The Osprey X-28A was to cost less than five thousand dollars a copy, and that was not a happy accident of procurement. It was the requirement. The United States Navy study that led to it asked for an aircraft that could patrol under visual flight rules, be trailered behind a vehicle, be built in Southeast Asia, work out of canals as narrow as twenty-five feet, and cost under five thousand dollars when bought in quantity. The trailer and the canals are in Tails Through Time, and the other three, the price among them, are in Jenkins, Landis and Miller. Four of those five are not flight requirements at all. This is the twenty-ninth article in the X-Planes series, following the X-1, the X-2, the X-3, the X-4, the X-5, the X-6, the X-7, the X-8, the X-9, the X-10, the X-11, the X-12, the X-13, the X-14, the X-15, the X-16, the X-17, the X-18, the X-19, the X-20, the X-21, the X-22, the X-23, the X-24, the X-25, the X-26, and the X-27.

It is the exact complement of the article before it. The X-27 was a supersonic fighter for which no money was appropriated and which was never built beyond a mock-up. The X-28 was a homebuilt flying boat that a man in Sacramento designed for the sport market, and the Navy bought the actual aeroplane, put it on the Delaware River, and flew it for five weeks, as Tails Through Time records.

And the two aircraft were bought for the same war. The X-26B, two articles ago, was flown over the Mekong Delta at night, made expensive so that it could be silent. The X-28 was intended, in its maker’s account, for reconnaissance over the same Mekong Delta waters, made cheap so that there could be many. One programme spent money to remove a signature and the other refused to spend money at all, and both were answers to the same question about watching somebody else’s rivers.

The Research Question

The binding constraint is a price, and the requirement states it as a number. Few research aircraft begin that way. Most exist to measure something nobody has measured. This one existed to find out what five thousand dollars buys.

So the keystone is not aerodynamic. It is whether a useful patrol capability can be assembled under a set of constraints that are almost entirely non-aeronautical, and whether the physics permits the answer to be yes.

The Constraint That Set the Aeroplane

Of the five requirements, one turns out to have determined the shape of the aircraft.

The aircraft had to work from canals as little as twenty-five feet wide. Its wingspan is twenty-three feet.

\[\text{clearance each side} = \tfrac{1}{2}\left(25 - 23\right) = 1\ \mathrm{ft} = 12\ \mathrm{in} \tag{1}\]

Twelve inches on each side. On this reading the span was not chosen for lift or for induced drag. It was chosen so that the aeroplane would fit down a ditch, and everything aerodynamic follows from that.

The aspect ratio is the span squared over the area.

\[A = \frac{b^2}{S} = \frac{(23.0\ \mathrm{ft})^2}{97.0\ \mathrm{ft}^2} = 5.454 \tag{2}\]

The figure is respectable for a light aircraft and poor for a patrol aircraft, because endurance is what a patrol aircraft sells and endurance wants span. The calculation below prices the canal in that currency.

Why This Is the Right Keystone

The obvious alternative is to make the hull the keystone, since the aircraft is a flying boat and its hydrodynamics usually hold the interesting physics. The hull is treated at length below, and it was never the problem, because an aircraft this light gets over its resistance hump with an enormous margin.

A keystone should be the thing that was actually binding. For this aircraft the water was easy and the ditch was hard.

Programme Origin

The programme has two origins that met by accident, and their meeting made it a strange aeroplane.

The Sport Aircraft

George Pereira designed boats for a living and aeroplanes for pleasure. In 1969, in Sacramento, California, he began the Osprey I, a single-seat flying boat for the growing homebuilt market, as Tails Through Time records. Jenkins, Landis and Miller date its first flight to 12 August 1970, and its initial test flights were over the Sacramento Delta.

It was built of wood, fibreglass and expanded polystyrene, had folding wings and an open cockpit, and weighed nine hundred pounds with full fuel, by the account in Tails Through Time, and its plans included a trailer from which one person could launch and recover it. None of that was a military specification. All of it turned out to match one.

The Navy Study

The Naval Air Development Center at Warminster, Pennsylvania, had been studying patrol requirements for Southeast Asia. In the list Jenkins, Landis and Miller give, the study asked for an aircraft that could be flown under visual flight rules by easily trained pilots, be manufactured locally, and cost under five thousand dollars when bought in quantity. Tails Through Time adds that it had to be movable by trailer at under a thousand pounds and to operate from canals as little as twenty-five feet wide.

Navy officials asked Pereira for a demonstration of the Osprey in 1971 and found their own requirements in it. The Navy bought the aircraft and its trailer on 27 July 1971, as Tails Through Time reports, designated it X-28A, and ran the evaluation under the name Project Air Skimmer, which Jenkins, Landis and Miller call the Air Skimmer program.

What the Names Mean When the Sources Disagree

The aircraft is called several things and the record does not keep them straight. Osprey I is the name the homebuilt took retrospectively, once Pereira’s Osprey II existed. Sea Skimmer and Air Skimmer attach variously to the aircraft and to the Navy project, the encyclopaedia entry using both for the aircraft and Jenkins, Landis and Miller using Air Skimmer for the programme. Some sources, the same entry among them, credit the design of the aircraft itself to Eut Tileston working under contract to Pereira.

This article treats the aeroplane the Navy bought as Pereira’s Osprey I and does not attempt to adjudicate the naming, because the sources that disagree are all secondary and none of them shows its working.

The Vehicle

Quantity Value
Wingspan 23 ft 0 in
Length 17 ft 3 in
Height 5 ft 3 in
Wing area 97 ft²
Aspect ratio 5.454
Empty weight 600 lb
Gross weight 900 lb
Wing loading 9.28 lb/ft²
Engine Continental C90-12, 90 hp
Power loading 10.0 lb/hp
Maximum speed 135 mph
Cruise speed 103 kt
Minimum control speed 48 kt
Rate of climb 2,200 ft/min
Service ceiling 18,000 ft
Construction wood, fibreglass, expanded polystyrene

The two loadings come first, because between them they explain most of what follows, and they are the first two numbers any of the sizing texts asks for, in Raymer, Torenbeek and Gudmundsson.

\[\frac{W}{S} = \frac{900\ \mathrm{lb}}{97\ \mathrm{ft}^2} = 9.28\ \mathrm{lb/ft^2} \tag{3}\] \[\frac{W}{P} = \frac{900\ \mathrm{lb}}{90\ \mathrm{hp}} = 10.0\ \mathrm{lb/hp} \tag{4}\]

The weight breakdown is equally plain, and the fuel fraction is the number every endurance figure below is proportional to.

\[\frac{W_{\mathrm{empty}}}{W_{\mathrm{gross}}} = \frac{600}{900} = 0.667, \qquad \frac{W_{\mathrm{fuel}}}{W_{\mathrm{gross}}} = \frac{90}{900} = 0.10 \tag{5}\]

Two numbers in that table are the whole aeroplane.

The wing loading is 9.28 pounds per square foot, which is about a tenth of the X-27’s eighty-one. The power loading is ten pounds per horsepower. An aeroplane this light with this much wing and this much power relative to its weight is capable out of all proportion to its price, and the Navy’s evaluation was a test of that proposition.

Sizing From First Principles

The inventory of record for the whole series, and the source for this aircraft’s place in it, is Jenkins, Landis and Miller.

Nothing about this aircraft’s aerodynamics was published. No drag polar, no maximum lift coefficient, no fuel capacity, no hull beam, no propeller diameter. What was published is a handful of performance numbers, and those are enough to invert.

The Lift Coefficient, Inverted From the Quoted Stall

The lift equation at the stall gives the relation between speed and maximum lift coefficient.

\[L = \tfrac{1}{2}\rho V^2 S\,C_L, \qquad V_{\mathrm{stall}} = \sqrt{\frac{2W}{\rho\,S\,C_{L_{\max}}}} \tag{6}\]

The record gives the speed and not the coefficient, so the relation is inverted.

\[C_{L_{\max}} = \frac{2W}{\rho\,S\,V_{\mathrm{stall}}^2} = \frac{2 \times 4{,}003}{1.225 \times 9.011 \times (24.69)^2} = 1.189 \tag{7}\]

The coefficient is ordinary for a light-aircraft wing, although Jenkins, Landis and Miller describe flaps and ailerons along almost the whole trailing edge, and its ordinariness is the point. The inversion returns something plausible, so the quoted minimum speed and the quoted weight and area are mutually consistent.

The Drag Polar, Built Rather Than Inverted

\[C_D = C_{D_0} + K C_L^2, \qquad K = \frac{1}{\pi A e} \tag{8}\]

The dynamic pressure and the drag it produces are used from here to the end of the article and are defined once, following Anderson.

\[q = \tfrac{1}{2}\rho V^2, \qquad D = q\,S\,C_D \tag{9}\]

At the loiter condition computed below, which is twenty percent above the stall,

\[q = \tfrac{1}{2} \times 1.225 \times (29.63)^2 = 537.8\ \mathrm{Pa}, \qquad C_L = \frac{W}{qS} = 0.826, \qquad D = 85.0\ \mathrm{lbf} \tag{10}\]

The sizing relations used here follow Raymer, Torenbeek and Gudmundsson, with the drag data behind them in Hoerner and the underlying flight mechanics in Anderson.

A flying boat is not a landplane with floats. The hull is a planing bottom with a step and a chine in it, and it carries a drag penalty a faired fuselage does not, so the estimate is built with that penalty stated separately rather than buried.

\[C_{D_0} = C_{fe}\,\frac{S_{\mathrm{wet}}}{S_{\mathrm{ref}}} + \Delta C_{D,\,\mathrm{hull}} = 0.0055 \times 4.2 + 0.010 = 0.0331 \tag{11}\] \[e = 0.886, \qquad K = \frac{1}{\pi \times 5.454 \times 0.886} = 0.0659 \tag{12}\] \[\left(\frac{L}{D}\right)_{\max} = \frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{\pi A e}{C_{D_0}}} = \frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{\pi \times 5.454 \times 0.886}{0.0331}} = 10.71 \tag{13}\]

Ten point seven is modest, and the hull accounts for the shortfall. Without the hull increment the same estimate gives twelve point eight.

No Room in the Climb Claim

The quoted rate of climb is 2,200 feet per minute, which for a nine-hundred-pound aeroplane with ninety horsepower deserves checking. Power available divided by weight is an absolute ceiling on rate of climb, reachable only by an aircraft with no drag whatever.

\[\frac{dh}{dt} = \frac{\eta_p P - D V}{W} \qquad \Longrightarrow \qquad \left.\frac{dh}{dt}\right|_{\mathrm{ceiling}} = \frac{\eta_p P}{W} \tag{14}\]
Propeller efficiency Zero-drag ceiling Claim as a fraction of it
0.70 2,310 ft/min 95.2 percent
0.75 2,475 ft/min 88.9 percent
0.80 2,640 ft/min 83.3 percent

The claim is not impossible and it has almost nothing left over. Inverting instead, and asking what propeller efficiency the claim would require against the drag polar built above,

\[\eta_p^{\mathrm{req}} = \min_V \frac{W\,\dot h + D(V)\,V}{P} = 0.823 \tag{15}\]

Eighty-two percent is achievable by a well-matched fixed-pitch propeller at climb speed and is toward the top of the range. On balance the figure is reachable under favourable assumptions. Of the published numbers, it alone has no margin in it.

Inverting the other way makes the point sharper. If the propeller is taken at 0.75 and the climb figure is believed, the drag it implies is

\[C_{D_0} = 0.0050 \tag{16}\]

which is impossible for a hull with a step in it. The inversion is not wrong. Its premise is. One of the three quantities, the climb rate, the weight or the power, is not what the table says it is, and the most likely candidate is that the climb figure was measured light.

What the Canal Cost

The canal calculation is the centre of the article. If the span was set by a ditch, the question is what that cost in the currency the mission valued.

A patrol aircraft’s endurance is set by the power required at its loiter speed, and the power required is minimised at a speed which follows from the polar.

\[P_{\mathrm{req}} = D V = \tfrac{1}{2}\rho V^3 S\,C_{D_0} + \frac{2 K W^2}{\rho V S} \tag{17}\] \[V_{\mathrm{mp}} = \left(\frac{4 K W^2}{3\rho^2 S^2 C_{D_0}}\right)^{1/4} \tag{18}\] \[E = \frac{W_{\mathrm{fuel}}}{c\,P_{\mathrm{shaft}}} \tag{19}\]

And here the calculation returns something the designer would not have wanted.

\[V_{\mathrm{mp}} = 47.2\ \mathrm{kt}, \qquad V_{\mathrm{stall}} = 48.0\ \mathrm{kt}, \qquad \frac{V_{\mathrm{mp}}}{V_{\mathrm{stall}}} = 0.984 \tag{20}\]

The minimum-power speed lies below the stall speed. The endurance optimum is not reachable. The aircraft cannot fly slowly enough to reach the bottom of its power curve, so its loiter speed is set by a stall margin rather than by the power required, and every hour it spends on patrol is spent somewhat off the optimum.

It follows directly from the two constraints acting together. The trailer limit forced the weight down, which forced the wing loading down, which pushed the stall speed down. The canal forced the span down, which pushed the induced drag up and the minimum-power speed down further. The two requirements pushed the same two speeds toward each other until they crossed.

Taking a stall margin of twenty percent, the least a patrol pilot would accept, and ninety pounds of fuel, an unpublished figure stated here as an assumption,

Loiter speed Drag Shaft power Endurance Range
1.0 $V_s$, 48.0 kt 95.6 lbf 18.8 hp 9.59 h 460 nmi
1.2 $V_s$, 57.6 kt 85.0 lbf 20.0 hp 8.98 h 517 nmi
1.3 $V_s$, 62.4 kt 84.0 lbf 21.5 hp 8.39 h 523 nmi
1.5 $V_s$, 72.0 kt 87.7 lbf 25.8 hp 6.97 h 502 nmi

Range follows from endurance and speed, and the loiter speed follows from a stall margin rather than from the power curve, for the reason just given. The propeller-aircraft endurance relations are as given in Torenbeek and Gudmundsson.

\[R = E\,V_{\mathrm{loiter}}, \qquad V_{\mathrm{loiter}} = k\,V_{\mathrm{stall}}, \qquad k \ge 1.2 \tag{21}\] \[R = 8.98\ \mathrm{h} \times 57.6\ \mathrm{kt} = 517\ \mathrm{nmi} \tag{22}\]

Nine hours is a great deal of patrol from ninety pounds of fuel, a point to make before the criticism arrives. The aeroplane needs twenty of its ninety installed horsepower to loiter, the same margin the X-26B exploited two articles ago for a different purpose.

Now the counterfactual. Holding the wing area, the weight and the polar fixed and varying only the span,

Span Aspect ratio Endurance at 1.2 $V_s$ Change
23 ft, as built 5.45 8.98 h baseline
26 ft 6.97 10.30 h +14.7 percent
30 ft 9.28 11.08 h +23.3 percent
34 ft 11.92 11.63 h +29.5 percent

A thirty-foot span, which a thirty-two-foot canal would pass, gains a little under a quarter more endurance. The ditch cost that much, a real price rather than a rhetorical one.

But the price was worth paying. A twenty-three foot span fits a twenty-five foot canal, and a thirty-foot span does not. An aircraft with twenty-three percent more endurance that cannot reach the water it is meant to patrol has no endurance at all. The constraint was not stupid. It was expensive, and the requirement made the trade deliberately.

These relations come from the literature on light-aircraft performance, drag estimation and endurance flying.

Search as the Aeroplane’s Product

The mathematics of this section is Koopman’s, developed for this problem during the Second World War, with the modern treatment in Stone.

A patrol aircraft’s product is area examined per hour. Search theory exists to quantify it, and has a well-developed mathematics for the purpose.

\[\dot{A} = W_{\mathrm{sweep}}\,V \tag{23}\]

The sweep width is not the sighting range and the difference matters by a factor of two. Sweep width is the width of a hypothetical perfect sensor that would find as many targets as the real imperfect one. It equals the integral of the lateral-range curve.

\[W_{\mathrm{sweep}} = 2\int_0^{\infty} p(x)\,dx \tag{24}\]

Under the definite-range law, where everything inside a radius is seen and nothing outside it, the integral is exactly twice the radius. Every real curve lies below that, so

\[W_{\mathrm{sweep}} = \varphi \cdot 2R_{\max}, \qquad 0 < \varphi \le 1 \tag{25}\]

and the honesty lives in $\varphi$. A sweep width larger than twice the sighting range is therefore impossible, and any coverage figure built on one is inflated.

Maximum sighting range $\varphi$ Sweep width Coverage at 103 kt
0.5 nmi 0.3 0.30 nmi 30.9 nmi²/h
0.5 nmi 0.5 0.50 nmi 51.5 nmi²/h
1.0 nmi 0.5 1.00 nmi 103.0 nmi²/h
1.0 nmi 0.8 1.60 nmi 164.8 nmi²/h

The random-search law and the coverage factor are Koopman’s, with the modern statement in Stone.

A sweep width is only half the answer. What a commander wants is the probability that a target present in the area was found, and for a search whose track spacing is not controlled the random-search law gives it, by treating each element of area as independently exposed.

