Fengtai and Luo Fang Lin] [Hui and Christopoulos 1995] [Hussien 2012] [Iijima et al. 2021] [Itoh 1989] [Itoh 1990] [Jahns and Van Nocker] [Jiang] [Jiang 2003] [Jianming Yao et al] [Jones et al. 2011] [Jones et al. 2012] [Joy and Ushakumari 2018] [- et al. 2011] [Kaminski 2020] [Karthikeyan and Dhanasekaran 2012] [Khalid 2024] [Khan et al. 2022] [Khoucha et al. 2008] [Klima 2003] [Kocalmis and Sunter 2006] [Kyu-Bock Cho] [Labak and Kar 2009] [Lansink Rotgerink 2023] [Lee and Ehsani] [Lee et al. 2009] [Leslie-Pelecky 2006] [Li et al. 2010] [Liang Zhou and Smedley 2010] [Liaw and Tseng 1992] [Lin 2007] [Lin et al. 2001] [Lin et al. 2018] [Long et al. 2023] [Lu 2000] [Luckett and He 2022a] [Luo et al. 2022] [Hosny, A. A. Chanerley, B. Dobru 1999] [Mahesh et al. 2021] [Maheswari et al. 2020] [Malla and Gudey 2022] [Mandal and Singh 2001] [Mhango and Creighton 1984] [Mir et al] [Mirafzal and Demerdash] [Mondal et al. 2002] [Muthamizhan et al. 2021] [Naganathan et al. 2017] [Nandhini and Sivaprakasam 2023] [Narjes et al. 2018] [Niasar et al. 2006] [Notash and He 2024] [O’Donnell et al. 2018] [Oghafy et al. 2009] [Ogunniyi et al. 2022] [Onambele et al. 2017] [Parish 1990] [Park and Jung 2017] [Parsons 1996] [Pei and Li 2019] [Peter and Ramchand 2015] [Pilla et al. 2021] [Ping and He-ping 2011] [Pinto et al] [Pornet 2015] [Pornet 2016] [Pothuraju et al. 2021] [Abad 2016] [Power Electronics for More 2010] [Prabhakaran and Thirumoorthi 2025] [Prakash et al. 1986] [PWM Inverter-Fed Induction Motor 2005] [Qianfan Zhang and Xiaofei Liu 2008] [Rajaei et al. 2010] [Ramaswami et al. 1980] [Reddy et al. 2016] [Regaya et al. 2021] [Rinkevičienė 2024] [Rivera and Gutierrez 2021] [Rotgerink 2022] [Saeidabadi and Parsa 2021] [Schubert and Oertel 2022] [Shahbazi et al. 2009] [Sharar et al. 2013] [Sharma et al] [Sheridan 2008] [Shi et al] [Shin 2019] [Shin 2021] [Shirai and Wada 2025] [Shukla and Fernandes 2007] [Sikorski] [Sikorski and Citko 1998] [Singh et al. 1990] [Somasekhar et al. 2002] [Song and Choi 2011] [Song et al. 2025] [Srinivas et al. 2023] [Srivastava∗ 2008] [Stemmler] [Sukumar et al. 2014] [Sun and Wang 2012] [Sundareswaran and Laxminarayana 2002] [Sung and Mazzola 2005] [Takahashi 2025] [Tallerico 2025] [Tekwani et al. 2005] [Thomas and Fleming 2005] [Tian-Hua Liu and Ming-Tsan Lin 1996] [Tipton et al. 2003] [Torres et al. 2020] [Touhami] [Traction Drives and Three-Phase 2017] [Tutaev and Bobrov 2016] [Tutaev and Bobrov 2018] [Uddin et al] [Uddin et al. 2006] [Urciuoli 2013] [Urciuoli and Hinojosa 2022] [Van Wyk et al. 2000] [Venkat et al. 2009] [Vepa 2018] [Virginia Power Electronics Center Blacksburg 2000] [Volpe et al. 2017] [Vongmanee] [Vu ctilde ković and Vukosavić 1992] [Wada et al. 2025] [Wang and Fahimi 2012] [Watson 1981] [Wen 2023] [Wen and Smedley 2007] [Westinghouse Electric Corp Dayton Oh 1963] [Wheeler 2022] [Whiting and Thompson 2006] [Wilson and Smith 1977] [Xiao et al. 2017] [Xu et al. 2022] [Xu et al. 2026b] [Xu et al. 2026c] [Yadav and Manisha 2022] [Yalwarker and Sambandan 1997] [Yang et al. 2023] [Yeh and Demerdash 2007] [Yerkes and Scofield 2016] [Jiang, K. T. Chau, C. C. Chan 2002] [Zeraoulia et al] [Zhan] [Zhan and Zhou 2014] [Zhang] [Zhang 2013] [Zhang and Zhang 2021] [Zhang et al. 2018b] [Zhang et al. 2018a] [Zhang et al. 2018c] [Zhang et al. 2019b] [Zhang et al. 2020] [Zhao 2020] [Zharkov et al. 2026] [Zheng Wang et al. 2008]

22 of the 233 titles name silicon carbide or gallium nitride, the wide-bandgap semiconductors of the X-57’s controllers, and 46 name an aircraft, aviation or aerospace.

Keeping it cool, which a piston engine does with its own exhaust

This cluster holds titles on the thermal management of motors, power electronics and the systems of electric aircraft.

57 records. [Abdelmaksoud et al. 2024] [Abdelmaksoud et al. 2026] [Abolmoali et al. 2020] [Abreu et al. 2025] [Aceros Salas] [Asli et al. 2024] [Balda et al. 2005] [Beam 1997] [Bennion 2017] [Caggese 2023] [Caggese et al. 2024] [Caggese et al. 2025] [Chapman et al. 2020b] [Chapman et al. 2020a] [Coutinho et al. 2023b] [Coutinho et al. 2023a] [Deng et al. 2026] [Di Lorenzo et al. 2025] [Dong et al. 2020] [Freeman et al. 2014] [Ghorbanian et al. 2026] [Hamut et al. 2012] [Harris and Hughes 2011] [He et al. 2025] [Heltzel 2008] [Hendricks et al. 2021] [Houalef and Fioriti 2026] [Hussain et al. 2024] [Kamiyama et al. 2020] [Kang et al. 2025] [Kasitz et al. 2022] [Kellermann et al. 2020] [Lin 2002] [Lázaro and González-Martínez 2026] [Nakayama et al. 2026] [Niazi et al. 2025] [O’Connell et al. 2010] [Ouyang et al. 2024a] [Ouyang et al. 2025] [Pastra et al. 2026] [Psenica et al. 2026] [Quintilio and Fioriti 2026] [Rheaume and Lents 2018] [Rheaume and Lents 2020] [Rheaume et al. 2019] [Rodriguez et al. 2025] [Saha and Ghassemi 2024] [Shekar and Clarke 2025] [Tam 2023] [Thompson et al. 2023] [Tilton et al. 1989] [Vasiliev and Zhuravlyov 2023] [Venkategowda et al. 2020] [Vrable and Yerkes 1998] [Zeaiter] [Zeaiter and Fenot 2018] [Zeng et al. 2006]

Electric aeroplanes as a class, and whether the sums work

This cluster holds titles on electric, hybrid electric, turbo-electric, fuel cell and hydrogen aircraft as a class, their sizing, energy, range and power systems, and the more electric aircraft.