Detection probability, the lateral-range curve and the random-search law are an operations-research literature contemporary with the programme, and the visual-detection figures a patrol aircraft was planned around are period results.

\[C_{\mathrm{cov}} = \frac{W_{\mathrm{sweep}}\,V\,t}{A_{\mathrm{search}}}, \qquad P_{\mathrm{det}} = 1 - e^{-C_{\mathrm{cov}}} \tag{26}\]

Covering an area once finds about sixty-three percent of what is in it.

\[P_{\mathrm{det}}(C_{\mathrm{cov}} = 1) = 1 - e^{-1} = 0.632 \tag{27}\]

That exponential explains why patrol aircraft are bought in numbers rather than singly. It is also the quantitative form of the argument the next section makes in dollars.

The tested altitude was three hundred feet, restricted by airspace around Philadelphia rather than by the aircraft. The geometric horizon there is 20.3 nautical miles, which bounds the sweep width and does not set it, because a sampan is not visible at the horizon.

\[d_{\mathrm{horizon}} \approx 1.17\sqrt{h_{\mathrm{ft}}} = 1.17\sqrt{300} = 20.3\ \mathrm{nmi} \tag{28}\]

Sweep width and the lateral-range curve are products of the search-theory literature, largely operations-research work and much of it contemporary with the programme. Its records form the cluster on search theory, visual detection and sweep width under The Contemporary Literature.

Area Per Dollar as the Only Permitted Comparison

A five-thousand-dollar aeroplane loses every comparison except one. It is slower, it carries less, it flies in worse weather not at all, and it sees only what a pilot can see. The comparison the requirement asks for is area examined per hour per dollar spent.

The quantity being compared is a rate divided by a price, and the requirement was asking about its fleet form.

\[\frac{\dot{A}}{C} = \frac{W_{\mathrm{sweep}}\,V}{C}, \qquad N = \frac{B}{C}, \qquad \dot{A}_{\mathrm{fleet}} = N\,W_{\mathrm{sweep}}\,V = B\,\frac{\dot{A}}{C} \tag{29}\]

The fleet coverage is the budget multiplied by the area per dollar, which is why that ratio is the figure of merit and not the coverage rate alone.

Each aircraft is given its own sweep width, because giving them the same one is not a comparison. A maritime patrol aircraft carries search radar. The X-28A carried a man looking out of an open cockpit.

Aircraft Speed Sweep width Coverage Unit cost Area per $1,000
X-28A, visual at 300 ft 103 kt 1.00 nmi 103 nmi²/h $5,000 20.60 nmi²/h
OV-10A Bronco, visual 223 kt 1.00 nmi 223 nmi²/h $480,000 0.46 nmi²/h
P-3C Orion, search radar 328 kt 20.00 nmi 6,560 nmi²/h $36,000,000 0.18 nmi²/h

Put the same budget through both columns and the comparison becomes concrete.

\[N = \frac{\$36{,}000{,}000}{\$5{,}000} = 7{,}200 \tag{30}\] \[\dot{A}_{\mathrm{fleet}} = 7{,}200 \times 103 = 741{,}600\ \mathrm{nmi^2/h} \quad \text{against} \quad 6{,}560\ \mathrm{nmi^2/h} \tag{31}\] \[\frac{741{,}600}{6{,}560} = 113 \tag{32}\]

The X-28A is about a hundred and thirteen times better per dollar than the Orion, after giving the Orion a twenty-mile radar sweep against the Osprey’s one-mile eyeball. The Orion covers sixty-four times the area per hour and costs seven thousand two hundred times as much.

The ratio is the entire argument for the programme, so what it does not say matters. It does not say an Orion is bad value, because an Orion flies at night, in weather, for thousands of miles, with a crew and sensors and weapons, over ocean where no canal exists. It says that for a particular mission over particular water in daylight, buying seven thousand small aeroplanes would examine more water than buying one large one. Whether seven thousand pilots existed is a different question, which this calculation leaves open.

This comparison borrows its method from the literature on cost-effectiveness analysis, operating cost and the economics of military aircraft. The Contemporary Literature lists its records in the cluster on cost-effectiveness, affordability and design to cost.

Dependent Systems

Every system below is dimensioned against a constraint that is not aerodynamic, a fact that makes this aircraft unusual to write about.

The Hull Was Never the Problem

The planing hydrodynamics below follows Savitsky and the planing-hull literature.

A flying boat must exceed its water resistance to take off, and that resistance peaks near the planing transition at what the Langley tank literature calls the hump. For most flying boats the hump is the design driver, the reason they carry so much power.

\[R_{\mathrm{hump}} = \left(\frac{R}{\Delta}\right)_{\max}\Delta \tag{33}\]

Static thrust cannot be found from a propulsive efficiency, because that quantity is zero at zero forward speed. Momentum theory gives the scaling.

Actuator-disc theory, disc loading and the induced velocity behind a propeller are the mechanism this section uses, and the literature under those names derives and measures it.

\[T_{\mathrm{static}} = \left(2\rho A_{\mathrm{disc}} P^2\right)^{1/3} \tag{34}\]

The same momentum balance gives the disc loading and the velocity the propeller must add to the air. Without it the static case could not be computed at all.

\[\frac{T}{A_{\mathrm{disc}}} = 21.9\ \mathrm{lb/ft^2}, \qquad w = \sqrt{\frac{T}{2\rho A_{\mathrm{disc}}}} = 20.7\ \mathrm{m/s} \tag{35}\]
Propeller diameter Static thrust
5.0 ft 549 lbf
5.5 ft 585 lbf
6.0 ft 620 lbf
Hump resistance ratio Resistance Thrust over resistance
0.15 135 lbf 4.59
0.20 180 lbf 3.44
0.25 225 lbf 2.75

The margin is between two and a half and four and a half to one across the plausible range. The aeroplane walks over its hump. A flying boat’s characteristic difficulty does not apply at ten pounds per horsepower, and this holds without knowing the hull’s beam, its deadrise or its resistance curve, because the conclusion survives every value they could take.

The beam loading coefficient is the parameter every tank test is indexed by, and it is reported parametrically for the same reason.

\[C_{\Delta_0} = \frac{\Delta}{\gamma_w b^3} \tag{36}\]

The displacement and the Froude scaling below are standard naval architecture, as set out in the planing-hull literature collected in Savitsky.

The displacement follows from Archimedes, and comes to a small volume of water.

\[\nabla = \frac{\Delta}{\rho_w g} = \frac{4{,}003}{1025 \times 9.807} = 0.398\ \mathrm{m^3} = 14.1\ \mathrm{ft^3} \tag{37}\]

The speed at which a hull transitions from displacing to planing is set by the beam Froude number, and the hump occurs at a fixed value of that parameter.

The Froude number, the hump and the transition from displacement to planing are the vocabulary the tank literature indexes this problem by, and the hump resistance ratios used above are taken from the period work.

\[\mathrm{Fr}_b = \frac{V}{\sqrt{g\,b}} \tag{38}\]
Speed Beam Froude number at a 2.5 ft beam
0.3 $V_s$, 14.4 kt 2.71
0.5 $V_s$, 24.0 kt 4.52
0.7 $V_s$, 33.6 kt 6.32

The hump for a hull of this loading falls in the lower part of that range, well below the speed at which the wing carries any useful share of the weight. For that reason the thrust margin computed above settles the question.

Beam $C_{\Delta_0}$
2.0 ft 1.758
2.5 ft 0.900
3.0 ft 0.521

The tank-test literature behind all of this is one of the most completely documented experimental programmes in aeronautics, and almost all of it is period work. The records are collected under The Contemporary Literature, in the cluster on flying-boat hulls, planing and the towing tank.

Sea State as the Real Water Limit

What limits a small flying boat is not resistance but waves. A hull is safe while it is long compared with the waves it meets and dangerous when it begins to span them.

\[\lambda = \frac{g T^2}{2\pi} \tag{39}\]
Wave period Wavelength Hull length over wavelength
2.0 s 20.5 ft 0.842
3.0 s 46.1 ft 0.374
4.0 s 81.9 ft 0.211
5.0 s 128.0 ft 0.135

At a two-second period the hull is spanning most of a wavelength, the condition in which a seaplane hull begins to be thrown rather than to ride. A two-second sea is a modest chop. The aircraft was for canals and rivers, and this table explains why.

The limit is documented in the literature on water impact loads, rough-water operation and hull seaworthiness.

Porpoising and the trim limits of stability are the other half of that subject, and they decided whether a hull could be flown off at all.

Propulsion

A ninety-horsepower Continental C90-12, a four-cylinder horizontally opposed air-cooled engine of the kind fitted to many light aircraft, among them the Piper Super Cub and the Cessna 150. The propeller is characterised by its advance ratio, and by the helical speed of its tip, which limits how fast it may be turned.

Propeller charts, blade-element theory and the tip-speed limit are among the oldest quantitative subjects in the field, and almost all of the work behind the relations below is period work.

\[J = \frac{V}{n D}, \qquad V_{\mathrm{tip}} = \sqrt{(\pi n D)^2 + V^2}, \qquad M_{\mathrm{tip}} = \frac{V_{\mathrm{tip}}}{a} \tag{40}\]

At cruise, with an assumed six-foot propeller at 2,700 revolutions per minute,

\[J = \frac{53.0}{45.0 \times 1.829} = 0.644, \qquad V_{\mathrm{tip}} = 263.9\ \mathrm{m/s}, \qquad M_{\mathrm{tip}} = 0.776 \tag{41}\]

A fixed-pitch propeller wants a tip Mach number under 0.8, and that limit fixes the diameter and the engine speed.

\[\eta_p = \frac{T V}{P_{\mathrm{shaft}}} \tag{42}\]

The engine is the most conventional thing about the aeroplane, by design rather than by omission. An aircraft required to be manufacturable in Southeast Asia and maintainable by whoever is there cannot carry an engine that only one factory understands. Its literature appears under The Contemporary Literature as the cluster on propellers, momentum theory and the light-aircraft engine.

Structure

Wood, fibreglass and expanded polystyrene. The requirement for local manufacture appears here as a material list. None of the three needs a forging press, an autoclave or a heat-treatment line, and all three can be worked with hand tools by people who build boats.

The empty weight is six hundred pounds against a trailer limit of a thousand, a margin of four hundred pounds, spent on the folding wings and the launch trailer.

Instrumentation and the Absence of It

There is nothing to describe. The aircraft carried a pilot and whatever he could see. The requirement for visual flight rules is a requirement for no instrumentation, and the cost requirement would not have survived any.

The Flight Test Record

The flight test record is the shortest in the series so far, and unlike the previous article’s it is not empty.

  • Purchased, aircraft and trailer, on 27 July 1971, as Tails Through Time reports.
  • Tested from 16 September to 22 October 1971, five weeks, from the Philadelphia Naval Base on the Delaware River, by the same account.
  • Restricted to 300 feet maximum altitude throughout, by the airspace rather than by the aircraft.
  • First flight of the airframe had been on 12 August 1970, with initial test flights over the Sacramento Delta.
  • Last flight on 22 October 1971, ending the evaluation, as Jenkins, Landis and Miller record.

What the evaluation concluded is recorded in one sentence and no more. The aircraft was found to be easy to fly and easy to master by pilots of limited experience, and its performance was considered exceptionally good for its ninety horsepower, according to Jenkins, Landis and Miller.

That sentence is doing a great deal of work and no test report supports it in the open literature. It is treated here as a reported conclusion, not as a measurement.

Comparison With Ground Prediction

No flight measurements were published, so this section again compares a prediction with a prediction. What can be done is to check the manufacturer’s figures against each other and against first principles.

Claim Independent check Verdict
Minimum control speed 48 kt Implies $C_{L_{\max}} = 1.189$ Ordinary and consistent
Wing loading 9.28 lb/ft² 900 lb over 97 ft² Arithmetically exact
Rate of climb 2,200 ft/min Needs $\eta_p = 0.823$ Reachable, with no margin
Cruise 103 kt on 90 hp Requires about 44 hp at that speed Consistent
Span 23 ft in a 25 ft canal 12 in each side Consistent, and explanatory
Empty 600 lb under a 1,000 lb trailer limit 400 lb margin Consistent

The set hangs together. No more can be said, and the previous article could not say as much. Five of six claims check. The sixth, the climb rate, is reachable only at the top of the plausible range for its propeller, and is reported that way rather than declared false.

What the Data Changed

Almost nothing, because a war ended, not because of a technical failure.

The evaluation ended on 22 October 1971. Project Air Skimmer ended quietly as the Vietnam War wound down, and with it the requirement the aircraft had been bought to meet. No further military examples were produced.

What the programme did change lay outside the military. Pereira developed the design into the Osprey II, a two-seat amphibian sold as plans to homebuilders, and more than five hundred have been built and flown. Of the X-planes this series has treated so far, the X-28A is the only one whose design descendants exist in the hundreds, in private hangars, built by their owners.

The outcome is unusual for this series and deserves stating plainly. The X-15 flew one hundred and ninety-nine times and has no descendants. The X-28A flew for five weeks, changed no military requirement, and plans for its design are still sold to builders half a century later.

A Fourth Consecutive Designation That Did Not Go to a Research Aeroplane

The pattern named in the last three articles is now four deep, which is past coincidence.

  • X-25, a civil autogyro design ordered in modified form to investigate a rescue concept.
  • X-26, a commercially available sailplane bought twice, for training and for quiet observation.
  • X-27, a manufacturer’s private-venture export fighter that was never built at all.
  • X-28, a homebuilt sport flying boat bought off a private individual against a five-thousand-dollar unit cost.

Three of the four were aircraft that already existed and were bought for properties they already had. The fourth did not exist. Not one of the four was a research aeroplane designed and built to answer a research question, the purpose for which the X-series was created.

The X-28A is the clearest case in the series so far, because the Navy did not commission anything. It watched a man demonstrate his own aeroplane, recognised its requirements in it, and wrote him a cheque. The X-designation was applied to a purchase, and the research it marked was an evaluation of something already built.

This article does not claim that is misuse. Evaluating an existing aircraft against a requirement is research, and it produced an answer. The observation is narrower: by 1971 the X-series had become, at least sometimes, a way of labelling procurement evaluations rather than a way of labelling purpose-built research aircraft. The observation joins the evidence the closing article of this series assembles, and it now has four consecutive instances behind it.

The Contemporary Literature

Cluster Records
Flying-boat hulls, planing and the towing tank 499
Propellers, momentum theory and the light-aircraft engine 286
Light sport, ultralight and amateur-built aircraft 245
Light aircraft performance, drag and endurance 244
Water impact, porpoising and rough-water operation 213
Coverage path planning and cooperative search 184
Small unmanned aircraft for patrol and observation 165
Maritime surveillance, search and rescue and domain awareness 138
Cost-effectiveness, affordability and design to cost 128
Low-cost manufacture, composites and materials 104
Search theory, visual detection and sweep width 85
Riverine warfare, patrol and Southeast Asian rescue 20
Total 2,311

The bodies of work above are the ones the argument sits inside. This section reviews what has happened since, and then sets out the literature cluster by cluster in the order of the table.

The short version is that the X-28A’s question has been answered, decisively, and not by an aeroplane with a pilot in it.

The cheap patrol aircraft came back without the pilot

Everything the Naval Air Development Center asked for in 1971 now describes an unmanned aircraft. Visual flight rules, low cost, local manufacture, operation from confined water, and a price that makes the aircraft close to expendable. The requirement did not go away. The pilot did.

And the removal of the pilot dissolves the constraint that shaped the X-28A. A small unmanned aircraft does not need a cockpit, a canopy, a seat or a man’s weight and volume, so the thousand-pound trailer limit and the twenty-five-foot canal stop binding in the way they did. The ditch that set the wingspan is not a constraint on something you can carry.

The last three articles found the same shape of answer, and the repetition is now a pattern worth naming. The X-25 asked how to give a descending crewman a choice and was answered by a device made of fabric. The X-26B tried to make a manned aircraft inaudible and was answered by making the aircraft small enough not to need silencing. In every case the programme’s binding constraint turned out to be the thing that could be removed.

The records behind this subsection are in the cluster on small unmanned aircraft for patrol and observation below.

Search theory became a path-planning problem

Sweep width and the lateral-range curve are still the right mathematics and they are no longer the whole of it. When a human searches, the pattern is a ladder and the analysis is statistical. When a machine searches, the pattern itself is the decision, and coverage path planning has become a subject in its own right.

The X-28A’s coverage figure of a hundred square miles an hour measures a pilot’s eye and a hundred-knot aeroplane together. Contemporary work separates those, because the sensor and the platform no longer have to travel together.

The cluster on coverage path planning and cooperative search below holds the records for this subsection.

Maritime domain awareness is the mission’s modern name

The riverine and coastal surveillance problem did not end with the war. It is now called maritime domain awareness, it is fought over fisheries, smuggling and migration rather than insurgency, and the literature is large.

One thing in it would have surprised the 1971 study. The binding constraint has moved from the cost of the aircraft to the cost of processing what it sees. An aeroplane that examines a hundred square miles an hour is cheap. Looking at the result is not, which inverts the economics the X-28A was designed around.

Its records appear below in the cluster on maritime surveillance, search and rescue and domain awareness.

Planing hydrodynamics is computed now, and the tank tests still stand

The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics ran a tank-test programme that is one of the few bodies of period aeronautical work that has been neither superseded nor contradicted. Contemporary work simulates planing hulls, wave impact and slamming numerically, and validates against towing-tank and full-scale measurements of the kind cited above.

The explanation is instructive. A planing hull is a free-surface problem with a moving contact line and spray, which is hard to compute and was easy to measure with a towing carriage and a dynamometer. The measurements were right and the difficulty was always on the other side.

The cluster on flying-boat hulls, planing and the towing tank, below, collects the work this subsection draws on.

Cheap manufacture is a design discipline rather than a compromise

Wood, fibreglass and expanded polystyrene can all be worked with hand tools. The modern version of that requirement is composite manufacturing for low volume, additive manufacturing, and the explicit design-for-cost literature.

The X-28A’s material list would still work. What has changed is that choosing it is now a defensible engineering decision with a literature behind it rather than what a man in Sacramento happened to have in his shop.

For the records, see the cluster on low-cost manufacture, composites and materials below.

The light aircraft itself has a new regulatory category

The class of aircraft the Osprey belonged to is now defined in regulation. Light sport and ultralight categories exist, the Osprey I would sit inside the light-sport limits on weight and speed though not inside the ultralight ones, and the literature on their design, performance and safety is substantial.

The cluster on light sport, ultralight and amateur-built aircraft below lists that literature.

Affordability as a stated requirement

The X-28A is an early instance of design to cost with the cost stated first, and design to cost has since become a subject of study.

The modern literature would recognise the programme’s structure immediately and would also flag its weakness. A five-thousand-dollar unit price excludes the cost of operating, maintaining, basing and crewing an aircraft, and those dominate. The study asked the right question in the wrong units, a failure mode the contemporary work names explicitly.

These records sit in the cluster on cost-effectiveness, affordability and design to cost below.

Flying-boat hulls, planing and the towing tank

The towing tank and the hull it measured. Flying-boat and seaplane hulls, floats and planing surfaces, their resistance, spray, trim and stability on the water, the step and the dead rise, and the computation of planing that has followed the tank.

499 records. [A Flying Boat Series 1930] [A German Long-Range Flying-Boat 1939] [A German Long-Range Seaplane 1941] [A Long-Range Seaplane 1935] [A Seaplane Depot Ship 1933] [A Seaplane 1937] [Abdulov et al. 2018] [Aboozar and Mofid 2025] [Adli et al. 2024] [Afshar and Keshvari 2015] [Ai et al. 1964] [Akbari and Nikseresht 2025] [Allison 1935] [Allison 1938b] [Allison 1936] [Allison 1938a] [Allison and Ward 1936] [Amphibious Airplane 1986] [An American Amphibian 1935] [An Italian Flying Boat 1937] [Arabian 1952] [Ardian et al. 2025] [Balestrieri et al. 2026] [Bao et al. 2026] [Begovic et al. 2024] [Bell 1935] [Bell 1936] [Bell and Olson 1939] [Bell 1933] [Bell 1946] [Bendarkar et al. 2013] [Benoit 1926] [Benson 1943] [Berman 1938] [Blanchard 1953] [Bott 1943] [Brennan 1952] [Brown 1971] [Brown and Klosinski 1977] [Bunyawanichakul et al. 2024] [Butman 1915] [Buxton 1983] [(C.C.) 1926] [Canamar and Smrček 2011] [Carroll 1928] [Carter 1943] [Carter and Haar 1948] [Carter and Weinstein 1949] [Carter et al. 1947] [Casling 1978] [Casling 1980] [Casling and King 1980] [Castelluccio et al. 2016] [Castro-Feliciano et al. 2016] [Castro-Feliciano et al. 2019] [Cedeno-Mendez et al. 2026] [Chambliss and Boyd 1953] [Clark and Sparrow 1949] [Clement 1957] [Clement 1962] [Clement 1964] [Clement 1979] [Clement and Daniels 1947] [Clement and Kimon 1957] [Clement and Pope 1961] [Cooke 1936] [Coombes and Perring 1934] [Crowley and Ronan 1925] [Crowley and Ronan 1926] [Crowley and Ronan 1927] [Cucinotta et al. 2017] [Cumberbatch 1958] [D’orcy 1915] [Daidola 2021] [Dala 2015] [Dawson 1934] [Dawson 1935a] [Dawson 1936] [Dawson and Walter 1946] [Dawson 1933] [Dawson 1935b] [Dawson 1937] [Dawson 1938] [Dawson and Truscott 1936] [Dawson et al. 1946a] [Dawson et al. 1946b] [Demirel and Alarçin 2020] [Denny and Feller 1979] [Dewey and Bynne 1963] [Diehl 1938b] [Diehl 1938a] [Diehl 1940] [Doctors 2020] [Doctors 2025] [Dornier “Superwal” Commercial Seaplane 1927] [Dornier 1929] [Dornier 1930] [Doustdar and Kazemi 2019] [Dowling 2002] [D’Amato et al. 2023] [Ebert 1943] [Ebrahimi et al. 2024] [Elaghbash 2021] [Epstein and Rogers 2024] [Universitas Diponegoro et al. 2021] [Ferguson et al. 1949] [Fernandes and Sundaravadivelu 2022] [Ferrando et al. 2015] [Fisher and Hoffman 1953b] [Fisher and Hoffman 1953a] [Flying Boat Construction 1921] [Flying Boat Fallacies 1936] [Flying Boat Kokutai April 2024] [Flying Boat Kokutai December 2024] [Freihofner 1943] [Freihofner 1944] [Fullmer 1943] [Fullmer 1948] [Gan et al. 2024] [Garner 1933] [Garner and Coombes 1930] [Garo et al. 2012] [Garrison and Clement 1948] [Garrison and Hacskaylo 1947] [Ghadimi et al. 2018] [Ghadimi et al. 2025] [Gifford and Wróbel 2023] [Goldenbaum 1945a] [Goldenbaum 1945b] [González-Cantos et al. 2020] [Gough 1937] [Gregory and Beach 1979] [Gruson 1936] [Guo et al. 2011] [Guo et al. 2016] [Guo et al. 2021a] [Guo et al. 2021b] [Gustosa 1930] [Haar 1945] [Haar 1948] [Hajizadeh et al. 2017] [Hamilton and Allen 2003] [Hampden 1930] [Handler 1963] [Harper 1937] [Harper 1938] [Hartman 1935] [Havens 1943a] [Havens 1943b] [Havens 1945] [Havens 1946] [Henry 1960] [Herrman et al. 1928] [Herrmann 1927a] [Herrmann 1927b] [Hieser et al. 1956] [Hodges and Woodward 1948] [Hope 1920] [Hosseini et al. 2021] [Hosseini et al. 2024] [House 1938] [Howe 1986] [Huang et al. 2018b] [Hugli 1945] [Hunsaker 1927] [Husser and Brizzolara 2021] [Huynh and Tran 2021] [Huynh and Tran 2022] [Ide 1928] [Suneela and Krishnankutty 2025] [Jackson 1943] [Jang et al. 2019] [Jangam 2021] [Jangam 2022] [Jenkinson and Marchman 2003] [Jiang and Ding 2021] [Jiang et al. 2022] [McGehee 1958] [Jokar et al. 2020] [Jones 1935] [Judge 2012] [Judge et al. 2020b] [Kafali 1960] [Kagawa et al. 2007] [Kallio 1978] [Kapryan and Boyd 1953] [Kapryan and Weinstein 1952] [Kapryan and Weinstein 1956] [Kapryan 1949] [Kapryan and Clement 1949] [Kazemi et al. 2019] [Keuning and Gerritsma 1982] [Khazaee et al. 2019] [Kikuhara 1960] [Kikuhara 1972] [Kikuhara and Tokuda 1966] [Kimon 1957] [King 1943] [King and Hill 1946] [Knowler 1952] [Korvin-Kroukovsky 1950] [Land 1944] [Land 1945] [Land and Fontana 1952] [Land and Pelz 1952] [Land and Posner 1946] [Land and Zeck 1946] [Land and Zeck 1947b] [Land et al. 1949] [Langley 1928] [Large Flying-Boats in Series 1939] [Latecoere 38-0 Flying Boat 1931] [Latorre 1982] [Lee 1982] [Leiser 2017] [Lewe 1921] [Li 2024] [Liang Hou and Liang Yun 2015] [Lipscomb 1947] [Locke 1943a] [Locke 1943f] [Locke 1945] [Locke 1946a] [Locke 1946b] [Locke 1947] [Locke 1948] [Locke 1944a] [Locke 1944b] [Long 1993] [Lotfi et al. 2015] [Lowry and Riebe 1948a] [Lowry and Riebe 1948b] [Luoma 1943] [Macchi M. 39 Seaplane 1927] [Macdiarmid 1951] [MacDonald et al. 2021] [Malik et al. 2021] [Marín and Cuenca 2015] [Mas 1945] [Massy 1913] [Mathias and Holzapfel 1929] [Matveev 2018] [Matveev 2025] [Matveev and Morabito 2020] [Maynard 1943] [Mayo 1945b] [McBride 1955] [McBride 1956] [McKann et al. 1949b] [McKann and Suydam 1948] [McKann et al. 1949a] [McKann et al. 1949d] [Meade 1993] [Millward 1978] [Millward 1982] [Morabito 2015b] [Morabito and Lorio 2015] [Moran 1965] [Morse et al. 1956] [Moss 1969] [Mottard 1956] [Mottard and Ruggles 1948] [Mottard 1959] [Munk 1921] [Naeseth and Macleod 1949] [Nafiri Muhammad Kautsar and Ketut Suastika 2023] [Nasirudin et al. 2024] [National Advisory Committee Aeronautics 1930] [New Concept Centaur Amphibian 1999] [Nimmagadda et al. 2020] [Notes on Flying Boat 1920] [Nugnes 2025] [Numerical Hydrodynamic Performance 2019] [Numerical Modeling 2016] [Nutku 1965] [O’Shea et al. 2012a] [Olson 1941] [Olson and Land 1943] [Olson and Land 1948] [Olson and Truscott 1942] [Olson and Allison 1939] [Olson 1943] [Olson and Lina 1941] [Onishi 2003] [Onishi 2004] [Oswald 1927] [Pacuraru et al. 2022] [Pan et al. 2023] [Park et al. 2019] [Parkinson 1933] [Parkinson 1934] [Parkinson 1935a] [Parkinson 1936] [Parkinson 1943b] [Parkinson 1943a] [Parkinson 1944] [Parkinson 1947] [Parkinson 1948] [Parkinson and House 1938] [Parkinson 1935b] [Parkinson 1938] [Parkinson and Robertson 1936] [Parkinson 1946] [Parkinson and Dawson 1937] [Parkinson et al. 1939] [Parkinson et al. 1943] [Parkinson et al. 1947] [Payne 1981] [Payne 1982] [Pearson and Smull 1942] [Peningkatan Unjuk Kerja Seaplane 2025] [Penny 1927] [Pepper and Kaplan 1966] [Pepper and Kaplan 1968] [Perry 1954] [Petynia et al. 1958] [Pierson 1944] [Pierson 1951] [Pierson and Burghardt 1945] [Pierson et al. 1954] [Platzer 2001] [Pope 1958] [Posner et al. 1944] [Pratama and Winarno 2022] [Qin et al. 2015] [Qiu and Song 2016] [R.A.F Big Flying Boat 1935] [Rahmansetayesh et al. 2023] [Ramsen and Gray 1951b] [Ramsen and Gray 1951a] [Ramsen et al. 1951] [Reif and Guenther 1978] [Ren et al. 2025] [Rennie 1928] [Report No. 209 Characteristics 1925] [Report No. 290. Water-Pressure 1928] [Report No. 346. Water 1930] [Reynolds 1947] [Richard-Penhoet Commercial Seaplane 1927] [Richardson 1919] [Riebe 1948] [Riebe and Naeseth 1947b] [Riebe and Naeseth 1948] [Riebe and Naeseth 1952b] [Riebe and Naeseth 1952a] [Riebe and Naeseth 1947a] [Riebe and Naeseth 1951] [Roberts and Beranek 1952] [Rohrbach 1926] [Rohrbach 1930] [Rosenthal 1949] [Sadati and Zeraatgar 2023] [Sadati et al. 2022] [Saeedi Namini and Kohansal 2024b] [Sambraus 1938] [Samuel et al. 2019] [Samuel et al. 2020] [Samuel et al. 2026] [Savander et al. 2010] [Savitsky 1964] [Savitsky and Gore 1980] [Savitsky et al. 1958] [Savoia Seaplane S.55 1927] [Schroder 1931] [Schroder 1932] [Schuettel 1931] [Seaplane Design by W. 1935] [Seaplane Float and Hull 1935] [Searight 1912] [Sedov 1940] [Sekulic et al. 2025] [Shao et al. 2022] [Shen 1970] [Shen et al. 2026] [Shi et al. 2019] [Shi et al. 2022] [Shin Meiwa Industry Co Ltd (Japan) 1961] [Shoemaker 1933] [Shoemaker 1934b] [Shoemaker and Bell 1934] [Shoemaker and Parkinson 1933] [Shoemaker and Parkinson 1934] [Shoemaker 1934a] [Shuford 1957] [Simmonds 1925] [Smethers 1976] [Smiley 1950] [Smiley 1952b] [Smiley and Haines 1949] [Smith 1943] [Smith and Shaw 1976] [Sokolov 1950] [Sottorf 1933] [Sottorf 1934] [Sottorf 1942] [Sottorf 1944] [Sottorf 1949] [Struble 1957] [Subramanian and Subramanyam 1970] [Sun et al. 2021b] [Supplement to the Supermarine 1932] [Suydam 1948] [Svaitsky and Breslin 1958] [Syamsuar 2017a] [Syamsuar 2017b] [Syamsuar et al. 2015] [Syamsuar et al. 2016] [Tagliafierro et al. 2021] [Tavakoli and Dashtimanesh 2019] [Tavakoli et al. 2024] [The Benoist Flying Boat 1913] [The C.A.M.S. 80 Amphibian 1932] [The Caudron P.V. 200 1933] [The Coming Seaplane 1929] [The Flying Boat 2020] [The Latecoere 521 “Lieutenant 1936] [The Liore Olivier “Le 1930] [The Neglected Seaplane 1930] [The Saunders “Cutty Sark” 1929] [The Seaplane Carrier “Argus” 1919] [The Seaplane Testing Basin 1931] [The Short “Empire” Commercial 1936] [The Short “Valetta” Commercial 1930] [The Sikorsky Twin Engined 1928] [The Supermarine “Southampton” Seaplane 1926] [The Supermarine S.6.B. Racing 1931] [The Vickers-Supermarine “Scapa” British 1936] [Thomas 1967] [Thompson 1929] [Thompson 1930] [Thompson 1931] [Thurston 1974] [Ting and Keller 1974] [Ting and Keller 1977] [Toro 1969] [Toward a Nuclear-Powered Seaplane 1958] [Trimulyono et al. 2025] [Truscott and Dawson 1942] [Truscott and Parkinson 1938] [Truscott 1935] [Truscott et al. 1938] [Tuccillo and Ruocco 2025] [Tuck 1982a] [Tuck 1982b] [Utomo et al. 2022] [Uyeda 1961] [Vagianos and Rooney 1964] [Vagianos and Thurston 1970] [Vaughan and Earl 1979] [Verduzio 1932] [Verduzio 1923] [Voloshchenko 2018] [Vorus 2008] [Wadlin 1944] [Wadlin 1953] [Wadlin and McGehee 1949] [Wadlin and McGehee 1950] [Wadlin and Christopher 1958] [Wagner 1948] [Waldin 1943] [Wang 2015] [Wang and Rispin 1971] [Wang et al. 2019c] [Wang et al. 2022b] [Ward 1940] [Ward and Larrabee 1977] [Ward 1937] [Weigao 1996] [Weinig 1938] [Whitaker and Bryce 1951] [Willis 1943] [Wind Tunnel and Seaplane 1930] [Woodward et al. 1947] [Wornom 1960] [Wright and Luburg 1930] [Wu and Landweber 1963] [Wu and Whitney 1972] [Wu et al. 2022] [Xia et al. 2024b] [Xiao et al. 2019] [Xiao et al. 2020] [Xiros et al. 2019] [Xu et al. 2023c] [Xu et al. 2023b] [Yang et al. 2019] [Yates and Riebe 1947b] [Yates and Riebe 1947a] [Yousefifard and Maboodi 2020] [Yu et al. 2022] [Yu et al. 2024] [Zeck 1945] [Zeck 1943] [Zha et al. 2024] [Zhandong et al. 2026] [Zhang and Kim 2015] [Zhang et al. 2024a] [Zheng et al. 2019] [Zheng et al. 2021] [Zheng et al. 2023b]

294 of these records date from before 1960, more than in any other cluster, and 226 are on the Technical Reports Server, which is where the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics tank programme is held. Of the 49 titles that name numerical simulation, computational fluid dynamics or computation, 48 date from 2000 or later, which is the literature’s own measure of the move from measuring a planing hull to computing one.