328 records. [AbdElHafez 2012] [Abir and Paul 2026] [Abu Salem et al. 2023] [Abubakar et al. 2025] [Aguida et al. 2024] [Ahmad and Ghaffarian Niasar 2026] [Ahmad and Santoro 2026] [Aigner et al. 2020] [Ali 2021] [Anderson et al. 2018] [Ansell 2022] [Antcliff et al. 2016] [Architecture Examples for Electrified] [Aretskin-Hariton et al. 2021] [Ata and Akgül 2023] [Ausserer and Harmon 2012] [Aydin et al. 2025] [Bacchini et al. 2021] [Bai et al. 2024] [Balaba et al. 2008] [Barkam and Radmanesh 2023] [Barufaldi and Morales 2023] [Batra et al. 2023] [Batra et al. 2024b] [Batra et al. 2024a] [Bermperis et al. 2024] [Bermperis et al. 2025] [Beschorner et al. 2025] [Bhandari et al. 2026b] [Bhandari et al. 2026a] [Aishwarya and Patil 2020] [Blanding 2007] [Blandino et al. 2025] [Blanken et al. 2023] [Boggan and Clarke 2026] [Bonnin and Hoogreef 2025] [Bonnin et al. 2023] [Borer et al. 2018] [Boulanger et al. 2020] [Bowman et al. 2018] [Boyd et al. 2020] [Bozhko et al. 2010] [Brooks and Salgueiro 2017] [Buescher and Connolly 2024] [Buescher and Hill 2025] [Buvarp and Leijon 2024] [Byahut and Uranga 2020] [Carter et al. 2022] [Cassidy et al. 2025] [Channegowda et al. 2019] [Chapman 2023] [Chapman and Litt 2018] [Choe et al. 2021] [Choi et al. 2005] [Choi et al. 2026b] [Choi et al. 2026a] [Chouhan and Mourtos 2021] [Clarke 2015] [Collares] [Crain et al. 2024b] [Crain et al. 2024a] [Cronin 1983] [Danis et al. 2018] [Dantsker et al. 2019] [Darrah et al. 2025] [de Vries et al. 2018] [de Vries et al. 2020] [Dean et al. 2018] [Del Pizzo et al. 2016] [Deng et al. 2014] [Dever et al. 2022] [Diecke 2023] [Diecke 2024] [Donateo et al. 2019] [Dowdle et al. 2018] [Duffy 2015] [Duffy and Jansen 2018] [Dunham et al. 2017] [Dyson 2018] [Dyson 2022] [Dyson 2023] [Dyson et al. 2020] [Dyson et al. 2022] [Ebersberger et al. 2023] [Economou et al. 2019] [Ehsani and Bashaireh 2018] [Ekici et al. 2023] [Electric Aircraft 2024] [Electric and Hybrid-Electric Propulsion] [Evans] [Falck et al. 2017] [Fan et al. 2022] [Fan et al. 2023] [Fang et al. 2020] [Finger et al. 2018a] [Finger et al. 2018b] [Finger et al. 2019] [Finger et al. 2020c] [Finger et al. 2020a] [Finger et al. 2020b] [Finger et al. 2022] [Flanagan and Jarrett 2023] [Franke et al. 2023] [Friedrich and Robertson 2013] [Friedrich and Robertson 2014] [Friedrich and Robertson 2015] [Fugaro et al. 2018] [Gesell et al. 2019] [Ghassemi 2026] [Ginn 2015] [Gkoutzamanis et al. 2021] [Gladin et al. 2023] [Glassock et al. 2017] [Gohardani 2019] [Golovanov et al. 2019] [Goraj 2018] [Granger et al. 2021] [Griffo and Wang 2012] [Gur and Rosen 2009] [Gurleyen 2021] [Haglage and Brown 2020] [Hallez et al. 2018] [Hanif et al. 2024] [Hartmann et al. 2021] [Hebala et al. 2020] [Hoogreef 2026] [Hospodka et al. 2020] [Howse 2003] [Huang 2023] [Huebner and Kirz 2023] [Huh et al. 2025] [Hybrid and Electric Propulsion 2025] [Hybrid-electric aircraft propulsion mission] [Innocenti et al. 2009] [Isikveren 2018] [Iwakuma and Izumi 2023] [Iwanizki et al. 2019] [Jagtap 2019] [Jagtap 2025] [Jia and Rajashekara 2015] [Jiang et al. 2022] [Jones 1999] [Juvé et al. 2017] [Karvekar and Karvekar 2025] [Kascak et al. 2021] [Khedr et al. 2021] [Khodabakhsh and Moschopoulos 2021] [Khormi et al. 2022] [Kim and Lee 2025] [Kim and Williamson 2011] [Koudounas et al. 2025] [Kozakiewicz and Grzegorczyk 2021] [Kugener and Kazula 2024] [Kulkarni and Corbetta 2019] [Kuśmierek et al. 2023] [Köhler and Jeschke 2021] [Lammen and Vankan 2020] [Lammen et al. 2024] [Lawhorn et al. 2019] [Lay and Strohmayer 2023] [Leader et al. 2024] [Lefebvre and Zha 2015] [Li 2024b] [Li and Rodrigues 2023] [Li and Rodrigues 2025] [Li et al. 2024a] [Li et al. 2025b] [Liang et al. 2023] [Licheva and Liscouet-Hanke 2023] [Liu et al. 2021b] [Long et al. 2024] [Luca et al. 2024] [Luckett and He 2022b] [Lutz] [Ma et al. 2017] [Malkin and Pagonis 2014] [Mangold and Strohmayer 2025] [Masson and Luongo 2005] [McFall 2025] [Michalík and Čerňan 2020] [Mishra and Kim 2021] [Mishra et al. 2025] [Misley et al. 2021] [Misley et al. 2023c] [Mitcham and Grum 1998] [Miyairi et al. 2015] [Models of Electric and] [Moir 1998] [Moir 1999] [Monroy et al. 2012] [Moore 2014] [More-Electric Aircraft 2001] [More-Electric Aircraft 2005] [Morioka and Oyori 2014] [Naderi et al. 2025] [Nakka and Alexander-Ramos 2021] [Nomenclature and Definitions for] [Novelli 2023] [Nozinski et al. 2026] [O’Connell and Zhang 2022] [Okai et al. 2016] [Okai et al. 2017] [Orefice et al. 2022] [Palaia and Abu Salem 2023] [Park et al. 2025a] [Parker and Edwards 2023] [Patel et al. 2024] [Pearson 1998] [Perullo and Mavris 2014] [Pinto Leite and Voskuijl 2020] [Posada and Vargas 2020] [Pushylin and Loginov 2025] [pustina et al 2026] [Quibén Figueroa et al. 2024] [Quillet et al. 2021] [Quillet et al. 2023] [Rajagopalan Srilatha] [Rajamani 2019] [Rajamani 2026] [Rajamani and Dietrich 2021] [Rajashekara 2010] [Rajashekara 2014] [Ranjan et al. 2021] [Ranjan et al. 2023] [Ravishankar and Chakravarthy 2018] [Recalde et al. 2019] [Recalde et al. 2020] [Recalde et al. 2021] [Riboldi 2019] [Riboldi et al. 2018] [Rivard et al. 2018] [Rodriguez 2021] [Roiati et al. 2023] [Romeo et al. 2012] [Sachs 2012] [Sachs 2013] [Saha and Ghassemi 2025a] [Saha and Ghassemi 2025b] [Sahoo et al. 2019] [Sain et al. 2023a] [Sain et al. 2023b] [Salazar et al. 2020] [Salucci et al. 2021] [Sarup 2025] [Sarup 2026] [Sayed et al. 2021] [Scheidler 2018] [Schneider et al. 2019] [Scholz et al. 2023] [Seddiq 2026] [Setlak and Kowalik 2018] [Sharma et al. 2015] [Siddavatam et al. 2023] [Silva] [Simulation Analysis of DC 2024] [Sirimanna et al. 2021] [Sliwinski et al. 2017] [Smith 2014] [Souza] [Specification for Electrical Systems] [Spierling and Bradley 2026] [Standard Specification for Electrical] [Stautner et al. 2022] [Strathoff et al. 2020] [Sumption 2018] [Sumption 2026] [Swanson et al. 2021] [Sziroczak et al. 2020] [Tan et al. 2025] [Tanimura and Rinoie 2021] [Taylor and Stringer 2024] [Teichert et al. 2026] [Težak and Sever 2025] [Thauvin] [Thomas and Hansman 2020] [Thomas and Hansman 2021] [Tong and Tao 2024] [Truc-Hermel and Maury 2023] [Valsamis Mylonas et al. 2022] [VanLandingham et al. 2025] [Vatani et al. 2025] [Vepa 2020a] [Viswanathan et al. 2018] [Vos 2019b] [Vos 2019d] [Vos 2019c] [Vos 2019a] [Voss et al. 2026] [Vouros et al. 2022] [Waddington et al. 2021] [Waddington et al. 2023] [Wahler et al. 2025] [Wall and Meyer 2017] [Wall and Meyer 2020] [Walmsley et al. 2023] [Wang 2026] [Wang and Mesbahi 2020] [Wang et al. 2019b] [Wang et al. 2019a] [Wang et al. 2023c] [Wang et al. 2023d] [Wang et al. 2024a] [Watthewaduge and Bilgin 2023] [Wheeler et al. 2021] [White et al. 2022] [Wiegand et al. 2024] [Wiegand et al. 2025] [Wolnik et al. 2023] [Wroblewski and Ansell 2018] [Wroblewski and Ansell 2019a] [Wroblewski and Ansell 2019b] [Wroblewski and Ansell 2020] [Wu and Lents 2018] [Xiao et al. 2024a] [Xiao et al. 2025] [Xie et al. 2018] [Xie et al. 2026b] [Xu et al. 2024b] [Yang and Huang 2023] [Yang and Zha 2018] [Yang et al. 2020] [Yu et al. 2024a] [Yuvarajan 2001] [Zhang and Fleming 2026] [Zhang et al. 2010] [Zhang et al. 2022] [Zhao et al. 2021] [Zhu et al. 2020]

185 of the 328 titles name hybrid, turbo-electric, fuel cell or hydrogen propulsion, so most of the literature on electric aeroplanes as a class studies aeroplanes that do not rely on a battery alone.

Propeller theory, which is older than any of this

This cluster holds titles on propeller theory and design, which are momentum and actuator disc theory, blade element methods, propeller performance, blade strength and the propeller’s own tip vortex.