Propellers, momentum theory and the light-aircraft engine

What turns ninety horsepower into thrust. Propeller theory and charts, blade-element and momentum methods, static thrust, propeller noise, and the piston engines of light aircraft, with the marine propeller literature that shares the same theory.

286 records. [A “New Type Adjustable-Pitch 2017] [Adamson 1968] [Aerodynamics in the Age 1997] [Nurachmat et al. 2023] [Asnaghi et al. 2021] [Baek et al. 2015] [Baek et al. 2021] [Baker 1946] [Barshai 1970] [Berenyi and Brouwers 1980] [Berman 2003] [Berton and Nark 2018] [Betz 1922] [Betz 1928] [Betz 1939] [Beveridge 1962] [Beyer et al. 1984] [Biber 2005] [Biermann and Conway 1942] [Block 1986] [Bosschers 2018] [Boswell and Miller 1968] [Boës 1970] [Broersma and Tasseron 1967] [Brusse and Kettleborough 1975] [Brusse and Cronk 1965] [Bryant and Walters 2021] [Burkhardt 1921] [Burnham 1942] [Butler et al 1966] [Caldwell 1940] [Cao et al. 2025] [Castles and Ducoffe 1948] [Castles et al. 1960] [Chen 2012] [Chyla 2024] [Coles 1949] [Composite Propeller Blade 1972] [Coon 1963] [Coward 1955] [Cronk 1965] [Cui et al. 2019] [Cummings 1968] [Dallas and Irvin 1956] [Ingraham and Falck] [Ingraham et al] [DE Decker 1966] [Deming 1940] [DeStories and Takahashi 2014] [Diehl 1934] [Dinc and Otkur 2020] [Dittmar 1977] [Dittmar 1978] [Dittmar et al 1979] [Dorfling and Rokhsaz 2015] [Duan et al. 2023] [Duan et al. 2024b] [Enos 1937] [Erickson and John C. 1969] [Erickson et al. 1965] [Ernsthausen 1937] [Evans and Liner 1948] [Fabri and Siestrunck 1953] [Feng et al. 2025a] [Fortin and Ahuja 2024] [Fournis et al. 2026] [Gao et al. 2018] [Gennaretti et al. 2006] [Gill and D’Andrea 2017] [Gilman 1944] [Goland et al 1964] [Goodman 1979] [Greenberg and Ordway 1964] [Gropp 1938] [Guangnian et al. 2020] [Hall et al. 1981] [Handasyde 1931] [Handasyde 1932] [Hanson 1986] [Healy 1969] [Heck et al. 2023] [Heinzen 2018] [Higgens et al. 2020] [Hodges 1980] [Hoehne and Hoffman 1961] [Hong et al. 2022] [Hoover and Shen 2019] [Hoover et al. 2018] [Hough 1961] [Howlett and Schoenster 1979] [Hoyos et al. 2021] [Hoyos et al. 2022] [Hu et al. 2019] [Hu et al. 2021] [Hu et al. 2022] [Hubbard and Regier 1947] [Idzubuchi and Kito 1941] [Improved Propeller Design Will 1937] [Ingraham et al. 2019] [Iwasaki et al. 1968] [Jeracki and Mitchell 1981] [Jia et al. 2022] [Jian et al. 2019] [Jiang et al. 2016] [Johnson and White 1983] [Jones 1965] [Kallergis 1991] [Kawada 1930] [Kerwin and Leopold 1963] [Kettleborough 1969b] [Khalid] [Khasyofi and Hartono 2019] [Kim and Kinnas 2023] [Kim et al. 2025] [Kim et al. 2026a] [Kinoshita 1952] [Korkan et al. 1980] [Korvin-Kroukovsky 1954] [Korvin‐Kroukovsky 1951] [Krüger et al. 2016] [Laitone 2000] [Lan et al. 2020] [Lays and Murray 1979a] [Lays and Murray 1979b] [Lee et al. 2017] [Lee et al. 2018b] [Lee et al. 2018a] [Leishman 1966] [Hang et al. 2022] [Lerbs 1955] [Li et al. 2021a] [Li et al. 2025e] [Lieberman and Hoffman 1964] [Light Aircraft Propeller 1993] [Ligtenberg 1962] [Lister 1923] [Liu et al. 2016] [Loenbaek et al. 2021] [Ma and Wang 2021] [Magliozzi 1983] [Mahaki and Sahebi 2026] [Indiaryanto et al. 2024] [Margoulis 1922] [McCarthy et al. 1961] [McCormick 1956] [McCormick 1987] [McCOY 1939] [McCurdy and Powell 1984] [McLemore and Pegg 1980] [Measurement of the Effect 1987] [Mendoza 1977] [Merrill et al. 1973] [Meyerhoff and Zvengrowski 1962] [Middleton 1965] [Miley et al. 1981] [Mixson et al. 1979] [Mohammad Nouri and Mohammadi 2018] [Molland and Turnock 2002] [Moshkov 2026] [Moshkov and Samokhin 2021] [Moshkov and Yakovlev 2023] [Murray 1967] [Möhren et al. 2025] [Nakajima 1960] [Narbut 1975] [National Advisory Committee 1933] [Neves et al. 2023] [Nguyen and Ngo 2017] [Noosomton and Charoensuk 2015] [Norton 1956] [Nouroozi and Zeraatgar 2019] [Ordway and Hale 1960] [Ormsbee 1976] [Osovskii and Sharatov 2019] [Otsuka et al. 1969] [Park and Seong 2017] [Patience and Nahon 2024] [Pegg et al. 1977] [Pennings et al. 2015] [Pennings et al. 2016] [Petrovskii 1965] [Piancastelli 2025] [Plunkett 1949] [Podsędkowski et al. 2023] [Pollock 1925] [Prakash 2018] [Prior and Newman-Sanders 2024] [Propeller Cuffs 1940] [Propeller Performance 2012] [Reissner 1937a] [Reissner 1937b] [Report No. 436 Tests 1932] [Report No. 481 Working 1934] [Riach 1922] [Richard 1995] [Romig 1912] [Roosenboom and Schröder 2010] [Ruijgrok 1980] [Saari and Wallner 1946] [Sabzehparvar 2005] [Schatz et al. 2016] [Schey and Gove 1930] [Schouten 1982] [Schroeder and Dai 2010] [Seeni 2019b] [Seeni 2019a] [Seeni 2020] [Sellman 1974] [Sezen and Bal 2020] [Sezen et al. 2021] [Showers 1952] [Simizu 1944] [Simmonds 1967a] [Simmonds 1967c] [Simmonds 1967b] [Simmons 2022] [Simulation of Isolated Propeller 2023] [Sinacori and Lange 1961] [Son and Kim 2023] [Spreemann 1958] [Sticchi et al. 2026] [Strack 1983] [Stresses in a Rotating 1938] [Striving for 80 per 1925] [Stuart 1943] [Stuhlpfarrer et al. 2017] [Stuper 1938] [Swiatek et al. 2017] [Taback et al. 1983] [Talbot et al 1994] [Taylor 1958] [Teixeira and Cesnik 2019] [Teixeira and Cesnik 2020] [The Measurement of Propeller 1921] [Theodorsen 1960b] [Theodorsen 1960a] [Tilley 1938] [Togino 1941] [Tomy et al. 2024] [Traub 2016a] [Traub 2017] [Traub 2021] [Trenka 1967] [Treuren and Wisniewski 2019] [Tung 1950] [Unruh 1988] [Unruh et al. 1979] [van Aken and Tasseron 1955] [van Aken and Tasseron 1956] [van Eck 2026] [van Gunsteren 1971] [Vepa 2020] [Wald 1965] [Wang et al. 2019a] [Wang et al. 2020] [Wang et al. 2021a] [Webb and Willer 1952] [Weick 1932] [Weick 1926] [Weick 1926a] [Widoro et al. 2026] [Wiegman 1940] [Wilby 1989] [Wilby 1992] [Windsor 1968] [Wood and Woodward 1944] [Worobel 1972] [Worobel and Mayo 1971] [Worobel and Peracchio 1968] [Wróblewski 2021] [Wróblewski and Rogólski 2021] [Wu et al. 2024c] [Xu et al. 2024] [Xue and Zhou 2020b] [Xue and Zhou 2020a] [Yamada et al. 2015] [Yang et al. 2013] [Yang et al. 2017] [Yazaki et al. 1967] [Yazaki et al. 1969] [Yilmaz et al. 2020] [Zhang et al. 2021] [Zhang et al. 2025b] [Zhiyuan et al. 2025] [Zhou 2025] [Zhu et al. 2021]

Light sport, ultralight and amateur-built aircraft

The class of aircraft the Osprey belongs to. Light, ultralight, light sport and amateur-built aircraft, their design, structure, noise, handling, crashworthiness and safety record.

245 records. [A German Light Aeroplane 1932] [Abbasy 1983] [Abdollahi et al. 2023] [Aguiar et al. 2017] [AI-Based Predictive Maintenance 2026] [Aircraft Maintenance Training Scheme 1999] [Alfaro-Bou and Vaughan 1977] [Alfaro-Bou et al. 1985] [Alonso Castilla et al. 2021] [Anderson 1994] [Anderson 2015] [Angelov and Velkova 2020] [ASTM Light Sport Aircraft 2007] [Ballou 1963a] [Ballou 1963b] [Baynes Bee Light Airplane 1937] [Beauregard 1964] [Bement 1980] [Bement 1981] [Bender and Lewis 2002] [Beranek et al. 1950] [Bienert and Regnet 2025] [Blackwell 1970] [Bortolussi 1997] [Boudreault 1983] [Boyd 2015b] [Boyd 2015a] [Boyd 2016] [Boyd and Guinn 2024] [Boyd and Hinkelbein 2017] [Boyd and Stolzer 2016] [Breidenthal 2018] [Bruensicke and Cholvin 1964] [Burgess et al. 2018] [Burns and Bonaceto 2020] [Bushra et al. 2012] [Butler and Salomonsky 1965] [Cannaday and Suit 1977] [Carden 1984a] [Carden et al. 1985] [Castle and Alfaro-Bou 1978] [Castle and Alfaro-Bou 1979] [Catherines and Jha 1976] [Catherines and Mayes 1975] [Chambers and Yip 1984] [Cho 2015] [Cramer et al. 2019] [Crane et al. 1973] [Crash Impact Survival 1994] [Cvetelina Velkova et al. 2015] [Czarnecki and Davis 1948] [Diefes and Deering] [Donateo et al. 2024b] [Donateo et al. 2024a] [Donely et al. 1972] [Driggs 1925a] [Driggs 1925b] [Dudziak and Guła 2017] [Duerksen 1996] [Duerksen 1997] [Eastland et al. 1994] [Eiband et al. 1953] [Engine Failure in Light 1980] [Evans] [Fan and Yang 2017] [Farrens et al. 1994] [Faruque 2014] [Feil and Hajek 2021] [Grosveld 1984] [Ferrara 1989] [Finger et al. 2020a] [Finger et al. 2020b] [Friedrich and Vollrath 2021] [Galloway et al. 1984] [Gan et al. 2021] [Garbell 1945] [General Aviation Propulsion 1980] [General Aviation Technology Conference 1984] [General Aviation Technology Program 1976] [Gerhardinger et al. 2023] [Ghiţescu et al. 2021] [Goode et al. 1976] [Grbović et al. 2019] [Górski et al. 2022] [Hague 1978a] [Hague 1978b] [Hague 1978c] [Almagzob et al. 2021] [Harris et al. 1978] [Herrera et al. 1984] [Hirabayashi 2021] [Hoadley 1988] [Holmes 1993] [Hospodka et al. 2020] [Huang 2020] [Hubbell 1966] [Hunter and Vensel 1947] [Ilić et al. 2017] [Iscold et al. 2006] [Ivanković et al. 2023] [Jewel 1987] [Johnson et al. 1980] [Kalagher et al. 2021] [Karuskevich et al. 2022] [Khaddage] [Kim 2020] [Klein 1979] [Klesa 2022] [Kohlman 1977a] [Kohlman and Brainerd 1974] [Kohlman and Ellis 1974] [Kohlman et al. 1980] [Kratochvíl and Valenta 2024] [Krisbudiman et al. 2024] [Kubit et al. 2022] [Kuk 2025] [Köhler and Jeschke 2021] [la Cour‐Harbo and Schiøler 2019] [Labett 1972] [Lampton and Valasek 2005] [Lampton and Valasek 2007] [Lange 1994] [Lee 2016] [Li and Lu 2019] [Li et al. 2026] [Liang et al. 2026] [Light Aircraft Structural Design 1982] [Linka et al. 2018] [Littell and Stimson 2016] [Liu et al. 2025a] [Liu et al. 2025b] [Loschke et al. 1974] [Lutz et al. 2025] [Lyu et al. 2024] [Majumdar et al. 2021] [Marchman 1979] [McAvoy et al. 1949] [McBride 1995] [McGowan 1961] [McQueen et al. 2022a] [McQueen et al. 2022b] [Melosh and Kamat 1977] [Merrill 2003] [Mihalić et al. 2024] [Mills and DeJohn 2016] [Mixson et al. 1978] [Mixson et al. 1977] [Moletsane] [Molnár and Dezső 2018] [Morane-Saulnier 180 Light Airplane 1929] [Moul and Taylor 1980] [Mujahid 2020] [Murri and Jordan 1987] [Murri et al. 1987] [NACA 1933] [Natali 1978] [Nelson and Goldman 2003] [Newsom et al. 1982] [North et al. 1984] [Novel Suspension for Light 2000] [Novák et al. 2016] [Obryan et al. 1980] [Omar 2019] [Pamadi and Taylor 1984] [Papapetrou et al. 2017] [Park et al. 2016] [Pazmany 1969] [Peele and Steiner 1970] [Pisapia et al. 2023] [Poitz 1983] [Portevin and Defleury 1924] [Puranik et al. 2017] [Rajagopalan Srilatha] [Reyer and Ogg 1986] [Riboldi et al. 2023] [Robb and Platt] [Rogólski and Olejnik 2018] [Roskam and Gomer 1991a] [Roskam and Gomer 1991b] [Roskam et al. 1974] [Rueter et al. 1994] [Rummer et al. 1982] [Salam et al. 2022] [Salam et al. 2024] [Satran 1986] [Scheuring 2005] [Schrenk 1930] [Schwarz et al. 2019] [Scutaru et al. 2024] [Seckel et al. 1973] [Sedláčková et al. 2023] [Selberg and Cronin 1985] [Smetana et al. 1972] [Smetana et al. 1973] [Smith 1985] [Stengel 1988] [Stewart 1975] [Stewart 1976] [Stewart 1993] [Stewart and Redd 1977] [Stewart et al. 1975] [Stewart et al. 1988] [Stickle 1977] [Stickle et al. 1974] [Sundstrom 1980] [Sziroczak et al. 2020] [The “Junkers-Junior” Light Airplane 1930] [The A.N.E.C. IV “Missel 1926] [The Mono-Spar Light Airplane 1931] [The Stieger ST. 4 1932] [Theodorsen and Regier 1946] [Tomczyk 1998] [Tracy 1986] [Tyan et al. 2019] [Ud-Din and Yoon 2018] [Unruh 1981] [Unruh et al. 2002a] [Unruh et al. 2002b] [Vagner et al. 2023] [Vaicaitis 1980] [Vaughan and Alfaro-Bou 1979b] [Vaughan and Alfaro-Bou 1979a] [Velkova and Todorov 2015] [Vlase et al. 2021] [Vogeley 1948] [Waters et al. 1973] [Weintraub et al. 2022] [Wells and Ramachandran 1977] [White 1932] [White 1982] [Wilkinson and Bruce 1973] [Winblade 1975] [Winblade and Westfall 1975] [Winkelmann 1990] [Worobel and Mayo 1973] [Wróblewski et al. 2023] [Wu et al. 2023b] [Xue and Fu 2018] [Yan et al. 2024] [Yip and Coy 1982] [Yip et al. 1986] [Zenowicz 2021] [Zhang et al. 2024c] [Zimmerman 1949] [Šimák and Škultéty 2020]

65 of these records are reports-server documents from 1970 to 1989, the period of the agency’s general aviation technology programme, and 31 titles name a crash or an accident.

Light aircraft performance, drag and endurance

The inversions in the sizing argument. Maximum lift and the stall, the drag polar and span efficiency, climb, range and endurance of propeller aircraft, and the flight-test methods that measure them.

244 records. [A Long-Range Light Aeroplane 1932] [Lee 2007] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1969] [Aircraft et al. 2011] [Aircraft Range and Endurance 2011] [Airplane Spin Testing 2003] [Alley et al. 2007] [Ananda and Selig 2016] [Anderson 1978a] [Anderson 1979] [Anderson 2004] [Application of Dynamic Programming 1957] [Arshad et al. 2026] [Barber et al. 1966] [Barufaldi and Morales 2023] [Batra et al. 2024] [Batterson 1983] [Bennett 1976] [Bennett et al. 1980] [Berenschot 2001] [Bert 1981] [Bert 1999] [Biber 2011] [Biber 2016] [Biber 2017b] [Biber 2017a] [Bihrle and Bowman 1980] [Bihrle and Hultberg 1979] [Bihrle et al. 1978b] [Bihrle et al. 1978a] [Bogdanovic et al. 1965] [Boschetti et al. 2015] [Bowman 1971] [Bowman and Burk 1973] [Bowman and Burk 1974] [Bowman et al. 1978] [Boyles and Barnett 1964] [Bradshaw 1980] [Bravo et al. 2021] [Bridges 2021] [Brown 1987] [Bull and Bridges 1980] [Bunge et al. 2015] [Burk and Wilson 1975] [Burk et al. 1977] [Burton and Hoburg 2018] [Carden 1984b] [Carstoiu 1960] [Cavcar 2011] [Cavcar and Cavcar 2005] [Chambers 1980] [Chambers and Stough 1986] [Chang and Yu 2015] [Cheng et al. 2024b] [Chevalier 1982] [Chevalier and Brusse 1973] [Coe 1976] [Conner et al. 1965] [Craig 1976] [Craig and Romani 1993] [Crombie and Moorhouse 1980] [Cross 1975] [Cross 1976] [Cunis et al. 2020] [Davis and Sweberg 1948] [Delgado et al. 2024] [Dicarlo and Johnson 1979] [Dicarlo et al. 1980] [Dicarlo et al. 1984] [Dicarlo et al. 1986] [Diehl 1924] [Diehl 1925] [Donderi 1994] [Donnelly 1972] [Drag and Propulsive Efficiency 1990] [Dunham 1986] [Dunham et al. 1987] [Exploratory Study 1979] [Feng et al. 2020a] [Frost and Rutherford 1963] [Garcia et al. 2026] [Gatti et al. 2015] [Goetzendorf-Grabowski and Antoniewski 2016] [Goncharenko 2022] [Gousman et al. 1991] [Graham and Luskin 1946] [Gray 1964] [Grendysa 2019] [Grillo et al. 2024] [Hantrais-Gervois and Destarac 2015] [Harper and Flanigan 1948] [Hasan et al. 2025] [Hicks and Moulton 1988] [Holmes et al. 1980] [Holzhauser and Bray 1956] [Hunter 1948] [Iliff 1980] [Iscold 2008] [Jo and Majid 2023] [Kaptsov and Rodrigues 2018] [Katz and Feistel 1987] [Katz et al. 1980] [Keiter 1982] [Keye and Rohlmann 2014] [Kish et al. 2018] [Knaus 1981] [Knaus 1983] [Kohlman and Hammer 1985] [Kohlman 1977b] [Kohn 1979] [Konar 2020] [Kramer 1932] [Labonte 2015] [Labonté 2012] [Labonté 2025] [Laine 1982] [Laitone 1981] [Laitone 1983] [Laitone 1984] [Lednicer and Roncz 1989] [Level Flight Performance Flight 2003] [Li et al. 2024] [Liu 2023] [Liu et al. 1983] [Lockwood 1972] [Loschke et al. 1972] [Lowry 1999] [Lutze and Lluch 1996] [Manuel et al. 1989] [Marinus and Poppe 2015] [Mastroddi et al. 2018] [Matsuo and Hirano 1986] [McCormick 1981] [McDonald 2015] [McDonnell and Ning 2020] [McElroy and Sharp 1971] [Metzger et al. 1980] [Milenković-Babić 2018] [Milenković-Babić et al. 2015] [Millikan 1934] [Morawski et al. 2019] [Moul and Brown 1979] [Mulcay and Rose 1980] [Nguyen et al. 2017] [Nial 1972] [Nikolaev 2019] [Norris and Bauer 1993] [Obryan et al. 1974] [Obryan et al. 1979] [Ormsbee and Chen 1972] [Paek et al. 2020] [Pamadi and Taylor 1983] [Pamadi and Taylor 1987] [Parkinson 1983] [Patton 1980a] [Patton 1980b] [Philipson 1995] [Phillips and Alley 2007] [Press and McClanahan 1951] [Puranik et al. 2020] [Pınar and Özer 2026] [Ragheb et al. 2013] [Ranaudo 1977] [Rate-of-Climb Time-to-Climb and Ceilings 2011] [Report No. 618 Comparative 1938] [Rhode 1941] [Riley 1985] [Rockfeller 1939] [Rodrigues 2008] [Rogers and Fasciano 2016] [Rohlmann and Keye 2015] [Roskam 1975] [Rostami and Bagherzadeh 2016] [Sachs 1980] [Satran 1981] [Schulz and Nygren] [Segall and Gajdjis 1991] [Shimoyama and Kamisori 2017] [Shirbhate et al. 2025] [Silver 1976] [Silverstein et al. 1938] [Simmons et al. 2023] [Singh and Jategaonkar 1996] [Sliwa 1979] [Smith 1977] [Smith 1989] [Somers 2005] [Son and Yee 2018] [Soule and Hootman 1937] [Stalker 1935] [Stewart et al. 1982] [Stough 1990] [Stough and Patton 1979] [Stough et al. 1985] [Stough et al. 1987d] [Stough et al. 1987c] [Stough et al. 1987a] [Stough et al. 1987b] [Succi 1981] [Szaruga and Doty 2011] [Tapolcai et al. 2012] [Taylor and Klein 1981] [Taylor and Smith 1978] [Tenhave et al. 2026] [The First Design Revolution 2003] [Theodorsen 1959] [Tischler and Barlow 1979] [Tischler and Barlow 1980b] [Tischler and Barlow 1980a] [Tischler and Barlow 1981] [Tischler and Barlow 1982] [Traub 2011] [Traub 2016b] [Tseng et al 2006] [Uzun 2025] [Van Dam et al. 1980] [Vegh 2026] [Veillette 1993] [Velazquez Salazar et al. 2021] [Vicroy 1990] [Vlasov and Ovdienko 2020] [Von karman and Millikan 1935] [Oswald 1932] [Wang et al. 2021b] [Ward 1968] [Wares and Ferrara 1989] [Weiser and Ossmann 2022] [Wheaton et al. 1964] [Wiarso et al. 2021] [Wintzer 2010] [Witkowski et al. 2022] [Wolowicz and Yancey 1972b] [Wolowicz and Yancey 1972a] [Wootton 1967] [Xie and Haberland 1999] [Yajnik and Subbaiah 1976] [Young 2008] [Youngblood and Talay 1982] [Yuan et al. 2024] [Zhang et al. 2020] [Zhang et al. 2026c] [Zhao and Gao 2019] [Zhu 2024] [李 2023]

74 of these titles name the stall or the spin, and 39 of those are reports-server records, 38 of which date from 1970 to 1989, the period of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s general aviation stall and spin research. The cluster is weighted toward the edge of the envelope the Osprey loitered beside rather than toward the loiter itself, as The Source Base sets out under Thin Subjects.

Water impact, porpoising and rough-water operation

What limits a small flying boat on the water. Hydrodynamic impact on landing, porpoising and skipping, rough water and waves, slamming of planing craft, and the water landing of spacecraft, which shares the impact theory.

213 records. [Al-Furjan et al. 2022] [Aliffrananda and Sulisetyono 2021] [Aliffrananda et al. 2022] [Allaka and Groper 2021] [Arianti et al. 2023] [Bahrami and Ghassemi 2022] [Baker and Westine 1966] [Baker and Westine 1967] [Bales 1975] [Bao et al. 2020] [Barklie 1944] [Batterson 1947] [Batterson 1951] [Batterson and McArver 1950] [Batterson 1944] [Begovic et al. 2016] [Begović et al. 2016] [Benscoter 1947] [Benscoter 1948] [Benson 1944] [Benson 1965] [Benson et al. 1952] [Benson 1942] [Bi et al. 2019] [Bi et al. 2020] [Bossau and Bekker 2022] [Buyukozturk et al. 1974] [Cai et al. 2023] [Camilleri et al. 2018] [Capasso et al. 2023] [Cappelli and Furuike 1967] [Caramatescu and Iulian Mocanu 2019] [Carter et al. 1956] [Carter 1949] [Castro-Feliciano et al. 2018] [Cecchini and Yusif 2019] [Cecchini et al. 2017] [Celano 1998] [Chambliss and Blanchard 1950] [Chen et al. 2022a] [Chen et al. 2024a] [Chey 1964] [Chi et al. 2026] [Clement and Havens 1947] [Cui et al. 2026] [Darevsky 1944] [Diez et al. 2022] [Eskayudha 2023] [Direct Measure of Rigid 2016] [Djamaluddin and Ahmad 2025] [Du et al. 2024] [Duan et al. 2019] [Edge 1958] [Edge 1959] [Edge and Mason 1958] [Edge and Mixson 1957] [Feng et al. 2020b] [Feng et al. 2025b] [Fridsma 1969] [Gao and Sang 2023] [Garouge et al. 2022] [Garrison 1949] [Gersten et al 1978] [Ghodrat and Nikseresht 2025] [Haines 1949] [Hakim et al. 2025] [Halswell et al. 2016] [Hamada and Maki 2023] [Hamada et al. 2023] [Hirayama et al. 1999] [Hoffman 1956] [Horta et al. 2010] [Hou et al. 2019a] [Hu et al. 2026b] [Huang et al. 2022] [Jin et al. 2023] [Jones 1970] [Judge and VanDerwerken 2019] [Judge et al. 2016] [Judge et al. 2020a] [Keller 1988] [Kettleborough 1969a] [Kettleborough 1970] [Kettleborough 1972] [Khoirunnisa et al. 2023] [Kim et al. 2017] [Kim et al. 2020] [Klein 1943] [Klemin et al 1939] [Land 1943] [Land and Zeck 1947a] [Lavroff and Davis 2015] [Li and Sigimura 1967] [Li et al. 2021b] [Lin and Lin 2019] [Lina 1942] [Littell et al. 2007] [Liu and Tian 2023] [Liu et al. 2024d] [Liu et al. 2026a] [Liu et al. 2026c] [Liu et al. 2026e] [Locke 1943d] [Locke 1943c] [Locke 1943e] [Locke 1943b] [Lu et al. 2024] [Lu et al. 2026] [Lv and Grenestedt 2015] [Mahdi Sajedi et al. 2019] [Mansoori and Fernandes 2016] [Markey 1956] [Markey 1959] [Markey and Carpini 1957] [Martin 1976] [Masumi and Nikseresht 2017] [Maynord 2005] [Mayo 1945a] [Mayo 1947] [Mayo 1952] [McArver 1951] [McKann et al. 1949c] [Merten and Beck 1951] [Miki 1933] [Miller 1948] [Miller 1952] [Miller 1954] [Miller 1958] [Miller and Leshnover 1947] [Miller and Merten 1951] [Miller and Merten 1952] [Milwitzky 1947] [Milwitzky 1952] [Mixson 1959] [Mohsin et al. 2026] [Morabito 2015a] [Mousaviraad et al. 2015] [Mu et al. 2025] [Naval Academy Annapolis Md 1998] [Nebylov and Nebylov 2011] [Nichols and Hirt 1978] [O’Shea et al. 2012b] [Ogilvie 1969] [Ogilvie and Shen 1973] [Pabst 1930] [Parkinson 1955] [Payne 1974] [Payne 1984] [Riley et al 2014] [Roper 1969] [Roshan et al. 2024] [Rosén et al. 2020] [Saeedi Namini and Kohansal 2024a] [Sajedi and Ghadimi 2020] [Savitsky 1948] [Savitsky 1968] [Savitsky and Brown 1976] [Schnitzer 1953] [Schnitzer 1955] [Schnitzer and Hathaway 1953] [Schwab et al 1955] [Sellars 1976] [Shabani and Shabani 2022] [Shao et al. 2023] [Shao et al. 2025] [Sims and Schnitzer 1952] [Smiley 1952a] [Song et al. 2023] [Steiner and Miller 1946] [Steiner 1948] [Steiner 1949] [Stubbs 1972] [Suarez 1943] [Sun et al. 2021a] [Sun et al. 2024b] [Suneela 2026] [Tahmasvand and Zeraatgar 2021] [Tahmasvand et al. 2023] [Taub 1931] [Tavakoli et al. 2026] [Thompson 1967] [Townsend et al. 2020] [Townsend et al. 2025] [Townsend et al. 2021] [Townsend et al. 2022] [VanDerwerken and Judge 2017] [Vassilakos 2014b] [Vassilakos 2014a] [Vassilakos 2015] [Vassilakos and Mark 2018] [Vassilakos et al. 2012] [Voloshchenko et al. 2020] [Volpi et al. 2017] [Von Karman 1929] [Wang et al. 2021e] [Wang et al. 2021c] [Wang et al. 2021d] [Waugh 1968] [Weinig 1936] [Weston and Humpheson 2024] [Whitnah and Howes 1971] [Wibowo et al. 2026] [Wu et al. 2019] [Wulandari et al. 2025] [Xia et al. 2024a] [Xie et al. 2023] [Yang and Qiu 2021] [Yuan and Wang 2018] [Yulianti et al. 2023] [Zan et al. 2023] [Zan et al. 2026] [Zeraatgar et al. 2023] [Zheng et al. 2023a]

36 titles name porpoising, and 20 of them date from 2000 or later, so the instability the tank programme mapped is still studied. The water landing of capsules and other spacecraft is the subject of 13 titles, kept because their impact relations are the seaplane relations.

Search as a planning problem. Coverage path planning, cooperative and swarm search, and persistent surveillance by unmanned vehicles.

184 records. [A Novel Framework 2024] [Adoni et al. 2026] [Ai et al. 2021] [Ai et al. 2025] [Aksaray et al. 2015] [Almadhoun et al. 2019] [Bai et al. 2026] [Baras and Dasygenis 2023b] [Baras and Dasygenis 2023a] [Bezas et al. 2022] [Bouras et al. 2022] [Bucci and Ridolfi 2026] [Cabreira et al. 2019] [Cai et al. 2022] [Cao and Wu 2026] [Cao et al. 2022a] [Causa et al. 2018] [Chatterjee and Issac 2022] [Chen and Yu 2024] [Chen et al. 2022b] [Cho et al. 2021a] [Cho et al. 2021b] [Choi et al. 2025] [Civicioglu 2025] [Conceição et al. 2026] [Coombes et al. 2018] [Jiajia et al. 2023] [David and Harrison 2023] [Deng et al. 2025] [Ding 2025] [Dogru and Marques 2022] [Duan et al. 2024c] [Duan et al. 2026] [Fan et al. 2024] [Fang et al. 2024] [Felsner et al. 2021] [Fevgas et al. 2022] [Gainer et al. 2018] [Gao et al. 2026] [Ghaziani et al. 2026] [Gong and Lee 2023] [Gramajo and Shankar 2017] [Guastella et al. 2019b] [Guastella et al. 2019a] [Güven and Yanmaz 2024] [Hazra et al. 2018] [He and Wang 2024b] [He and Wang 2024a] [Hu et al. 2026c] [Hu et al. 2026a] [Hua and Chen 2025] [Huang et al. 2018a] [Huo et al. 2021] [Hwang et al. 2025] [Höffmann et al. 2023] [Ibrahim et al. 2026] [Jayalakshmi et al. 2025a] [Jayalakshmi et al. 2025b] [Ji et al. 2022] [Jiang and Han 2026] [Jiang et al. 2024] [Jiao et al. 2024] [Kannan and Bae 2025] [Karimi and Saghafi 2024] [Karthik and Balasubramanian 2024] [Karthik et al. 2025] [Kazemdehbashi and Liu 2025] [Khaneghaei et al. 2026] [Kim 2026] [Kumar and Kumar 2023] [Kumari and Srirangarajan 2025] [Kyriakakis et al. 2021] [Kyriakakis et al. 2022] [Le et al. 2022] [Lee and Kim 2017] [Lee and Lee 2025] [Lee et al. 2024] [Li and Wang 2026] [Li et al. 2016] [Li et al. 2025a] [Li et al. 2025d] [Li et al. 2025f] [Liang et al. 2021] [Liu and Hao 2024] [Liu et al. 2018] [Liu et al. 2019a] [Liu et al. 2024e] [Liu et al. 2024a] [Liu et al. 2026b] [Luna et al. 2022] [Lv et al. 2026] [Majeed and Lee 2019] [Matlekovic and Schneider-Kamp 2023] [Morin et al. 2023] [Mu et al. 2023] [Muñoz et al. 2021] [Nedjati et al. 2016] [Nguyen-Ngoc and Giang 2026] [Oh et al. 2025] [Ohki et al. 2015] [Optimal Coverage Path Planning 2025] [Pan et al. 2025] [Park et al. 2020] [Pehlivanoglu and Pehlivanoglu 2021] [Piciarelli and Foresti 2020] [Portugal and Rocha 2015] [Pu et al. 2025] [Qi et al. 2026] [Ramezani et al. 2024] [Reimer et al. 2026] [Rios et al. 2025] [Sabag et al. 2025] [Sandamurthy and Ramanujam 2019] [Scherer and Rinner 2020] [Shah et al. 2022] [Shang et al. 2020] [Sharifi et al. 2015] [Shi and Qin 2016] [Sun et al. 2024a] [Sun et al. 2025] [Tan et al. 2023] [Tang 2023] [Tang and Ma 2024] [Tang et al. 2025] [Tang et al. 2026] [Torres et al. 2016] [Tsiakas et al. 2024] [Van Pham and Moore 2018] [Vasquez and Merchán-Cruz 2022] [Wang 2023] [Wang et al. 2023] [Wang et al. 2025a] [Wei and Isler 2018] [Wei et al. 2024] [Wu 2023] [Wu 2025] [Wu and Marais 2026] [Wu and Zhang 2023] [Wu et al. 2024a] [Wu et al. 2024b] [Wu et al. 2025] [Xia et al. 2023] [Xiao et al. 2021] [Xiong et al. 2023] [Xiong et al. 2025] [Xu and Zhu 2025] [Xu et al. 2021a] [Xu et al. 2021b] [Xu et al. 2023a] [Xu et al. 2025] [Xue et al. 2026] [Yang et al. 2022] [Yang et al. 2023] [Yang et al. 2025a] [Yang et al. 2025b] [Yang et al. 2026] [Yanmaz 2023] [Yao et al. 2025] [Ye 2025] [Ye et al. 2026] [YongBo et al. 2017] [Yu 2023] [Yu and Lee 2023] [Yu et al. 2023] [Yu et al. 2025] [Yuan et al. 2026] [Zabransky et al. 2016] [Zeng et al. 2025] [Zhan et al. 2024] [Zhang and Wan 2025] [Zhang et al. 2023a] [Zhang et al. 2023d] [Zhang et al. 2024d] [Zhang et al. 2024b] [Zhang et al. 2025a] [Zhang et al. 2025c] [Zhao 2024] [Zhao et al. 2022] [Zhao et al. 2024b] [Zheng et al. 2025] [Zong and Lin 2026] [Zou and Zhao 2023] [Zuo et al. 2020] [徐 2019]

Every one of these 184 records dates from 2015 or later. The subject did not exist in this form when the X-28A flew, which is the point the review above makes.