147 records. [Albert et al. 2013] [Alcañiz-Brull et al. 2026] [Ali et al. 2017] [Asghar et al. 2018] [Asghar et al. 2019] [Baek et al. 2015] [Baek et al. 2021] [Barnes 2017] [Bennett 1984] [Bicsák and Veress 2017] [bin Aminuddin and Wan Salim 2022] [Blade-Element/Momentum Theory 2024] [Blaurock 1975] [Boden and Stasicki 2014] [Bontempo et al. 2014] [Broersma and Tasseron 1967] [Bussi 1967] [Cai et al. 2024] [Carlton 2007b] [Carlton 2007a] [Carlton 2012a] [Carlton 2012b] [Carlton 2018] [Carlton 2019a] [Carlton 2019b] [Cavcar 2011] [Chandukrishna and Venkatesh 2022] [Chang and Sullivan 1982] [Cheng 1969] [Cheng et al. 2025] [Cho and Lee 1998] [Composite Propeller Blade 1972] [Computer Techniques for Propeller 1976] [Cummings 1968] [Dorfling and Rokhsaz 2014b] [Dorfling and Rokhsaz 2014a] [Dorfling and Rokhsaz 2016] [Durand 1893] [Erickson and John C. 1969] [Esteves and Dantas 2019] [Farooq et al. 2026] [Fatigue Fracture 2019] [Frocht and Wang 1963] [Gao et al. 2012] [Gao et al. 2024] [Gill and D’Andrea 2017] [Goorjian 1972] [Gore and Joshi 2026] [Guangnian et al. 2020] [Gur and Rosen 2005] [Hiraki and Kai 2022] [Hunsaker 2007] [Itoh and Satoh 2019] [Iyer 2026] [Jamieson 2019] [Johnson and White 1983] [Johnston and Sullivan 1990] [Johnston and Sullivan 1991] [Joshi et al. 2020] [Karimian et al. 2023] [Kasim et al. 2019] [Kerwin 1973] [Kishore and Behera 2014] [Kong and Lee 2013] [Koyama] [Koyama et al. 1978] [Le Chuiton 2004] [Hang et al. 2022] [Li and Da Ronch 2025] [Li and Kwok 2024] [Lieberman and Hoffman 1964] [Lieder et al. 2024] [Litherland and Derlaga 2019] [Liu et al. 2016a] [Liu et al. 2022a] [Louis and Louis 2020] [MacNeill and Verstraete 2017] [MacNeill and Verstraete 2018] [Madsen 2023] [Madureira and de Almeida 2026] [Mahmuddin 2017] [McCrink and Gregory 2017] [Milewski and Greeley 1994] [Modarres and Peters 2013] [Modarres and Peters 2015] [Momentum Theory 2024] [Morgado et al. 2013] [Morgan 1954] [Nallasamy et al. 1989] [Nelson 1964] [Nelson 1965] [Niec and Roberts 2026] [Nimal and Venkatesan 2019] [Oliveira] [Oo] [Ortolani et al. 2022] [Oshima 1994] [Pantel et al. 2024] [Park 2022] [Parker and Heltsley 1972] [Patterson 1985] [Pavel et al. 2018] [Pirrung and der Laan 2018] [Praveen and Anoop 2021] [Propeller Design 2024] [Pussegoda and Malik 2019] [Rouser et al. 2023] [Schaffarczyk 2026] [Schollenberger et al. 2023] [Scholz 2021] [Schroeder and Dai 2010] [Shao et al. 2025b] [Showers 1952] [Silvestre et al. 2013] [Smith 2005] [Stresses in a Rotating 1938] [Sullivan 1977] [Søntvedt 1974] [Tadros et al. 2021] [Takeyeldein 2026] [Talbot and Laitone 1954] [Tsakonas and Jacobs 1975] [Use of Reinforced Plastics 1974] [UÇAr et al. 2025] [van Gunsteren 1971] [van Kuik 2003] [van Kuik 2016] [van Kuik 2017] [van Kuik 2022] [Van Treuren and Wisniewski 2022] [Venkatesh et al. 2025] [Volodin 2022a] [Volodin 2022b] [Votsios et al. 2019] [Vysoky 2015] [Walker 2021] [Wang 1969] [Webb and Willer 1952] [Whitmore and Merrill 2012] [Wisniewski and Van Treuren 2022] [Yamomoto and August 1990] [Yan et al. 2024] [Yang et al. 2014] [Yang et al. 2016] [Yenipazar and Kurtuluş 2024] [Zhang et al. 2021] [Zheng et al. 2016]

The theory is old, but its literature here is not. The median year of the cluster’s records is 2017, and 33 of its 144 dated records predate 1990.

The drag the smaller wing was meant to save

This cluster holds titles on aircraft drag, which are induced drag and its reduction, the lift to drag ratio, and skin friction and turbulent drag reduction where the title names no application outside flight.

72 records. [Abe et al. 1990] [Anderson and Sutera 1965] [Aoki and Muraoka 2019] [aus der Wiesche 2003] [Bandyopadhyay 2001] [Bechert et al. 2001] [Black 1969] [Blackerby and Johnson 1979] [Bloy and Jouma’a 1995] [Chen 2026] [Chen and Katz 2004] [Cheng et al. 2020] [Convex Curvature Concept 1990] [de Souza and Ciloni 2021] [Demasi et al. 2022] [Drag Reduction Characteristics 1980] [Drag Reduction 1980] [Dutta et al. 2022] [Eller and Heinze 2004] [Eller and Heinze 2005] [Experimental Investigation of Drag 1980] [Frediani et al. 2001] [Gerhards and Szodruch 2001] [Gunasekaran and Mukherjee 2016] [Gyr and Bewersdorff 1995] [Janus et al. 1993] [Kehayas 2021] [Kieszek et al. 2024] [Kouser et al. 2021] [La Roche and La Roche 2004] [Lakshminarayana 1962] [Lam 1993] [Watanabe 2015] [Large-Eddy Breakup Scheme 1980] [Lin 2025] [Lu and Lee 2020] [Ma 2025] [Makgantai et al. 2021] [Marec 2001] [Marino 2004] [Memon and Altman 2016] [Mwasandube et al. 2026] [Naseri and Zare 2025] [Nathman 2005] [ngram Keshari Sam 2015] [Outer-Layer Manipulators for Turbulent 1990] [Patterson 1974] [Patterson and Florez 1969] [Reubush 1977] [Savill 1990] [Schmidt and Duren 2002] [Hariyadi et al. 2018] [Sforza 2018] [Sinha 2007] [Thimmegowda et al. 2021] [Torres and Rahai 2024] [Tsinober 1990] [Ulrich et al. 2001] [Varsha Megha et al. 2026] [Varshney et al. 2019] [Varshney et al. 2022] [Vepa 2020b] [Wells 1969] [Viscous Drag Reduction via 1990] [Walvekar and Chakravarthy 2022] [Wang and Zha 2019] [Wieszala et al. 2022] [Wood 2003] [Yeh et al. 2015] [Zhang et al. 2017] [Zhou and Ball 2006] [Zierep 1999]

30 of the 72 titles name induced drag, the component that the X-57’s shorter span increased.

Lift, stall and the wing that had to be made smaller

This cluster holds titles on lift, maximum lift and stall, high-lift devices, wing loading, and the aerodynamic and structural behaviour of high aspect ratio wings.