Small unmanned aircraft for patrol and observation

The pilot removed. Small unmanned aircraft for patrol, observation and inspection, their design, control, propulsion and certification, and the detection of targets in their imagery.

165 records. [Abiko et al. 2023] [Abramov et al. 2015] [Advanced Control Techniques 2023] [Al-Kaff et al. 2020] [Aleisa et al. 2023] [Shibanov 2024] [Approach to Conception 2024] [Arafat et al. 2024] [Bai and Zhu 2026] [Bai et al. 2025b] [Benaouali and Boutemedjet 2024] [Benavides et al. 2020] [Benyeogor et al. 2020] [Brazinskas et al. 2016] [Bryson et al. 2016] [Byrne et al. 2017] [Cai and Cui 2026] [Chakraborty and Kumar 2019] [Chang and Lai 2025] [Chen and Lin 2025] [Chen and Liu 2025] [Chen et al. 2020c] [Cheng et al. 2024a] [Choi 2020] [Chrétien et al. 2016] [Cooper et al. 2015] [Design and Fluid Flow 2015] [Devasia and Lee 2016] [Dinc 2016] [Donateo and Ficarella 2017] [Dou and Duan 2016] [Duan et al. 2024a] [Dudziak et al. 2020] [Erdman and Mitchum 2013] [Eubank and Atkins 2011] [Eubank et al. 2010] [Fajar and Arifianto 2018] [Fire Detection Using Unmanned 2023] [Fukuda and Takimoto 2013] [Fukui et al. 2020] [Gavrilovic et al. 2018] [Ghasemi et al. 2025] [Giernacki et al. 2019] [Gopejenko et al. 2026] [Han et al. 2019] [Harvey and O’Young 2016] [Hasan et al. 2018] [Hebbar and Langbort 2021] [Henderson 2023] [Hiba et al. 2020] [Hlinková et al. 2022] [Hochstetler et al. 2016] [Hodgson et al. 2017] [Hu and Lanzon 2018] [Hu and Yang 2022] [Huang et al. 2023] [Hvala et al. 2023] [Internal Model Control Tuned 2020] [Ji et al. 2021] [Jiao and Abdullah 2024] [Jimenez et al. 2016] [Junaidin et al. 2026] [Junos and Khairuddin 2024] [Keilman 2019] [Kim 2018] [Kim and Atkins 2022] [Kim et al. 2026b] [Kisabo et al. 2017] [Konert and Kasprzyk 2024] [Krampf 2024] [Kuantama et al. 2023] [Kucharski et al. 2026] [Kulanthipiyan et al. 2023] [Kuwamura and Hara 2017] [Lai 2024] [Large and Pesyridis 2019] [Lawn et al. 2021] [Lei and Liu 2019] [Leslie et al. 2024] [Leylek and Costello 2015] [Li et al. 2019] [Li et al. 2021c] [Li et al. 2025c] [Lijia et al. 2019] [Lin et al. 2026] [Liu and Zhou 2019] [Liu et al. 2019b] [Liu et al. 2020] [Liu et al. 2023] [Liu et al. 2026d] [Dang 2026] [Luo and Zhu 2025] [Made et al. 2026] [Mathur and Atkins 2023] [Matt et al. 2025] [McMahon et al. 2021] [McNeal 2016] [Melnichuk 2024] [Mihalik and Keane 2022] [Minwalla et al. 2016] [Mosov et al. 2020] [Mousavi et al. 2024] [Mrusek 2021] [Muniraj and Farhood 2019] [Müller and Moormann 2023] [Odzer et al. 2022] [Oktay and Eraslan 2024] [Onushkin et al. 2022] [Oshin Mittal et al. 2024] [Panta et al. 2018] [Papadopoulos et al. 2021] [Papadopoulos et al. 2022] [Papageorgiou et al. 2018] [Park et al. 2021] [Parshin et al. 2019] [Patria et al. 2021] [Patterson 1989] [Peterson et al. 2019] [Qi et al. 2025] [Rajmohan and Ramasubramanian 2023] [Rostami 2024] [Sabatini et al. 2015] [Sajith Kumar et al. 2019] [Sawake 2026] [Sells and Crossley 2023] [Shah Alam and Oluoch 2021] [Shakir 2017] [Shao et al. 2026] [Shetty et al. 2022] [Shoro 2021] [Shuang and Zhang 2021] [Simmons et al. 2019] [Singh 2021] [Stevenson et al. 2020] [Tian et al. 2026] [Tijani et al. 2015] [Truong et al. 2024] [Trusfus and Abdullin 2021] [Veeraperumal Senthil Nathan et al. 2025] [Venkataraman and Seiler 2019] [Antonio and Yan 2023] [Wang and Yi 2025] [Wang et al. 2021g] [Wang et al. 2022a] [Wang et al. 2024] [Wang et al. 2025b] [Ward et al. 2023] [Watts] [Winslow et al. 2018] [Wood et al. 2019] [Xiao and Zhen 2017] [Yamaura et al. 2024] [Yenpiem et al. 2025] [Youngblood et al. 1984] [Yuan and Duan 2021] [Zaitseva et al. 2023] [Zhang 2026] [Zhang et al. 2017] [Zhang et al. 2025d] [Zhao and Chen 2024] [Zhao et al. 2021] [Zhao et al. 2023] [Zhao et al. 2024a] [Zhou 2016] [Zhou and Yu 2024]

158 of the 165 records date from 2015 or later, and 44 titles name detection, which is the processing task the review above identifies as the new binding constraint.

Maritime surveillance, search and rescue and domain awareness

The mission under its modern names. Maritime surveillance and domain awareness, search and rescue at sea and on land, coast guard patrol, and the sensors and planning that serve them.

138 records. [Abhinav Potineni 2022] [Adaptive Sea-Clutter Model Based 2024] [Ahmed and Yilmaz 2026] [Ajith and Jolly 2021] [Alhaqbani et al. 2020] [Aman Eddine and Guliyeva 2024] [Ambroziak et al. 2021] [Amelin 2022] [Bai et al. 2025a] [Bal Şahin et al. 2026] [Bany Abdelnabi and Rabadi 2024] [Barus et al. 2026] [Bell et al. 1978] [Bhuva et al. 2024] [Bialas et al. 2026] [Bjurling et al. 2026] [Blackburn and Joslin 2021] [Bone 1988] [Braverman 2021] [Bushuev et al. 2017] [Caelli et al. 2018] [Cao et al. 2022b] [Cardona and Calderon 2019] [Chen et al. 2024b] [Chinnasamy et al. 2022] [Chow et al. 2019] [Ciccone and Ceruti 2025] [Collignon et al. 2025] [Currie 1999] [Dacey et al. 2022] [Dahal et al. 2021] [Damanik et al. 2025] [DePalo 2005] [Emergency Employment of Army 1980] [Dinh et al. 2019] [DiVittorio 2010] [Dol 2020] [Dou 2024] [Eney 1981] [Et. al. 2021] [Ewers et al. 2023] [Ewers et al. 2025] [Feldens Ferrari and Chen 2020] [Forti et al. 2022] [Freeman and Pritchett 2025] [Freitas et al. 2017] [Garate et al. 2021] [Geng et al. 2025] [Gopal 2020] [Han et al. 2024] [Hansen 2001] [Haq 2024] [Hashemzadeh and Kumbasar 2024] [Hayat et al. 2020] [He et al. 2026] [Hirschkron et al. 1979] [Ho et al. 2022] [Horyna et al. 2022] [Hou et al. 2019b] [Hypher 1980] [Ikrami 2018] [Ilcev 2019] [Jayaweera and Hanoun 2021] [Jeong 2025] [Jung et al. 2019] [Kapadais et al. 2019] [Karst et al. 2025] [Kopyt and Czaplińska 2025] [Kundid Vasić and Papić 2022] [Kupriyenko and Zakharchuk 2025] [Lavrenov et al. 2016] [한국해양대학교 해양경찰학부 부교수 et al. 2023] [Lee et al. 1985] [Legarde 2023] [Li et al. 2025b] [Looney 2009] [Lupanchuk 2022] [Lyu et al. 2023] [Macwan et al. 2015] [Magalhães et al. 2025] [Malyszko et al. 2025] [Mazher et al. 2018] [Milanović et al. 2021] [Mills 1988] [Moe 2007] [Mohta 2021] [Moir et al. 2023] [Moon et al. 2023] [Ojha et al. 2024] [Mullarky 1990] [Nasios and Vogklis 2025] [Nathisiya and Saji 2026] [Nauwynck et al. 2019] [Nelson 2004] [Newell and Herrick 1979] [Ng 2013] [Novitasari 2026] [Novotný 2020] [Nozica et al. 2023] [Pa et al. 2024] [Palsson 1975] [Pargaonkar 2022] [Quero and Martinez-Carranza 2025] [Ramachandran and Sangaiah 2021] [Rashid et al. 2025] [Recommended Facilities for Search 1946] [Rockwood 2020] [Rossmo et al. 2019] [Rossmo et al. 2023] [Sadati 2025] [Sambolek and Ivasic-Kos 2021] [San Juan et al. 2018] [Secretary Of The Air Force Washington Dc 2000] [Setiawan et al. 2026] [Shen et al. 2018] [Son and Lee 2025] [Stasik and Szandala 2025] [Study on Attitude Heading 2022] [Submarine Search and Rescue 2024] [Suseno and Wardana 2021] [Thompson et al. 2026] [Vincent-Lambert et al. 2023] [Vragov 2022] [Watkins 1991] [Watkins and Penrod 1978] [Wei et al. 2023] [Weldon and Hupy 2020] [Whitcomb 2006] [Williams 1997] [Yang et al. 2020] [Wando Vessel Traffic Services, Korea Coast Guard, Wando 59126, Korea et al. 2017] [Yukhno et al. 2020] [Zell et al. 2026] [Zhang and Zhu 2022] [Zhang et al. 2023c] [Zhang et al. 2023b] [Zhang et al. 2026b] [Zhao et al. 2025]

78 titles name search and rescue and 7 name maritime domain awareness, so the humanitarian search problem is the larger part of what the patrol requirement has become.

Cost-effectiveness, affordability and design to cost

The requirement stated as a price. Cost-effectiveness analysis, life cycle and operating cost, cost estimating relationships, procurement cost and design to cost.

128 records. [andNa 1979] [Adams and Hinders 1974] [Al-Shamma and Ali 2022] [Al-Shamma and Ali 2024] [Anderson 1978b] [Anderson 1986] [Anderson and Dixon 1975] [Ankenbruck 1967] [Ascani and Lackman 1977] [Ascani and Lackman 1979] [Beltramo and Anderson 1977] [Beltramo et al. 1977] [Beltramo et al. 1979] [Blackwell and Eastlake] [Blumstein 1965] [Bodoh and Widmeyer 1965] [Booz-allen and Hamilton INC New York 1957] [Brown 1978a] [Brown 1978b] [Camin and McKenzie 1980] [Carleton 1979] [Carlyle 1976] [Castagne et al. 2008] [Chen 2023] [Chen et al. 2019] [Chen et al. 2020a] [Chen et al. 2021] [Chen et al. 2023] [Cherry 1975] [Collins and Williamson 2013] [Computer Program to Perform 1973] [Corlis et al. 2023] [Cost Effectiveness and Cost-Benefit 1970] [Cost-Benefit and Cost-Effectiveness Analysis 1981] [Cost-Estimating Relationships for Aircraft 1972] [Case Medical Research 2020] [Cramer et al. 1998] [Davis et al. 1978] [Della Vecchia et al. 2022] [Denz et al. 2007] [Department of the Air 1980] [Department of the Air 1990] [Department of the Air 1994] [Department of the Air 1995] [Department of the Army 1990] [Department of the Army 1998] [Department of the Navy 1985] [Department of the Navy 1991] [Diez and Iemma 2007] [Edwards 1975] [Egorov 1972] [Eijsink and Rice 1978] [Emero and Alvey 1967] [Enthoven 2019] [Etesse 1979] [Etherington 1985] [Evolution and Design Philosophy 1967] [Fioriti and Vercella 2019] [Fioriti et al. 2018] [Fox 1965] [Gille and Richard A. 1990] [Gluckman and Celmins 1993] [Gordon 1974] [Grand 2026] [Greer 2010] [Greer et al. 1984] [Gregory and Wilcox 1970] [Grosse 1965] [Haifeng et al. 2014] [Hartley 2015] [Hays et al. 1975] [Herd and Moxley 1965] [Herlitz 2025] [Heymont et al. 1965] [Hiller Aircraft Corp Palo Alto Ca 1955] [Himpler 1975] [Indriyanto and Hartalita 2016] [Johnson 1989] [Johnson 1990] [Jones 1965b] [Keating 1979] [Knorr 1966] [Kulkarni and Rosen 1977] [Kundu et al. 2002] [Luchkov 2020] [Ma and Wang 2022] [Markowitz] [Marx et al. 1995] [Miller et al. 1974] [Navarro and Smith 1970] [Neal 1975] [Neiss and Brown 1967] [Novick 1979] [O’Neill et al. 1966] [Olason 1969] [Orlansky and String 1977] [Ozdoeva and Smolyakov 2020] [Ozkar and Genc 2025] [O’Mahony 2020] [Palmer 1993] [Pohya et al. 2018] [Laracy and Marlowe 2019] [Roy and Baskey 2022] [Sassone 1979] [Scanlan et al. 2002] [Schildhauer 1948] [Scholz et al. 2021] [Schuetz 1982] [Sendi 2020] [Shahriar et al. 2022] [Sharp 1966] [Shoemaker 1981] [Stahl et al. 1984] [Stewart and Campion 1980] [Sundararajan 2013] [Sweet 1982] [Sweet and Curtis 1981] [Jiang et al. 2013] [Tierney et al. 2021] [Tirole 1984] [Wagner 1977] [Watkins and Tsiao 2020] [Wicke and Pohya 2018] [Wijk et al. 2017] [Xu et al] [Yates 1965] [Zhao et al. 2011] [Zhao Xiaojia et al. 2015]

Low-cost manufacture, composites and materials

The material list as a requirement. Composite and sandwich construction, additive manufacturing, low volume and local production, and manufacturing cost.