248 records. [A Spreadsheet Tool 2018] [Abdelrahman et al. 2020] [Ahmad et al. 2013b] [Ahmad et al. 2013a] [Ahmad et al. 2018] [Akkermans et al. 2014] [Alley et al. 2007] [Alvindi 2022] [Anderson and Lawton 2001] [Ahlawat 2026] [Bahl 2026] [Baker et al. 1999] [Bakhtiari-Nejad et al. 2017] [Bartels 2023] [Bashir et al. 2023] [Belart 1938] [Bergman] [Bergman 1979] [Bhuwal et al. 2025] [Bissonnette 2021] [Bissonnette and Bramesfeld 2021] [Bodart and Larsson 2012] [Boer and Van Hengst 1993] [Bolsunovsky et al. 2000] [Bontoft et al. 2026] [Bottai et al. 2022] [Bright et al. 2013] [Brooks et al. 2016] [Brooks et al. 2017] [Carvalho et al. 2025] [Castellani et al. 2016] [Catalano et al. 2024] [CHAPTER SEVEN. Wings 1990] [Chen et al. 2003] [Chen et al. 2004] [Chen et al. 2018] [Chen et al. 2023] [Cheung et al. 2019] [Cheung et al. 2020] [Chin et al. 1974] [Chishtie 2026] [Choi et al. 2013] [Ciobaca and Dandois 2017] [Cipolla et al. 2022] [Clemons and Wlezien 2016] [Coetzee et al. 2023] [Cole 1988] [Colletti and Ansell 2021] [Colletti and Ansell 2023] [Cox et al. 2008] [Cox et al. 2009] [Cruz Marquez] [De Voogt and Ganapathisubramani 2022] [Delavenne et al. 2020] [Design and Experimental Evaluation 1994] [Di Matteo and Guo 2011] [Duan and Wissa 2021] [Duan and Zhang 2018] [Estimating the Takeoff Wing 2010] [Fertis 1988] [Forte and Nguyen 2024] [Forte and Nguyen 2026b] [Forte and Nguyen 2026a] [Forte et al. 2022] [Forte et al. 2023] [Foster 1971] [Foster 1972] [Franke 2015] [Frolov 2021] [Fu et al. 2021] [Fujiwara and Nguyen 2015] [Gaifullin 2023] [Ghalandari et al. 2022] [Gielow 1971] [Graham and Luskin 1946] [Gratzer and O’Donnell 1965] [Gratzer and Odonnell 1964] [Gu et al. 2022] [Gu et al. 2024] [Gubsky et al. 2018] [Guler and Nikbay 2026] [Guo et al. 2013] [Gutierrez et al. 1994] [Haddadpour et al. 2005] [Hall and Dodbele 1999] [Hattasanjaya 2024] [Haucke and Nitsche 2011] [Haucke et al. 2008] [Hayes et al. 2019] [He] [Hebert and Joseph 1970] [Hebert et al. 1970] [Hendrickson and Agarwal 2020] [High-Lift Devices 2010] [Hillebrand and Lutz 2026] [Hillebrand et al. 2023] [Hillebrand et al. 2024] [Hoang] [Horikawa and Saito 1986] [Hosseini et al. 2019a] [Hosseini et al. 2019b] [Ibrahim 2002] [Iosilevskii 2025b] [Iosilevskii 2025a] [Jairam et al. 2016] [Jalil et al. 2024] [Jeon et al. 2023] [Jeon et al. 2024] [Jirasek and Amoignon 2009] [Johnson 1940] [Jung et al. 2008] [Kandasamy et al. 2018] [Karkoulias et al. 2023] [Karpouzian 1991] [Keller 2019] [Khazaee Kuhpar and Seyed-Aghazadeh 2026] [Khodadoust and Shmilovich 2007] [Khrabrov 2007] [Kida 1982] [Kida and Miyai 1978] [Knacke and Thiele 2010] [Kobayashi and Chiba 2025] [Komarov et al. 2016] [Kopeć and Kawałko 2023] [Kretov and Tiniakov 2022] [Ku and Sankar 2026] [Lacy and Sclafani 2016] [Larsen et al. 1963] [Laurie and Farokhi 1993] [Li et al. 2024b] [Liebeck and Ormsbee 1969] [Little et al. 2010] [Liu and Xiang 2006] [Liu et al. 2015] [Liu et al. 2016b] [Liu et al. 2020] [Losada Costoso et al. 2024] [Loughnane et al. 2021] [Ma et al. 2010] [Ma et al. 2020a] [Ma et al. 2021] [Ma et al. 2023] [Mahmood et al. 2013] [Manoha et al. 2018] [Marchetti 2023] [Marchman 1985] [Martins et al. 2014] [Masuda et al. 2024] [Mathias et al. 1998] [Matiz-Chicacausa and Sedano 2018] [Mikhailov 2020] [Millikan 1934] [Monner et al. 2009] [Monner Hans Peter and Riemenschneider Johannes 2012] [Nguyen et al. 2017a] [Nguyen et al. 2017b] [Nguyen et al. 2026] [Nikolaev 2019] [Nonweiler 1955] [Onkar et al. 2024] [Ormsbee and Chen 1972] [Ortiz-Melendez et al. 2020] [Park et al. 2011] [Pasandideh Fard and Sahaf 2016] [Pavlenko and Reslan 2022] [Pavlenko et al. 2020] [Peng and Eliasson 2008] [Phillips and Alley 2007] [Poomadath and Ajaj 2025] [Pınar and Özer 2026] [Rahman and Li 2013] [Rehman 2022] [Ren and Zha 2020] [Ren et al. 2020] [Riso et al. 2020] [Rizzetta and Visbal 2016] [Rodden 1989] [Yao 2026] [Roos 1985] [Rudenko et al. 2014] [Rudnik 2008] [Sang 2009] [Sanghi et al. 2020] [Sanghi et al. 2022] [Sansica et al. 2024] [Schaufele and Ebeling 1967] [Schluter 2010] [Selig and Guglielmo 1997] [Shirbhate et al. 2025] [Skomorokhov et al. 2014] [Smith 1992] [Sogukpinar 2018] [Somers 2005] [Stalker 1935] [Stall Speed 2021] [Stall Speed Measurement 2003] [Streitenberger and Feldwisch 2025] [Svoboda 1999] [Tagawa et al. 2021] [Taira et al. 2010] [Tamayama et al. 2017] [Tang and Dowell 2002a] [Tang and Dowell 2002b] [Tao et al. 2021] [Tee et al. 2017] [Thinesh and Harmin 2018] [Thrust-to-Weight Ratio and Wing 2024] [Tian et al. 2017] [Traub and Akerson 2010] [Trobaugh et al. 1980] [Tsatsas et al. 2022] [Tseng et al. 1993] [van den Kieboom and Elham 2016] [van den Kieboom and Elham 2017] [Velazquez Salazar et al. 2021] [Vidal et al. 1961] [Vinogradov et al. 2021] [von Kármán and Millikan 1935] [Wang and Rahmani 2021] [Wang et al. 2015] [Wang et al. 2018] [Wang et al. 2025a] [Wang et al. 2026a] [Wild 2021a] [Wild 2021d] [Wild 2021b] [Wild et al. 2022] [Wilmott 1986] [Wilner and Bever 1983] [Winkelmann 1989] [Wootton 1967] [Wortmann et al. 2015] [Wu et al. 2025a] [Wunderlich and Siebert 2023] [Xiong et al. 2026b] [Xu and Ping 2014] [Xu et al. 2026a] [Yang and Li 2022] [Yang and Zha 2017] [Yang et al. 2025a] [Yu 2025] [Yuan et al. 2018] [Yuan et al. 2020] [Zhang 2024] [Zhang and Du 2025] [Zhao 2009] [Zheng et al. 2026] [Zhu et al. 2009]

94 of the 248 titles name a high aspect ratio wing, and 63 of those concern its structural and aeroelastic behaviour rather than its lift.

Sizing an aeroplane around a new kind of engine

This cluster holds titles on sizing and conceptual design, on general aviation aircraft and their powerplants, and on electric propulsion for light and commuter aircraft.

63 records. [Adams] [Aktas 2012] [Anderson 2015] [Bagarello 2023] [Batill et al. 1999] [Beals et al. 2026] [Beauregard 1964] [Brelje and Martins 2018] [Casner 2010] [Casner 2023] [Chambers and Stough 1986] [Contell Asins et al. 2021] [Crossley 2004] [Cummings and Hall 2002] [Peña and Clariza 2025] [Dicarlo et al. 1980] [Dunham 1986] [Dunn et al. 1981] [Fioriti et al. 2022] [Galbraith 1979] [General Aviation 2012] [General Aviation Aircraft Design 2014] [General Aviation Aircraft Design 2022] [Gonçalves and da Silva 2025] [Gray 1964] [Gudmundsson 2014] [Hein et al. 2023] [Hince and Ansell 2024] [Hu and Booker 2022] [Hubbell 1966] [Jansson et al. 2018] [Johnson et al. 1980] [Kearns 2021] [Khailany et al. 2025] [Khasheinejad and Montazeri-Gh 2025] [Kleemann et al. 2020] [Krengel 2024] [Kruger and Uranga 2020] [Kruger and Uranga 2024] [Legrand et al. 2024] [Lutz et al. 2025] [Manuel and Doty 1991] [McDonald 2014] [Tint 2018] [Mirabella et al. 2024] [O’Brien et al. 1972] [Peciak and Skarka 2022] [Reyer and Ogg 1986] [Rezende and Barros 2019] [Rezende et al. 2018] [Solutions et al. 2020] [Ritchie 1988] [Rohacs and Rohacs 2018] [Seaver et al. 2023] [Specification for Design of] [Specification for Design of] [Standard Specification for Design] [Stewart and Blake 1993] [Strack 1982] [Thauvin et al. 2016] [Unmack 2020] [Weiss et al. 2013] [Şugar-Gabor 2024]

Proving it is safe, which is where this one stopped

This cluster holds titles on airworthiness, certification and technology readiness, including the consensus specifications for electric propulsion systems.

23 records. [Biswas 2006] [Blanchette et al. 2010] [Кордянин 1999] [Chapman 1970] [Graettinger et al. 2002] [Hantos 2008] [Kim et al. 2023b] [Kimberlin 2000] [Lee and Song 2017] [Li and Tang 2015] [Mandelbaum 2006] [null] [Papathakis et al. 2017a] [Practice for Design and] [Sauser et al. 2009] [Schlickenmaier et al. 2019a] [Schlickenmaier et al. 2019b] [Schlickenmaier et al. 2019c] [Smith 2004] [Specification for Aircraft Electric] [Standard Specification for Aircraft] [Wild 2021c] [Yildiz 2022]

Measuring it, on the ground and in the air

This cluster holds titles on flight test, ground test and their instrumentation, on comparisons of wind tunnel and flight, and on whirl flutter and handling qualities.

45 records. [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1962] [Aircraft and Flight Test 2021] [Lee 2008] [Armstrong 1977] [Baughman and Longeauay 2015] [Bianco 2020] [Bibin et al. 2012] [Binkley et al. 2012] [Boyd 1977] [Burcham and Burken 1994] [Chapman et al. 1987] [Cheney 1988] [Choi and Brown 2017] [Corda et al. 2001] [Fisher et al. 1956] [Flight TEST Procedures for] [Goupil] [Higgins et al. 2019] [Hoadley 1988] [Kehoe 1988] [Khalid and Faherty 1990] [Koch 2025] [Koch and Koert 2023] [Level Flight Performance Flight 2003] [Lewerenz 1987] [Lindblad and de Cock 1999] [Maine et al. 1994] [Malloy et al. 2010] [McSwain et al. 2020] [Moe et al. 1987] [Padua and Preisighe Viana 2025] [Place et al. 1974] [Reid 1988] [Roberts et al. 1966] [Rudenko et al. 2016] [Samuel and Lin 2015] [Schkolnik et al. 1995] [Shlien 1991] [Simpson 1972] [Static Longitudinal Stability Flight 2003] [Taranto and Abdulrahim 2023] [Taylor 2012] [Wilcox 1973] [Yamato et al. 1988] [Zhubin and Ruikun 2023]

The atmosphere and the flight condition

This cluster holds titles on the standard atmosphere, density altitude and the relations between pressure altitude and airspeed.

30 records. [A 2006] [Appendix a Standard Atmosphere 2021] [Appendix a. the Standard 2011] [Appendix B 2003] [Brown 2012] [Essenhigh 2006] [International Standard Atmosphere 2010] [Kang et al. 2023b] [Kang et al. 2023a] [Kaushik 2018] [Kurzke and Halliwell 2018] [Kurzke et al. 2025] [Luo 2025] [Pressures and Temperatures 2000] [Properties of the U.S. 2014] [Properties of the U.S. 2024] [Space environment natural and] [Standard Atmosphere 2005] [Standard Atmosphere 2023] [Standard Atmosphere 2024] [National Bureau of Standards 1927a] [National Bureau of Standards 1927b] [The Flight Environment 2021] [The International Standard Atmosphere 2017] [The International Standard Atmosphere 2026] [The Standard Atmosphere 1964] [The Standard Atmosphere 1976] [Turns and Kraige] [1976 US Standard Atmosphere 2014] [Vaughan 2003]

Other aeronautical, propulsion and electrical literature

This cluster holds titles that pass the admission rule but name the subject of no other cluster. Of the 5, 4 name electric propulsion without naming an application, and 1 concerns the maintenance software of the Tecnam P2006T.

5 records. [Arifin et al. 2024] [Electric propulsion] [Electric Propulsion Fundamentals 2019] [Electric Propulsion Systems 2012] [Garrett et al. 2000]

Where the Framing Breaks Down

The register’s entry is a specification, and specifications are written before things are built.

Every clause of it is accurate as a description of the design. There were smaller electric motors across the wing leading edge acting as a high lift device. There were larger motors mounted on each wing tip for cruise. The wing was designed for that configuration, and this article has spent several sections showing how tightly it was designed for it.

What the entry cannot record is readiness. A designation register records what a vehicle is for. It has no column for whether the parts exist at the maturity the plan assumed, and that is the quantity on which this programme turned.

The length of the entry is evidence of the same thing. The X-57 has the most detailed mission statement of any X designation because by 2016 the architecture was fully worked out on paper. The confidence that produced a 328 character specification is the same confidence that produced a technology readiness assessment describing an integration task.

The Source Base

The research survey behind this article holds 2,081 records, drawn from Crossref, NASA’s Technical Reports Server and the Defense Technical Information Center, of which 169 are report primaries, being 8.1 percent, by the rule set out under The Definition of Primary.

A Programme’s Own Index Cannot Be Searched, Only Read

NASA publishes a page listing the X-57 programme’s technical output. It carries sixty-three entries, of which sixty-one resolve against the report server and the other two carry metadata too thin to identify [X-57 Technical Papers, NASA Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate].

The report server’s search interface cannot reach that output. A direct query for the designation reports seventy-four matching records and returns ten. Asking for a hundred returns ten. Asking for the eleventh onward, by offset, returns the same ten again, at every offset from ten to seventy. The offset is ignored by the endpoint, so the remaining sixty-four records cannot be reached by that interface at all. A programme’s own published index must be read. It cannot be searched.

60 of the 2,081 research records come from that list, which NASA maintains as a page of technical papers rather than as a bibliography inside any one report [X-57 Technical Papers, NASA Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate].

The Age of the Literature

The median year of the research records is 2020. 1,374 of the 1,960 that carry a year, being 70 percent, were published in 2015 or later, and 103 predate 1980. The youngest clusters are the battery, with a median year of 2024, cooling at 2023 and distributed electric propulsion at 2022, and the oldest is measurement, at 1999, so the literature this aeroplane draws on is newest where its energy store and its architecture are.

The Definition of Primary

Primacy is a property of the document, and this survey derives it from the identifier. A record is a report primary when its address is on NASA’s Technical Reports Server or it carries a Defense Technical Information Center identifier. 169 of the 2,081 research records are report primaries under that rule, being 8.1 percent. The rule measures where a document is hosted rather than what it is, so a programme paper published only by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics counts as conference literature, while a report-server copy of a secondary study counts as a report.

Thin Subjects

Seven subjects that this article’s derivations depend on have thin literatures in this survey. Each count below is the number of research records whose title carries at least one of the listed terms, with a hyphen read as a space. Where a row joins two groups of terms with the word together, a title must carry a term from each group.

Subject	Title terms counted	Records
the stall rule for propulsion used as a high-lift device	minimum steady flight speed, stall speed, stalling speed, stall requirement together with powered, propeller, propulsion, blown, blowing, slipstream, thrust	0
folding propeller blades	folding, foldable, folded together with propeller, blade	1
power electronics under vibration	vibration, vibratory together with inverter, power module, power electronics, motor controller, MOSFET, converter, gate driver	0
shoot-through in a half bridge	shoot through, cross conduction	0
the thermal interface between a switch and its heat sink	thermal interface, gap pad, thermal pad, interface material	0
qualifying an electric motor for flight	motor, electric machine, electric engine, propulsion unit, electric or electrified propulsion together with qualification, certification, airworthiness, Part 33, endurance test, flightworthy, specification	12
technology readiness assessment	technology readiness, readiness level, readiness assessment	6

The stall rule that shaped the high-lift system has no literature here. No title joins a stall speed term to a powered, blown or propeller term, so the reading of the stall rule reported above rests on the flight performance report and the regulation alone.

The folding propeller is the X-57’s own subject. The one title that names a folding blade is the programme’s analysis of folding conformal blade designs.

The three failure mechanisms that stopped the controllers are absent from the survey’s titles. No title joins vibration to an inverter, a power module or a controller, none names shoot-through, and none names the thermal interface between a switch and its heat sink. Crossref nonetheless holds a literature on thermal interface materials for power modules and on shoot-through in inverters, so the absence marks the edge of this survey rather than of power electronics, and the failure history in this article rests on the programme’s own documents.

Qualifying an electric motor for flight is, in this survey, a literature of specifications. Of the 12 titles, 7 are ASTM International specifications for electric propulsion units, electric engines, aircraft electric propulsion systems and the electrical systems of electric aircraft, and the other 5 concern airworthiness, certification and the qualification of the SCEPTOR power system for crewed flight testing. Whether any of the specifications would have served as the flight qualification standard that the traction power account found lacking is not something a title can show.

The readiness assessment at the root of the programme’s difficulty has a small literature, and none of it names an aircraft. The 6 titles concern defence acquisition, software and space systems, so the lesson this article draws from the X-57’s readiness assessment stands on the programme’s own lessons learned reports.

What the Survey Admits

A record is admitted only when a person reading its title finds it on this article’s subject, which is the X-57 and the Tecnam P2006T it was built from, named explicitly, together with the blown wing, the propellers, the electric machinery and the switching devices that drive it, the battery, the drag and lift of the small wing, the sizing, certification and testing of such an aeroplane, and the atmosphere in which it flies. The atmosphere is admitted as a subject rather than a setting, because the whole architecture exists to raise the dynamic pressure over the wing by means other than flying faster.

A title on a flight vehicle is admitted only when its subject is one that this article reasons with, unless the title names the X-57 or the Tecnam P2006T. Rotorcraft, tiltrotors, multirotors, airships and other vertical takeoff aircraft are excluded where the title concerns the vehicle itself, its hover, transition, control, sizing or certification, rather than its battery, motors, cooling, propellers or the interaction of its propellers with a wing. Joined wings and flying wings are excluded, and so are jet transports and fighters, their design, aerodynamics, engines, flight test and control, where the title’s subject is not electric or propeller propulsion, high lift, induced drag or the high aspect ratio wing itself. So are general aeronautical subjects that the argument never uses, among them delta and low aspect ratio wings, vortex lift, flapping and heaving wings, dynamic stall, the drag of bluff bodies, afterbodies and stores, the noise of anything other than distributed or electric propulsion, avionics and flight control computers, the health monitoring of conventional engines and airframes, landing gear, aviation fuels, aircraft materials, maintenance and operations, the airworthiness of unmanned aircraft and of equipment the argument never uses, and the cost, emissions and climate effects of aviation. The wind shear, structural loads and control laws of powered-lift transports are excluded as well, since only the blowing that produces their lift bears on this wing. Semiconductor devices other than power switches, cryogenic coolers, capacitors and dielectrics, whose energy density is another homonym, and the stationary storage of the electrical grid fall outside the survey, and so do trade newsletter items, which report news rather than research.

Many words this subject depends on also name something else, and a record whose title shares only such a word is excluded. The aeroplane is named after James Clerk Maxwell [James Clerk Maxwell], whose surname is also attached to a set of equations, a velocity distribution, a viscoelastic material model and a polarization theory [Maxwell’s Equations] [Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution], so the Love numbers of a generalized Maxwell sphere, membrane polarization in shaly sands and the teaching of the Maxwell distribution fall outside the survey. Energy density also names explosives and strain energy, silicon carbide also names armour and structural ceramics, drag reduction also names polymer and particle additives in liquids and the shapes of animals and plants, wing loading also names bats, birds and insects, low power also names digital electronics, aspect ratio also names microfabrication and seismic bearings, and power density also names radar, antennas and ocean waves. Electric propulsion also names the ion, Hall, arc and plasma thrusters of spacecraft, so that literature, its conferences and its programme reviews included, falls outside the survey, and so do marine propellers, rudders and ship drives, wind and tidal turbines, and road vehicles where the title concerns driving range, charging or fleets rather than a battery, motor or inverter. Flow in the transonic and supersonic regimes is excluded as well, because this aeroplane cruises at 150 knots. Correction, erratum, corrigendum and withdrawal notices, retracted papers and supplementary-material records are excluded as well, because a survey counts research works and those are editorial events or parts of works. Reviews of books and reference and definition entries are excluded for the same reason, since neither reports research, and so are unsigned news items, the listing of a document in an abstract journal, and the bare text of a resolution.