104 records. [A Review on Properties 2017] [Abc 2023] [Abe et al. 2020] [Ackermann and Haase 2023] [Adamski 2015] [Adlin et al. 2020] [Akpan et al. 2023] [Alexopoulos et al. 2016] [Ancient 1968] [Guanghui et al. 2024] [Arbeiter et al. 2020] [Bezek and Williams 2023] [Biele and Mönch 2019] [Bonnín Roca et al. 2019] [Buffum and Thompson 1978] [Canziani et al. 2020] [Cardeal et al. 2021] [Carneiro et al. 2020] [Centea and Nutt 2015] [Chang et al. 2024] [Chen and Smith 2021] [Chen et al. 2020b] [Chen et al. 2022e] [Chen et al. 2022c] [Chen et al. 2022d] [Chittaranjan . V and Muni Sekhar 2017] [Comparative Study 2023] [Crispo and Kim 2026] [Cubillo et al. 2016] [Cui et al. 2021] [Dittmann et al. 2024] [Dolev et al. 2021] [Donelli et al. 2025] [Dong et al. 2021] [Ellis 1957] [Fałek et al. 2017] [Features of the Cost 2021] [Fette et al. 2016] [Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Unitized Boat 1978] [Griffiths et al. 2024] [Gu 2022] [Harkins 1979] [Hassan et al. 2017] [Hueber et al. 2016] [Hueber et al. 2019] [Iryani et al. 2019] [Isaac and Ezekwem 2021] [Jain 2022] [Jeon et al. 2023] [Kraemer 1938] [Krueger 2017] [Kumar and Supale 2023] [Kumar et al. 2020] [Li et al. 2020] [Li et al. 2023] [Liu et al. 2024b] [Liu et al. 2024c] [Lomo et al. 2023] [Mahadik and Masel 2018] [Marinelli et al. 2020] [McGurk et al. 2024] [McKenna et al. 2019] [Merrett 2016] [Meyne 1975] [Minetola and Galati 2018] [Morse et al. 2022] [Nam et al. 2016] [Noyes 1966] [Onuike et al. 2018] [Oshima and Takano 2024] [Oyesola et al. 2020] [Oyesola et al. 2022] [Park 2016] [Patterson and Grenestedt 2018] [Prasad et al. 2022] [Rai et al. 2017] [Rao et al. 2021] [Rao et al. 2025] [Ricci et al. 2021] [Rui et al. 2026] [Sahasrabudhe et al. 2015] [Shevtsov et al. 2016] [Shuvo 2019] [Sorrentino et al. 2016] [Sunny et al. 2021] [Tamura et al. 2017] [The Influence 2026] [Thompson et al. 2019] [Viscusi et al. 2020] [Vishnu Prashant Reddy et al. 2018] [Vistein et al. 2019] [Wang and Song 2025] [Wang et al. 2019b] [Wang et al. 2021f] [Wood and Plastics 1944] [Wu 2017] [Wu et al. 2023a] [Yi et al. 2024] [Yim and Mah 2024] [Yin et al. 2025] [Zawaski and Williams 2020] [Zhang et al. 2026a] [Zhou et al. 2019] [Кожевников and Мингалева 2023]

49 titles name additive manufacturing or printing and 4 name wood or balsa, so the contemporary literature of cheap manufacture has moved to processes the Osprey’s builder did not have.

Search theory, visual detection and sweep width

Koopman’s subject. Search theory, detection probability, the lateral-range curve and sweep width, and the visual detection of targets by observers.

85 records. [Arkin 1965] [Arnold and Bram 1962] [Baldwin 1973] [Bechtel and Amos 1975] [Beltrami and McGill 1966] [Bloomfield et al. 1978] [Bucklin 1971] [Chiacchia 2020] [Chiacchia and Houlahan 2023] [Chiacchia and Scelza 2023] [Chiacchia et al. 2015] [Chiacchia et al. 2025] [Dezeeuw 1995] [Dillon 1981] [Dobbie 1968] [Engel 1952] [Erickson 1965] [Erickson and Gordon 1970] [Eriksen 1954] [Finlay 2024] [Finlay 2026] [Forrest 1993] [Franklin and Whittenburg 1965] [Geri 2010] [Geri et al. 1999] [Glen et al. 2018] [Grace 1992] [Green 1958] [Guter 1964] [Hakimipanah et al. 2025] [Hong 2026] [Hopson 1979] [Huntoon et al. 1979] [Jacob et al. 2018] [Jacobson 1978] [Jewell 1985] [Johnson 1966] [Koester 2020] [Koester et al. 2017] [Kurdyla 1963] [Kuznetcov et al. 2021] [Levine et al 1969] [Loane et al 1964] [Loffi et al. 2016] [Loffi et al. 2021] [Luria 1982] [Mallett and Brennan 1963] [Mangel and Cope 1979] [Mangel and Thomas 1979] [Maruyama 1970] [Matsuo and Kuroiwa 1969] [Mehlis 1973] [Meitzler et al. 2005] [Mela 1961] [Metz et al 1976] [Nicoll and Hsu 1995] [Oatman 1965] [Peterson and Graham 1974] [Pierce 1978] [Poe and Arthur C. 1974] [Posner and Rumsey 1967] [Richardson 1968] [Richardson and Belkin 1972] [Rivers et al 1980] [Scheiner 1999] [Scinto 1986] [Shnidman 1975] [Shubert 1975] [Snyder et al. 1974] [Stone et al 1959] [Stromquist and Stone 1981] [Swerling 1960] [Swerling 1966] [Swets et al 1955] [Task and Verona 1976] [Teichner and Krebs 1970] [Tishchenko and Artyshchenko 2020] [Vallerie and Link 1968] [Vance et al. 2017] [Volkmann and Corbin 1965] [Volkmann et al. 1964] [Wallace and Vance 2019] [Wallace et al. 2018] [Washburn 1978] [Woo et al. 2020]

54 of the 85 records date from 1982 or earlier, so this cluster, unlike the coverage planning that succeeded it, is mainly period work.

Riverine warfare, patrol and Southeast Asian rescue

The war the aircraft was bought for. Riverine warfare and patrol, coastal and inland waterway craft, patrol by seaplane, and the Air Force reports on rescue in Southeast Asia.

20 records. [Anderson 1966] [Bassett 2006] [Benbow et al. 2006] [Bonk 2023] [Brunskole et al. 1997] [Coggins 2002] [Durkee 1968] [Fishery Patrols by Seaplane 1923] [Francis and Nelson 1974] [Lassaline et al. 1967] [Mitchell 1971] [Overton 1969] [Radian INC Alexandria VA 1993] [Sandway 2010] [Seaplane Forest Patrol 1921] [Sloss et al. 1969] [Stilwell 2013] [Tilford 1975] [Wenderlin and Cutler 1989] [Wilson 1972]

9 of the 20 titles name Vietnam, the Mekong, Cambodia or Southeast Asia, and 16 of the 20 are report primaries. No title in the survey names Operation Market Time or Operation Game Warden, the coastal and river patrol operations of the war.

Where the Framing Breaks Down

The canal explanation is a clean inference, and clean inferences call for care. Twelve inches of clearance each side is a striking coincidence, and the article treats the canal as having set the span. No document says so. Pereira designed the aircraft for the sport market before the Navy saw it, so the causation cannot run the way the framing implies. What is defensible is that the requirement and the aeroplane matched, and that the Navy chose an aircraft whose span already fitted. Even the span is not settled. The encyclopaedia entry gives twenty-three feet and ninety-seven square feet, while Osprey Aircraft lists twenty-four feet nine inches and a hundred and three square feet, which would leave an inch and a half on each side of a twenty-five-foot canal.

The endurance calculation depends on a fuel weight that was never published. Ninety pounds is an assumption. The percentages comparing spans are robust to it, because it cancels, but the absolute hours are not.

The area-per-dollar comparison is the strongest claim and the softest number. Unit costs for the Bronco and the Orion are era-approximate, sweep widths are assumed, and neither aircraft’s cost includes operation. The ratio would have to be wrong by two orders of magnitude to change the conclusion, so the claim stands, but it remains a ratio between estimates.

The programme was cancelled for reasons outside the aircraft. The war ended. Nothing in the evaluation caused the cancellation, so this article cannot say the X-28A failed, and it also cannot say it would have succeeded.

And the aircraft was tested on the Delaware River in autumn, not on a canal in the Mekong Delta. Tails Through Time places the tests on the Delaware. The five-week evaluation says the aeroplane flew well near Philadelphia. It does not say what it would have done in the place it was bought for.

The Source Base

The vehicle’s own record is thin and the physics record is deep, which is the same shape as the previous article.

No test report exists in the open literature. A search of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Technical Reports Server for X-28A, for Sea Skimmer or for the Osprey flying boat returns nothing, and a search for Air Skimmer returns only unrelated records. No record in this survey carries X-28, Pereira, Sea Skimmer or Air Skimmer in its title. The evaluation’s findings survive as a sentence in secondary sources.

The vehicle facts come from secondary aviation history and they disagree with one another. The aircraft’s designer, its names, and its current museum are each stated differently by different sources, and the article reports the disagreements rather than resolving them.

The physics comes from primary literature about everything except the aircraft. The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics tank tests, the search-theory reports, the light-aircraft performance work and the cost-analysis literature are all richly documented, and the article is built on those. The evidence for this subject is the physics rather than the vehicle, as it is for the X-27.

Period coverage, with counts alongside fractions because either alone misleads.

  Count Fraction
Report primaries 782 33.8 percent of all records
Period, through 1982 928 40.4 percent of dated records
Contemporary, 2015 onward 1,107 48.2 percent of dated records

The research survey holds 2,311 research records drawn from Crossref, the NASA Technical Reports Server and the Defense Technical Information Center, of which 782 are report primaries, being 33.8 percent, by the identifier rule set out under The Definition of Primary. The median publication year is 2010. Of the 2,302 dated records, 928 were published in 1982 or earlier, being 40.3 percent, and 1,108 were published in 2015 or later, being 48.1 percent. The records fall into 12 clusters, set out under The Contemporary Literature.

Every figure in this article is given as a count and a fraction together, because a fraction moves with its denominator and a count does not, so either alone can suggest a change in coverage that is only a change in the size of the survey.

The Definition of Primary

Primacy is a property of the document, and this survey derives it from the identifier. A record is a report primary when its address is on the NASA Technical Reports Server or it carries a digital object identifier under the 10.21236 prefix, which Crossref registers for Defense Technical Information Center reports. The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics tank reports that carry the hull argument are report primaries under that rule, and so are the agency’s general aviation reports. The rule does not reach the period journal literature. Of the 928 records published in 1982 or earlier, 295 are journal, society and conference papers registered with Crossref, which are primary in the ordinary sense and are not counted, so 33.8 percent is a lower bound.

Thin Subjects

Eight subjects that this article’s derivations depend on have thin literatures. Each count below is the number of research records in this survey whose title carries at least one of the listed terms, with a hyphen read as a space.

Subject Title terms counted Records
the span limit of a confined operating site folding wing, folding wings, wing fold, wing folding, span limit, span constraint, trailer, trailerable, canal, canals 0
the beam loading coefficient of a planing hull beam loading, beam loadings, load coefficient, loading coefficient 6
the resistance hump of a hull hump 0
the static thrust of a propeller static thrust 18
the minimum-power speed and the endurance optimum minimum power, maximum endurance, minimum drag speed, minimum power speed 4
sweep width and the lateral-range curve sweep width, sweep widths, lateral range 11
design to cost design to cost 12
homebuilt and amateur-built aircraft homebuilt, home built, amateur built 5

The keystone constraint has no literature. No title in the survey names a folding wing, a span limit, a trailer or a canal, so the argument that a twenty-five-foot ditch set the aeroplane rests on the programme’s requirement and the arithmetic above alone.

The beam loading coefficient appears in titles only as an impact parameter. All 6 titles that name it concern water landing or impact, and none concerns take-off resistance, which is the use this article makes of it.

The hump is named in no title. The hump resistance ratios rest on the general tank tests, which report resistance across the whole speed range without naming the peak in their titles.

Static thrust is a small literature and mostly not about light aircraft. Of the 18 titles, 5 name an aeroplane, an aircraft or an airboat, and the rest treat propellers, rotors and ducted propellers on test stands.

The finding that the minimum-power speed lies below the stall has no published counterpart. The 4 titles that name minimum power or maximum endurance include 1 on propeller aircraft, and none on a speed optimum that the stall makes unreachable.

Sweep width is rarely measured from the air. Of the 11 titles, 1 names air-to-surface search, and 5 name a land search, a dog team, a missing person or mountain terrain.

Design to cost was a large-aircraft discipline. None of the 12 titles that name it concerns a light or small aircraft, so the X-28A’s cost-first requirement is an early instance that no title in this literature names.

The Osprey’s actual descendants have almost no research literature. Only 5 titles name homebuilt or amateur-built aircraft, and none names the Osprey or its designer.

What the Survey Admits

A record is admitted only when a person reading its title finds it on this article’s subject. Many words this subject depends on also name something else, and a record that shares only such a word is excluded. Cost-effectiveness and affordability also name the pricing of drugs, treatments, diets, housing, schooling and public services. Planing also names the surgical planing of skin and teeth and the planing of metal, and amphibian also names a frog, so developmental biology is excluded. Porpoising also names a dolphin’s or a penguin’s swimming, the pitching of racing cars on the road and the braid of a shielded cable. Hydrodynamic also names the physics of bearings, torque converters, blood cells, shock waves and explosives, and the hydrodynamics of displacement ships, tankers, submarines and underwater vehicles shares nothing with a planing hull but the water. Coverage also names the reach of a wireless network, probability of detection also names the nondestructive evaluation of materials, random search also names an optimisation method, and patrol also names ground robots, air-defence combat air patrol and police training. Visual search also names a laboratory task in perception psychology, the Mekong Delta also names a region with its own literature of hydrology, agriculture and society, and the surveillance of aircraft by air traffic control, security cameras and the watch kept on satellites are excluded with them. Autonomous surface vessels share the water with this subject and none of its aeronautics, and are excluded. Wind turbines, wave energy converters, offshore platforms and coastal hydraulics share the fluid mechanics of a propeller or a hull and nothing else, so they are excluded as well. Correction, corrigendum and erratum notices, news items, conference titles, dictionary headwords and the chapters and appendices of manuals are excluded because a survey counts research works, and travel narratives and heritage studies of seaplane bases are excluded because they are not about the aircraft. A review of a book, a glossary of terms, a reference or definition entry of two pages or fewer and a second deposit of a document already in the survey are not admitted either, while an authored encyclopedia article of more than two pages and a textbook chapter are research works and are kept.

Some records of doubtful relevance are kept. Cost-effectiveness methods stated without a medical subject, aerial surveys of wildlife that estimate a probability of detection from an aircraft, marine propeller theory and propeller tip-vortex cavitation, the human factors of visual search at sea and from the air, coverage path planning for ground, indoor, inspection and underwater robots, sweep-width studies of searches on land, the hydrodynamics of amphibious ground vehicles, additive manufacturing process studies with no stated aircraft application, the water landing of spacecraft, high-altitude long-endurance aircraft among the endurance literature, and period trade-journal descriptions of individual seaplanes each share a method, a mechanism or a vehicle with this subject, so each is kept and a reader may weigh it accordingly.

Every research title has been read for relevance, so the off-topic share that remains is a matter of reading judgement. A reading of titles cannot show that a work is relevant in substance, so this is a statement about titles only. The doubtful classes named above are the places where that judgement could reasonably have gone the other way.

Epistemic State

Historical fact, well attested.

  • George Pereira designed the Osprey I in Sacramento from 1969, and it first flew on 12 August 1970.
  • The Navy purchased the aircraft in 1971, designated it X-28A, and evaluated it that autumn at Philadelphia, with a last flight on 22 October 1971.
  • The Naval Air Development Center study required visual flight rules, light weight, local manufacture, and a cost under five thousand dollars in quantity.
  • The programme ended as the Vietnam War wound down, with no further military examples.
  • The design was developed into the Osprey II, of which several hundred have been built.

Reported but not independently corroborated here.

  • That the purchase was made on 27 July 1971, that testing ran from 16 September 1971 from the Philadelphia Naval Base on the Delaware River, and that it was restricted to 300 feet.
  • That the study also set a thousand-pound trailer limit and canals as narrow as twenty-five feet.
  • That the evaluation found the aircraft easy to fly and to master by pilots of limited experience.
  • The published dimensions, weights and performance, none of which is a measured test figure.
  • That more than five hundred Osprey II aircraft have been built and flown.

Contested in the sources and left contested.

  • Who designed the aircraft also called the Sea Skimmer, and whether that name attaches to the aircraft or to the Navy project.
  • Which museum holds the airframe. Two different institutions are named by otherwise careful sources.
  • The span and wing area, given as 23 feet and 97 square feet by one source and as 24 feet 9 inches and 103 square feet by the manufacturer.

Engineering analysis, computed here and reproducible from the stated inputs.

  • The maximum lift coefficient of 1.189 inverted from the quoted minimum speed.
  • The drag polar, the maximum lift-to-drag ratio of 10.71, and the loiter power.
  • That the minimum-power speed lies below the stall speed, at a ratio of 0.984.
  • The endurance against span, and the twenty-three percent the canal cost.
  • The static thrust, the hump margin of between 2.75 and 4.59, and the beam loading coefficients.
  • The sea-state limit from wavelength against hull length.
  • The coverage rates and the area-per-dollar comparison.

Inference, labelled as such.

  • That the twenty-five-foot canal requirement and the twenty-three-foot span are related. The numbers fit and the chronology argues against causation in the obvious direction.
  • That the climb figure was measured at a weight below the quoted gross. It is the explanation that requires the fewest other things to be wrong.

Not established.

  • What fuel the aircraft carried, which every endurance figure here depends on.
  • What the hull’s beam, deadrise or step depth were.
  • Whether the aircraft would have been usable in the theatre it was bought for.
  • Whether any number of these aircraft could have been manned, which the cost argument quietly assumes.