Some records of doubtful relevance are kept. 61 titles on the battery, motor, inverter or cooling of a road vehicle are kept, because the cell, the pack and the drive are the same physics as the X-57’s. Records on the rotors of electrical machines are kept, because here the electrical machine is the subject, and one of this article’s own primary documents is a finite element electromagnetic model of a permanent magnet synchronous cruise motor [Marrufo and Kloesel 2019]. Domain-free studies of turbulent drag reduction and of actuator disc theory are kept, because neither names an application outside flight. Records on the noise of distributed propulsion are kept, because distributed propulsion is the register’s own subject. Records on hybrid electric, turbo-electric, fuel cell and hydrogen aircraft are kept as well, because their machines, power electronics and energy sums are the X-57’s subjects. Five book chapters titled only General Aviation are kept, since a title that short cannot be placed more exactly. The last cluster admits a title only when it passes the rule above and names the subject of no other cluster, and a title that names electric propulsion without an application is kept there only when it was published in 2000 or later, because before then the phrase meant the propulsion of spacecraft.

Every research title has been read for relevance, so the off-topic share that remains is a matter of reading judgement. A reading of titles cannot show that a work is relevant in substance, so this is a statement about titles only. Where one document is deposited twice, as a report-server copy and a published version or as a preprint and its journal version, one record is kept.

Epistemic State

Facts. The register’s wording and the counts taken across its 539 rows, the geometry, masses, powers and energies attributed to the flight performance report and the traction power documents, the battery figures attributed to the 2018 battery account, the flight-test plan, the controller and motor histories attributed to the traction power papers, the schedule attributed to the systems engineering and lessons learned reports, and the failure modes attributed to the inverter deck, are quoted from those documents, and every arithmetic relation stated here has been recomputed rather than repeated. The register is counted in a copy later than this article’s date, and the counts that differ in the version current on that date are stated where the empty engines cell is discussed [Parsch, DOD 4120.15-L Addendum, 11 August 2025].

Inference. That the length of the register entry reflects the maturity of the paper design is an inference. It is consistent with the entry being a specification rather than a purpose clause, and with the readiness assessment made in the same period, but the register does not say why the entry is long.

Assumptions. The propulsive efficiency of 75 percent used in the blowing estimates and the range bound is assumed here and stated by no source. The stall-speed lift coefficients use sea level standard density at 1,361 kilograms and treat the tabulated calibrated airspeeds as equivalent airspeeds. The slipstream model that credits a fraction of the span with a uniform velocity increase is a simplification made here, not the designers’ model, and the high-lift propeller diameter is rounded to 1.9 feet in it.

Inference. That the full configuration would have come within reach of the goal of five times lower energy use rests on multiplying estimates made at different conditions.

Hypothesis. That the buy-American direction is the proximate cause of the readiness mismatch is close to what the lessons learned report says but slightly stronger than it. The report’s position is that the project may have benefitted from reassessing the readiness of American components and that the actual readiness proved significantly lower. [Maliska et al. 2024] It does not assert that the direction caused the mismatch, and neither does this article.

Unresolved. The high-lift motor power is given as 12.6 kilowatts by the flight performance report and as 10.5 kilowatts by NASA’s X-57 page [X-57 Maxwell Overview, NASA]. This article uses the report’s figure and records the disagreement. The same NASA page gives the battery as 69.1 kilowatt hours, 47 of them usable, in 860 pounds [X-57 Maxwell Overview, NASA], which is 80 watt hours per pound, and that is the specific energy secondary sources quote [NASA X-57 Maxwell]. The nominal cell energy rebuilt here from the battery account’s cell, 55.3 kilowatt hours, gives 64 over the same 860 pounds and the effective 47 kilowatt hours gives 55, so NASA’s page and the battery account disagree on the stored energy, 69.1 against 55.3 kilowatt hours, and neither document reconciles the two. The 2018 battery account also gives sixteen modules of 51 pounds, which is 816 pounds against the 860 it states for the battery, and the remainder is not itemised. The as-built usable energy of 23 kilowatt hours a pack is lower than the 2018 effective figure, and the relations in this article use the 2018 figure. NASA’s X-57 page gives each cruise motor with its propeller as 117 pounds in its specification table and as about 57 pounds in its text [X-57 Maxwell Overview, NASA]. The motor’s design masses and the propeller budget support the table, and the power density comparison uses it. That the 57 is the Rotax’s mass in kilograms under the wrong unit is an inference, and the page does not say so.

Out of Scope

Whether battery aviation is a good idea is out of scope. This article computes what this aeroplane’s numbers were and does not extrapolate them to a technology.

The certification consequences are argued here only where they shaped the aeroplane, in the stall rule for propellers used as a high-lift device. The programme published a certification gap analysis and an airworthiness validation plan [Schlickenmaier et al. 2019b] [Schlickenmaier et al. 2023], and what a normal category aeroplane has to prove is written down [14 CFR Part 23, Airworthiness Standards for Normal Category Aeroplanes]. Those belong to a different article, and the programme’s own view of what it left behind is published [X-57 Project Creates Paths Toward Electric Aviation, NASA].

Conclusion

The register gave this aeroplane the most detailed entry of any X designation, and the aeroplane never flew.

The entry is not wrong. The wing was designed optimally for the electric motor configuration, and the design is tight enough that its parts can only be understood together. The wing was cut to 42 percent of its area to reduce drag in cruise. That made it unable to land, so twelve propellers were put along its leading edge to blow it. Those propellers add wetted area, so the parasite saving fell from 58 percent to 18. The span came down as the aspect ratio went up, so the induced drag rose by 32 percent. The cruise propellers went to the wingtips because after all of that the configuration needed the vortex energy back.

The blowing closes on the installed power only because the propellers were never asked for the full factor. Treated as ideal discs, they could not have supplied a factor of 2.38 once any real efficiency is allowed. The flapped small wing supplies a factor of 1.51 by itself and the propellers the remaining 1.58, and on that division the design thrust and the installed power both leave margin. That is a computation on predictions, not a result from flight, and the aeroplane never flew to test it.

And underneath every one of those decisions is a battery carrying a hundredth of the energy per kilogram of the fuel it replaced, giving back a factor of three in drivetrain efficiency and leaving a factor of thirty-three to be found somewhere in the aerodynamics.

None of that is what stopped it. The transistors in the motor controllers failed under vibration, failed under heat, and failed when the software commanded both halves of a bridge to conduct at once, and the controllers had to be redesigned. The first battery burned in its propagation test and had to be redesigned. The cruise motors, after years of operational workarounds, were found to need a stator redesign that the remaining time and money could not buy. The programme had been scoped on the assumption that those parts could be bought rather than developed, and the assessment that produced that assumption was never repeated after the sourcing direction that invalidated it.

The aeroplane was not shown to be impossible. The cruise motors as then configured were judged an unacceptable risk for flight, and the team was working toward a design review for a modified motor when the money and the schedule ran out. What the sources record is a programme that ran out of both, not a machine that could not be built.

A designation register has a column for the contractor, the sponsor, the engines and the mission, and for this row the engines column is empty. That blank turned out to mean nothing, since ninety-four rows share it. The blank that would have mattered is the one no register has, a column for whether the parts exist yet at the maturity the plan assumed.

The X-57’s entry is the longest in its class because the design was finished. The design being finished is not the same as the parts being ready, and a register can record only the first.

Equations

This section collects the 57 display equations of the article in the order they appear, each under its number and reproduced exactly as it stands in the text. A title in bold names an established result, and a title in italics beginning with the word Bespoke names a construction made for this analysis. Of the 57, 44 are established and 13 are bespoke. Areas are in square metres, speeds inside the equations in metres per second although the stall speeds are quoted in knots, powers in kilowatts, energies in kilowatt hours, specific energies in watt hours per kilogram, ranges in kilometres and torque in newton metres, and $e$ is the span efficiency while $e_b$ and $e_f$ are the specific energies of the battery and the fuel, with Roman numerals marking the Mod I to Mod IV configurations.

Equation 1, Ratio of Mod III to Original Wing Area. The reported wing areas give a Mod III wing of 42 percent of the area of the wing it replaced. Borer

\[\frac{S_1}{S_0} = \frac{6.19}{14.76} = 0.419 \tag{1}\]

Equation 2, Wing Loading. The wing loading is the weight a wing must carry per unit of its own area.

\[\frac{W}{S} \quad\text{is what a wing must carry per unit of its own area} \tag{2}\]

Equation 3, Ratio of Wing Loadings at Equal Mass. At the same mass the wing loading rises by the reciprocal of the area ratio, a factor of 2.38.

\[\frac{(W/S)_1}{(W/S)_0} = \frac{S_0}{S_1} = 2.38 \tag{3}\]

Equation 4, Lift Equation. Lift is the dynamic pressure times the wing area times the lift coefficient. Lift Coefficient

\[L = \tfrac{1}{2}\rho V^{2} S\, C_L \tag{4}\]

Equation 5, Stall Speed. The stall speed is set by the wing loading, the air density and the maximum lift coefficient. Wing Loading Stall, Fluid Dynamics Lift Coefficient

\[V_s = \sqrt{\frac{2}{\rho}\,\frac{W}{S}\,\frac{1}{C_{L,max}}} \tag{5}\]

Equation 6, Dynamic Pressure in a Propeller Slipstream. A propeller ahead of a wing adds a velocity increment that raises the local dynamic pressure above the free-stream value. Dynamic Pressure

\[q_w = \tfrac{1}{2}\rho\,(V + \Delta V)^{2} \;>\; \tfrac{1}{2}\rho V^{2} \tag{6}\]

Equation 7, Bespoke Blown Span Fraction. The article takes each slipstream to cover one propeller diameter of span, with the diameter rounded to 1.9 feet, so that twelve propellers blow about seventy percent of the span. Borer and Patterson

\[f = \frac{12\,d}{b_1} = \frac{6.95}{9.94} = 0.70 \tag{7}\]

Equation 8, Total High-Lift Propeller Disc Area. The twelve discs of the rounded diameter give a total disc area of 3.16 square metres.

\[A_h = 12\,\frac{\pi d^{2}}{4} = 3.16 \tag{8}\]

Equation 9, Bespoke Slipstream Lift Multiple. The article models the blown fraction as seeing a uniformly increased velocity at unchanged lift coefficient and the rest the free stream, and sets the weighted lift multiple equal to the area ratio.

\[f\,(1+x)^{2} + (1-f) = \frac{S_0}{S_1} \tag{9}\]

Equation 10, Bespoke Velocity Increase if the Whole Wing Were Blown. Under the slipstream model a fully blown wing would need a 54 percent velocity increase to supply the factor of 2.38.

\[x_{whole} = \sqrt{2.38} - 1 = 0.544 \tag{10}\]

Equation 11, Bespoke Velocity Increase for the Blown Fraction. Under the slipstream model, with seventy percent of the span blown, the blown part needs a 73 percent velocity increase.

\[x = \sqrt{1 + \frac{2.38 - 1}{0.70}} - 1 = 0.726 \tag{11}\]

Equation 12, Bespoke Slipstream Velocity Increment at the Stall Speed. The model’s velocity increase applied at the 58 knot stall speed gives an increment of about 22 metres per second.

\[\Delta V = x\,V_s = 0.726 \times 29.8 = 21.7 \tag{12}\]

Equation 13, Actuator Disc Thrust. Momentum theory gives the thrust of an ideal actuator disc from the disc area, the induced velocity and the free stream, with the far-wake increment twice the induced velocity. Momentum Theory Glauert, The elements of aerofoil and airscrew theory

\[T = 2\rho A_h v_i \,(V_s + v_i), \qquad v_i = \tfrac{1}{2}\Delta V \tag{13}\]

Equation 14, Bespoke Ideal Power for the Whole Lift Factor. The ideal actuator disc power to produce the slipstream model’s increment is about 139 kilowatts.

\[P_i = T\,(V_s + v_i) = 139 \tag{14}\]

Equation 15, Bespoke Ideal Power Against Installed High-Lift Power. That ideal requirement is 92 percent of the 151 kilowatts installed, on the assumption that the propellers supply the whole factor of 2.38. Borer

\[\frac{P_i}{P_h} = \frac{139}{151} = 0.92 \tag{15}\]

Equation 16, Bespoke Real Power at an Assumed Propulsive Efficiency. At a propulsive efficiency of 75 percent that the article assumes, the power requirement exceeds the installed power.

\[\frac{P_i}{\eta_{pr}} = \frac{139}{0.75} = 185 \;>\; P_h \tag{16}\]

Equation 17, Stall Speed Scaled to the Mod II Mass. Scaling the production stall speed of 55 knots by the square root of the mass ratio reproduces the tabulated Mod II figure of 58 knots. Borer

\[V_{s,II} = V_{s,I}\sqrt{\frac{m_{II}}{m_{I}}} = 55\sqrt{\frac{1361}{1230}} = 57.9 \tag{17}\]

Equation 18, Maximum Lift Coefficient From a Stall Speed. The maximum lift coefficient follows from the stall speed, the mass, the wing area and the sea-level density. Lift Coefficient

\[C_{L,max} = \frac{2\,m\,g}{\rho\,V_{s0}^{2}\,S} \tag{18}\]

Equation 19, Landing Lift Coefficients of Mod II, Mod IV and the Blown Wing. The tabulated landing stall speeds at 1,361 kilograms give maximum lift coefficients of 1.658, 2.496 and 3.954, the last agreeing with the design figure. Borer Borer and Patterson

\[C_{L,II} = 1.658, \qquad C_{L,IV} = 2.496, \qquad C_{L,hl} = 3.954 \tag{19}\]

Equation 20, Division of the Lift Factor Between Flap and Propellers. The flapped small wing supplies a factor of 1.505 and the propellers the remaining 1.584, whose product recovers the 2.38.

\[\frac{C_{L,IV}}{C_{L,II}} = 1.505, \qquad \frac{C_{L,hl}}{C_{L,IV}} = \left(\frac{73}{58}\right)^{2} = 1.584, \qquad 1.505 \times 1.584 = 2.384 \tag{20}\]

Equation 21, Design Lift Coefficient Against the Unblown Wing. The design lift coefficient of 4.35, sized with a ten percent margin, is 1.743 times the unblown Mod IV value. Borer and Patterson

\[\frac{C_{L,goal}}{C_{L,IV}} = \frac{4.35}{2.496} = 1.743 \tag{21}\]

Equation 22, Bespoke Velocity Increase for the Design Lift Factor. Put through the article’s slipstream model, the design factor of 1.743 needs a velocity increase of 44 percent on the blown span.

\[x = \sqrt{1 + \frac{1.743 - 1}{0.699}} - 1 = 0.436 \tag{22}\]

Equation 23, Bespoke Power for the Design Lift Factor. The ideal power for that increment is 66.6 kilowatts, and at the assumed 75 percent propulsive efficiency 88.7 kilowatts, below the installed power.

\[P_i = 66.6, \qquad \frac{P_i}{\eta_{pr}} = \frac{66.6}{0.75} = 88.7 \;<\; P_h \tag{23}\]

Equation 24, Design Shaft Power and Thrust of the High-Lift Propellers. Twelve propellers at the published design point of 10.7 kilowatts and 215 newtons give 128.4 kilowatts and 2,580 newtons. Borer and Patterson

\[P_s = 12 \times 10.7 = 128.4, \qquad T = 12 \times 215 = 2580 \tag{24}\]

Equation 25, Actuator Disc Evaluation of the Design Thrust. Treating the design thrust as twelve actuator discs of the published diameter gives the induced velocity, an ideal power of 99.5 kilowatts and an ideal to shaft power ratio of 0.775. Momentum Theory

\[v_i = 8.73, \qquad P_i = T\,(V_s + v_i) = 99.5, \qquad \frac{P_i}{P_s} = 0.775 \tag{25}\]

Equation 26, Bespoke Design Slipstream Against the Model Requirement. The far-wake increment implied by the design thrust, 58 percent of the stall speed, exceeds the 44 percent that the article’s slipstream model requires.

\[\frac{2\,v_i}{V_s} = 0.585 \;>\; 0.436 \tag{26}\]

Equation 27, Ratio of Wetted Areas. The reported wetted areas, including the high-lift nacelles, fall by 18 percent. Borer

\[\frac{S_{w,1}}{S_{w,0}} = \frac{55.5}{67.8} = 0.819 \tag{27}\]

Equation 28, Induced Drag in Terms of Span. At given lift and speed the induced drag is set by the square of the span and the span efficiency, not by the aspect ratio. Lift-Induced Drag

\[D_i = \frac{L^{2}}{\tfrac{1}{2}\rho V^{2}\,\pi\, b^{2} e} \tag{28}\]

Equation 29, Ratio of Induced Drag From the Span Reduction. At equal lift, speed and span efficiency the shorter Mod III span raises the induced drag by 32 percent, as the report also concludes. Borer

\[\frac{D_{i,1}}{D_{i,0}} = \left(\frac{b_0}{b_1}\right)^{2}= \left(\frac{11.40}{9.94}\right)^{2} = 1.32 \tag{29}\]

Equation 30, Cruise Lift-to-Drag Gains of Mod III Over Mod II. The report’s cruise lift-to-drag ratios give a gain of 40 percent without thrust and 53 percent with cruise thrust. Borer

\[\frac{13.3}{9.5} = 1.40, \qquad \frac{13.5}{8.8} = 1.53 \tag{30}\]

Equation 31, Effect of Thrust on Lift-to-Drag Ratio. Cruise thrust costs Mod II about seven percent of its lift-to-drag ratio and gains Mod III about two percent on the report’s figures. Borer

\[\frac{8.8}{9.5} = 0.93, \qquad \frac{13.5}{13.3} = 1.02 \tag{31}\]

Equation 32, Aspect Ratio. The aspect ratio is the square of the span over the wing area, which allows a published set of span, area and aspect ratio to be checked. Aspect Ratio, Aeronautics

\[AR = \frac{b^{2}}{S} \tag{32}\]

Equation 33, Installed High-Lift and Cruise Motor Power. Twelve high-lift motors of 12.6 kilowatts give 151.2 kilowatts and two cruise motors of 72 kilowatts give 144. Borer

\[P_h = 12 \times 12.6 = 151.2, \qquad P_c = 2 \times 72 = 144 \tag{33}\]

Equation 34, High-Lift Power Against the Original Engines. The high-lift installation is three percent more powerful than the two 73.5 kilowatt piston engines it replaced. Borer

\[\frac{P_h}{P_0} = \frac{151.2}{147.0} = 1.03 \tag{34}\]

Equation 35, Propeller Advance Ratio. The advance ratio is the airspeed over the product of rotational speed and diameter. Propeller, Aeronautics

\[J = \frac{V}{n\,d} \tag{35}\]

Equation 36, Advance Ratios of the Cruise and High-Lift Propellers. At their design points the cruise propellers run at an advance ratio of 1.34 and the high-lift propellers at 0.68.

\[J_{cruise} = 1.34, \qquad J_{lift} = 0.68 \tag{36}\]

Equation 37, Specific Power of the Cruise Motor and the Rotax Engine. The cruise motor with its propeller gives 1.36 kilowatts per kilogram against about 1.30 for the Rotax engine with its gearbox. X-57 Maxwell Overview, NASA Rotax 912 ULS/S, BRP-Rotax

\[\frac{72}{53.1} = 1.36 \quad \text{against} \quad \frac{73.5}{56.6} = 1.30 \tag{37}\]

Equation 38, Cruise Motor Torque. Torque is power over angular speed, giving 255 newton metres at the 72 kilowatt peak rating and 2,700 revolutions per minute. Clarke et al Clarke and Terry

\[Q = \frac{P}{\Omega} = \frac{72\,000}{2\pi \times 2700/60} = 255 \tag{38}\]

Equation 39, Cruise Power Fraction at Reduced Speed. At full torque the cruise motor power falls in proportion to speed, to two thirds at 1,800 revolutions per minute.

\[\frac{P_{1800}}{P_{2700}} = \frac{1800}{2700} = 0.67 \tag{39}\]

Equation 40, Specific Energy of the Battery Pack. The 47 kilowatt hours of effective energy in 390 kilograms of battery is 120 watt hours per kilogram. Hernandez Lugo et al. 2018

\[e_b = \frac{E}{m} = \frac{47\times 10^{3}}{390} = 120\ \text{watt hours per kilogram} \tag{40}\]

Equation 41, Module Voltage, Capacity and Energy. Sixteen cells in series of twenty in parallel give a module of 57.6 volts, 60 ampere hours and 3,456 watt hours. Clarke Hernandez Lugo et al. 2018

\[V_m = 16 \times 3.6 = 57.6, \qquad C_m = 20 \times 3.0 = 60, \qquad E_m = 57.6 \times 60 = 3456 \tag{41}\]

Equation 42, Nominal Pack Energy and Voltage Limits. Sixteen modules give 55.3 kilowatt hours, and 128 cells in series give a nominal 461 volts and a maximum of 538. Clarke

\[E_{nom} = 16 \times 3.456 = 55.3, \qquad V_{nom} = 128 \times 3.6 = 461, \qquad V_{max} = 128 \times 4.2 = 538 \tag{42}\]

Equation 43, Effective Fraction of Nominal Energy. The design counted 47 of the nominal 55.3 kilowatt hours as effective, a fraction of 0.85.

\[\frac{E}{E_{nom}} = \frac{47}{55.3} = 0.85 \tag{43}\]

Equation 44, Specific Energy of the Fuel. A lower heating value of 43.5 megajoules per kilogram is about 12,100 watt hours per kilogram. Borer

\[e_f = \frac{43.5 \times 10^{6}}{3600} = 1.21 \times 10^{4} \tag{44}\]

Equation 45, Ratio of Fuel to Battery Specific Energy. Fuel carries about a hundred times more energy per kilogram than this battery pack.

\[\frac{e_f}{e_b} = 100 \tag{45}\]

Equation 46, Discharge Rate With Every Motor at Peak. Running all fourteen motors at their 295.2 kilowatt combined peak would draw 6.3 times the effective energy per hour.

\[C_r = \frac{P}{E} = \frac{295.2}{47} = 6.3 \tag{46}\]

Equation 47, Endurance With Every Motor at Peak. At that combined peak the effective energy would last 0.159 hours, under ten minutes.

\[t = \frac{E}{P} = \frac{47}{295.2} = 0.159 \tag{47}\]

Equation 48, Baseline Profile Energy Against Effective Energy. The baseline flight profile was predicted to need 98 percent of the effective energy. Hernandez Lugo et al. 2018

\[\frac{E_{prof}}{E} = \frac{46.2}{47.0} = 0.98 \tag{48}\]

Equation 49, Endurance at the Continuous Requirement. At the 120 kilowatts the two subsystems had to sustain continuously, the effective energy lasts 0.39 hours. Hernandez Lugo et al. 2018

\[t = \frac{E}{P} = \frac{47}{120} = 0.39 \tag{49}\]

Equation 50, Pack Current at Nominal and Minimum Voltage. At 60 kilowatts the current is 130 amperes at the 461 volt nominal and 176 at the 340 volt landing floor. Clarke et al

\[I = \frac{P}{V_b}, \qquad \frac{60\,000}{461} = 130, \qquad \frac{60\,000}{340} = 176 \tag{50}\]

Equation 51, Net Energy Disadvantage Per Kilogram. The hundredfold specific energy deficit divided by the threefold drivetrain efficiency advantage on the report’s figures leaves the battery thirty-three times worse off per kilogram. Borer

\[\frac{e_f\,\eta_p}{e_b\,\eta_e} = \frac{100 \times 0.30}{0.90} = 33 \tag{51}\]

Equation 52, Decomposition of the Energy Goal. The fivefold energy goal is the efficiency gain from 28 to 92 percent multiplied by a factor of 1.5 from the configuration. Borer

\[\frac{0.92}{0.28} \times 1.5 = 3.29 \times 1.5 = 4.9 \tag{52}\]

Equation 53, Bespoke Combined Energy Reduction of Mod III. Multiplying the report’s Mod II energy ratios by the Mod III cruise lift-to-drag gain combines estimates made at different conditions, an inference the article draws and the report does not state.

\[2.6 \times 1.53 = 4.0, \qquad 2.9 \times 1.53 = 4.4 \tag{53}\]

Equation 54, Electric Aircraft Range. The steady cruise range of an electric aircraft is the stored energy times the drivetrain and propulsive efficiencies over the weight, times the lift-to-drag ratio. Range, Aeronautics Lift-to-Drag Ratio

\[R = \frac{E\,\eta_e\,\eta_{pr}}{m\,g}\;\frac{L}{D} \tag{54}\]

Equation 55, Bespoke Upper Bound on Mod II and Mod III Range. Spending all 47 kilowatt hours at the cruise point with a propulsive efficiency of 75 percent that the article assumes gives upper bounds of 75 and 116 kilometres.

\[R_{II} = 75, \qquad R_{III} = 116 \tag{55}\]

Equation 56, Cruise Motor Controller Switching Voltage and Current. The cruise motor controller switched at the 538 volt bus maximum and 200 amperes peak per phase. Clarke and Terry

\[V_{dc} = 538, \qquad I_{pk} = 200 \tag{56}\]

Equation 57, Controller Heat Limit and Throughput. At 97 percent efficiency the 330 watt heat limit corresponds to 11 kilowatts of throughput. Clarke et al

\[P_{loss} = (1 - \eta_c)\,P, \qquad \frac{330}{0.03} = 11\,000 \tag{57}\]

Notation

• $S_1$, the Mod III wing area, with $S_0$ the original wing area
• $W/S$, the wing loading
• $C_L$, the lift coefficient
• $C_{L,max}$, the maximum lift coefficient
• $V_s$, the stall speed
• $q_w$, the dynamic pressure over the blown wing
• $\Delta V$, the slipstream velocity increment
• $f$, the fraction of the span in a slipstream
• $d$, the propeller diameter
• $b_1$, the Mod III span, with $b_0$ the original span
• $A_h$, the total disc area of the high-lift propellers
• $x$, the fractional velocity increase over the blown span
• $v_i$, the induced velocity at the disc
• $P_i$, the ideal induced power
• $P_h$, the installed high-lift motor power
• $\eta_{pr}$, the propulsive efficiency
• $C_{L,hl}$, the maximum lift coefficient with the high-lift propellers running
• $C_{L,goal}$, the design maximum lift coefficient
• $P_s$, the design shaft power of the high-lift propellers
• $S_{w,1}$, the Mod III wetted area, with $S_{w,0}$ the original
• $D_i$, the induced drag
• $e$, the span efficiency
• $AR$, the wing aspect ratio
• $P_c$, the installed cruise motor power
• $J$, the propeller advance ratio
• $Q$, the motor torque
• $\Omega$, the angular speed of the motor
• $e_b$, the specific energy of the battery pack
• $e_f$, the specific energy of the fuel
• $E_{nom}$, the nominal pack energy
• $C_r$, the discharge rate as a multiple of capacity per hour
• $E_{prof}$, the energy predicted for the baseline flight profile
• $V_b$, the pack voltage
• $\eta_e$, the electric drivetrain efficiency, with $\eta_p$ the piston engine efficiency
• $\eta_c$, the motor controller efficiency
• $P_{loss}$, the heat dissipated in the controller

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