Out of Scope

  • The Osprey II and GP-4, Pereira’s later designs, treated here only as the programme’s consequence.
  • The full history of riverine operations in Vietnam, which the references cover.
  • The V-22 Osprey, an unrelated aircraft that shares only the name.
  • Modern unmanned maritime patrol systems in detail, surveyed here rather than analysed.
  • The economics of homebuilt aviation, a separate subject.

Conclusion

The X-28A was specified by its price, a unit cost under five thousand dollars, and the price was the requirement rather than the result.

The Navy asked what five thousand dollars buys. The answer, computed rather than asserted, is about a hundred square miles of water examined per hour, for about nine hours, from an aeroplane that fits down a twenty-five-foot ditch and can be towed home behind a truck. Per dollar spent that is roughly a hundred and thirteen times what a maritime patrol aircraft delivers, even after giving the larger aircraft a twenty-mile radar against the Osprey’s one-mile eyeball.

The constraints that shaped it were almost all non-aeronautical, and they cost something measurable. The canal, on this reading, set the span, the span set the aspect ratio, and the aspect ratio cost about a quarter of the endurance a slightly wider aeroplane would have had. The trailer limit and the canal together pushed the minimum-power speed below the stall speed, so the aircraft could not reach the bottom of its power curve and loitered at a stall margin instead.

What was never a problem was the water. At ten pounds per horsepower the aircraft cleared its resistance hump by a factor of between two and a half and four and a half, across every hull the record permits it to have had. A flying boat’s characteristic difficulty does not arise at this weight, and the real water limit was a two-second chop rather than a resistance curve.

The programme ended because a war did, not because the aeroplane failed. Its evaluation concluded that it was easy to fly, and then the requirement it answered ceased to exist.

It is also the fourth consecutive designation in this series that did not go to a purpose-built research aeroplane. The Navy did not commission an X-28. It bought one, from a boat designer, off the water.

The next article treats the X-29, the Grumman forward-swept-wing demonstrator, which returns the series to an aircraft built from a clean sheet to answer a question that could not be answered any other way.

Equations

This section collects the 42 display equations of the article in the order they appear, each under its number and reproduced exactly as it stands in the text. A title in bold names an established result, and a title in italics beginning with the word Bespoke names a construction made for this analysis. Of the 42, 26 are established and 16 are bespoke. The article mixes customary and International System units, quoting weights in pounds, speeds in knots and areas in square feet while evaluating aerodynamic relations in newtons, metres per second and pascals, and the letter $b$ is the wing span in the aerodynamic relations but the hull beam in the planing relations.

Equation 1, Wingtip Clearance in a Twenty-Five-Foot Canal. Half the difference between the quoted minimum canal width and the quoted span leaves twelve inches of clearance at each wingtip. Tails Through Time Osprey X-28A

\[\text{clearance each side} = \tfrac{1}{2}\left(25 - 23\right) = 1\ \mathrm{ft} = 12\ \mathrm{in} \tag{1}\]

Equation 2, Aspect Ratio of the Wing. The aspect ratio is the span squared divided by the wing area, here evaluated from the published span and area. aspect ratio

\[A = \frac{b^2}{S} = \frac{(23.0\ \mathrm{ft})^2}{97.0\ \mathrm{ft}^2} = 5.454 \tag{2}\]

Equation 3, Wing Loading. The wing loading is the gross weight divided by the wing area, evaluated from the published figures. Raymer Torenbeek Gudmundsson

\[\frac{W}{S} = \frac{900\ \mathrm{lb}}{97\ \mathrm{ft}^2} = 9.28\ \mathrm{lb/ft^2} \tag{3}\]

Equation 4, Power Loading. The power loading is the gross weight divided by the installed engine power, evaluated from the published figures. Raymer Torenbeek Gudmundsson

\[\frac{W}{P} = \frac{900\ \mathrm{lb}}{90\ \mathrm{hp}} = 10.0\ \mathrm{lb/hp} \tag{4}\]

Equation 5, Bespoke Empty and Fuel Weight Fractions. The empty fraction uses the published empty and gross weights, while the fuel fraction rests on ninety pounds of fuel, an unpublished figure the article assumes.

\[\frac{W_{\mathrm{empty}}}{W_{\mathrm{gross}}} = \frac{600}{900} = 0.667, \qquad \frac{W_{\mathrm{fuel}}}{W_{\mathrm{gross}}} = \frac{90}{900} = 0.10 \tag{5}\]

Equation 6, Lift Equation and Stall Speed. Lift is the dynamic pressure times the wing area times the lift coefficient, and setting lift equal to weight at the maximum lift coefficient gives the stall speed.

\[L = \tfrac{1}{2}\rho V^2 S\,C_L, \qquad V_{\mathrm{stall}} = \sqrt{\frac{2W}{\rho\,S\,C_{L_{\max}}}} \tag{6}\]

Equation 7, Maximum Lift Coefficient Inverted From the Quoted Stall. Solving the stall relation for the coefficient with the published weight, wing area and minimum speed at sea level density gives a maximum lift coefficient near 1.19. Jenkins, Landis and Miller

\[C_{L_{\max}} = \frac{2W}{\rho\,S\,V_{\mathrm{stall}}^2} = \frac{2 \times 4{,}003}{1.225 \times 9.011 \times (24.69)^2} = 1.189 \tag{7}\]

Equation 8, Parabolic Drag Polar. The drag coefficient is a zero-lift term plus an induced term proportional to the square of the lift coefficient, with the induced factor set by aspect ratio and Oswald efficiency. Anderson

\[C_D = C_{D_0} + K C_L^2, \qquad K = \frac{1}{\pi A e} \tag{8}\]

Equation 9, Dynamic Pressure and Drag. The dynamic pressure is half the density times the speed squared, and the drag is the dynamic pressure times the wing area times the drag coefficient. Anderson

\[q = \tfrac{1}{2}\rho V^2, \qquad D = q\,S\,C_D \tag{9}\]

Equation 10, Bespoke Loiter Condition at Twenty Percent Above the Stall. The dynamic pressure, lift coefficient and drag are evaluated at a loiter speed the article sets at 1.2 times the stall speed, using the drag polar it builds.

\[q = \tfrac{1}{2} \times 1.225 \times (29.63)^2 = 537.8\ \mathrm{Pa}, \qquad C_L = \frac{W}{qS} = 0.826, \qquad D = 85.0\ \mathrm{lbf} \tag{10}\]

Equation 11, Bespoke Zero-Lift Drag Build-Up With a Hull Increment. The zero-lift drag coefficient is assembled from an assumed equivalent skin friction coefficient of 0.0055, an assumed wetted area ratio of 4.2 and an assumed hull step increment of 0.010. Hoerner Raymer

\[C_{D_0} = C_{fe}\,\frac{S_{\mathrm{wet}}}{S_{\mathrm{ref}}} + \Delta C_{D,\,\mathrm{hull}} = 0.0055 \times 4.2 + 0.010 = 0.0331 \tag{11}\]

Equation 12, Bespoke Oswald Efficiency and Induced Drag Factor. The induced drag factor is evaluated with an Oswald efficiency of 0.886 that the article estimates rather than takes from any measurement.

\[e = 0.886, \qquad K = \frac{1}{\pi \times 5.454 \times 0.886} = 0.0659 \tag{12}\]

Equation 13, Bespoke Maximum Lift-to-Drag Ratio. The standard maximum of the lift-to-drag ratio for a parabolic polar is evaluated with the assumed Oswald efficiency and the built-up zero-lift drag, giving about 10.7.

\[\left(\frac{L}{D}\right)_{\max} = \frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{\pi A e}{C_{D_0}}} = \frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{\pi \times 5.454 \times 0.886}{0.0331}} = 10.71 \tag{13}\]

Equation 14, Rate of Climb From Excess Power and Its Zero-Drag Ceiling. The rate of climb is the excess of propulsive power over drag power divided by weight, and setting the drag to zero gives an absolute upper bound.

\[\frac{dh}{dt} = \frac{\eta_p P - D V}{W} \qquad \Longrightarrow \qquad \left.\frac{dh}{dt}\right|_{\mathrm{ceiling}} = \frac{\eta_p P}{W} \tag{14}\]

Equation 15, Bespoke Propeller Efficiency Required by the Climb Claim. The propeller efficiency needed to meet the quoted climb rate is found by minimising the required power over speed against the drag polar the article builds.

\[\eta_p^{\mathrm{req}} = \min_V \frac{W\,\dot h + D(V)\,V}{P} = 0.823 \tag{15}\]

Equation 16, Bespoke Zero-Lift Drag Implied by the Climb Claim. Taking the propeller efficiency as an assumed 0.75 and believing the quoted climb rate implies a zero-lift drag coefficient of 0.0050, which the article judges impossible for a stepped hull.

\[C_{D_0} = 0.0050 \tag{16}\]

Equation 17, Power Required for a Parabolic Polar. The power required is drag times speed, which splits into a parasite term growing with the cube of speed and an induced term falling inversely with speed.

\[P_{\mathrm{req}} = D V = \tfrac{1}{2}\rho V^3 S\,C_{D_0} + \frac{2 K W^2}{\rho V S} \tag{17}\]

Equation 18, Speed for Minimum Power Required. Setting the derivative of the power required with respect to speed to zero gives the minimum-power speed, at which the induced power is three times the parasite power.

\[V_{\mathrm{mp}} = \left(\frac{4 K W^2}{3\rho^2 S^2 C_{D_0}}\right)^{1/4} \tag{18}\]

Equation 19, Endurance at Constant Shaft Power. Endurance is the fuel weight divided by the product of specific fuel consumption and shaft power, a form that holds the power constant as fuel burns.

\[E = \frac{W_{\mathrm{fuel}}}{c\,P_{\mathrm{shaft}}} \tag{19}\]

Equation 20, Bespoke Minimum-Power Speed Against the Stall Speed. Evaluating the minimum-power speed with the built-up polar places it at 0.984 of the stall speed, so the endurance optimum lies below the speed at which the aircraft can fly.

\[V_{\mathrm{mp}} = 47.2\ \mathrm{kt}, \qquad V_{\mathrm{stall}} = 48.0\ \mathrm{kt}, \qquad \frac{V_{\mathrm{mp}}}{V_{\mathrm{stall}}} = 0.984 \tag{20}\]

Equation 21, Bespoke Range at a Stall-Margin Loiter Speed. Range is endurance times loiter speed, with the loiter speed set by a stall margin of at least 1.2 that the article chooses rather than by the power curve. Torenbeek Gudmundsson

\[R = E\,V_{\mathrm{loiter}}, \qquad V_{\mathrm{loiter}} = k\,V_{\mathrm{stall}}, \qquad k \ge 1.2 \tag{21}\]

Equation 22, Bespoke Range at the Chosen Loiter Speed. The range of 517 nautical miles follows from an endurance computed with ninety pounds of assumed fuel and a loiter speed at the chosen twenty percent stall margin.

\[R = 8.98\ \mathrm{h} \times 57.6\ \mathrm{kt} = 517\ \mathrm{nmi} \tag{22}\]

Equation 23, Search Rate of a Single Aircraft. The area swept per unit time is the sweep width multiplied by the search speed. Koopman’s Stone Search theory

\[\dot{A} = W_{\mathrm{sweep}}\,V \tag{23}\]

Equation 24, Sweep Width as an Integral of the Lateral-Range Curve. The sweep width is twice the integral of the detection probability over lateral range, the width of a perfect sensor that would find as many targets. sweep width

\[W_{\mathrm{sweep}} = 2\int_0^{\infty} p(x)\,dx \tag{24}\]

Equation 25, Sweep Width as a Coverage Factor Times Twice the Sighting Range. The sweep width is written as a coverage factor between zero and one times twice the maximum sighting range, which bounds it by the definite-range law. Koopman’s Stone

\[W_{\mathrm{sweep}} = \varphi \cdot 2R_{\max}, \qquad 0 < \varphi \le 1 \tag{25}\]

Equation 26, Coverage and the Random-Search Detection Law. The coverage is the area swept divided by the area searched, and under the random-search law the probability of detection is one minus the exponential of minus the coverage. Koopman’s Stone

\[C_{\mathrm{cov}} = \frac{W_{\mathrm{sweep}}\,V\,t}{A_{\mathrm{search}}}, \qquad P_{\mathrm{det}} = 1 - e^{-C_{\mathrm{cov}}} \tag{26}\]

Equation 27, Detection Probability at Unit Coverage. At a coverage of one the random-search law gives a detection probability of one minus the reciprocal of $e$, about 0.632.

\[P_{\mathrm{det}}(C_{\mathrm{cov}} = 1) = 1 - e^{-1} = 0.632 \tag{27}\]

Equation 28, Geometric Horizon Distance. The distance to the geometric horizon in nautical miles is approximately 1.17 times the square root of the height in feet, here twenty nautical miles at the tested three hundred feet. Tails Through Time

\[d_{\mathrm{horizon}} \approx 1.17\sqrt{h_{\mathrm{ft}}} = 1.17\sqrt{300} = 20.3\ \mathrm{nmi} \tag{28}\]

Equation 29, Bespoke Fleet Coverage per Dollar. The article takes area examined per hour per dollar as its figure of merit and shows that a fixed budget buys a fleet whose coverage is the budget times that ratio.

\[\frac{\dot{A}}{C} = \frac{W_{\mathrm{sweep}}\,V}{C}, \qquad N = \frac{B}{C}, \qquad \dot{A}_{\mathrm{fleet}} = N\,W_{\mathrm{sweep}}\,V = B\,\frac{\dot{A}}{C} \tag{29}\]

Equation 30, Bespoke Fleet Size Bought for the Cost of One Orion. The budget is set equal to the unit cost of one P-3C Orion, a comparison the article chooses, and dividing it by the unit cost of the X-28A gives 7,200 aircraft. P-3C Orion

\[N = \frac{\$36{,}000{,}000}{\$5{,}000} = 7{,}200 \tag{30}\]

Equation 31, Bespoke Fleet Coverage Against One Orion. The fleet coverage multiplies the fleet size by a single-aircraft coverage resting on an assumed visual sweep width of one nautical mile, and is set against an Orion credited with an assumed twenty-mile radar sweep.

\[\dot{A}_{\mathrm{fleet}} = 7{,}200 \times 103 = 741{,}600\ \mathrm{nmi^2/h} \quad \text{against} \quad 6{,}560\ \mathrm{nmi^2/h} \tag{31}\]

Equation 32, Bespoke Coverage-per-Dollar Advantage. The ratio of fleet coverage to Orion coverage for the same budget is about 113, a figure that inherits the assumed sweep widths of both aircraft.

\[\frac{741{,}600}{6{,}560} = 113 \tag{32}\]

Equation 33, Hump Resistance From the Resistance Ratio. The hump resistance is the peak ratio of water resistance to displacement multiplied by the displacement. Savitsky and the planing-hull literature

\[R_{\mathrm{hump}} = \left(\frac{R}{\Delta}\right)_{\max}\Delta \tag{33}\]

Equation 34, Static Thrust From Momentum Theory. Actuator-disc momentum theory gives the ideal static thrust as the cube root of twice the density times the disc area times the power squared. Momentum theory

\[T_{\mathrm{static}} = \left(2\rho A_{\mathrm{disc}} P^2\right)^{1/3} \tag{34}\]

Equation 35, Bespoke Disc Loading and Induced Velocity. The disc loading and the velocity the propeller adds to the air are evaluated for a propeller diameter the article assumes, since none was published.

\[\frac{T}{A_{\mathrm{disc}}} = 21.9\ \mathrm{lb/ft^2}, \qquad w = \sqrt{\frac{T}{2\rho A_{\mathrm{disc}}}} = 20.7\ \mathrm{m/s} \tag{35}\]

Equation 36, Beam Loading Coefficient. The beam loading coefficient is the displacement divided by the specific weight of water times the cube of the hull beam. Savitsky and the planing-hull literature

\[C_{\Delta_0} = \frac{\Delta}{\gamma_w b^3} \tag{36}\]

Equation 37, Displaced Volume of Water. By Archimedes the displaced volume is the gross weight divided by the density of sea water and gravity, about fourteen cubic feet. Savitsky and the planing-hull literature

\[\nabla = \frac{\Delta}{\rho_w g} = \frac{4{,}003}{1025 \times 9.807} = 0.398\ \mathrm{m^3} = 14.1\ \mathrm{ft^3} \tag{37}\]

Equation 38, Beam Froude Number. The beam Froude number is the speed divided by the square root of gravity times the hull beam, the parameter at a fixed value of which the hump occurs.

\[\mathrm{Fr}_b = \frac{V}{\sqrt{g\,b}} \tag{38}\]

Equation 39, Deep-Water Wavelength From Period. Linear wave theory gives the wavelength of a deep-water wave as gravity times the period squared divided by two pi.

\[\lambda = \frac{g T^2}{2\pi} \tag{39}\]

Equation 40, Advance Ratio, Helical Tip Speed and Tip Mach Number. The advance ratio is the flight speed over the product of rotational speed and diameter, the helical tip speed combines rotation and flight speed, and the tip Mach number divides it by the speed of sound.

\[J = \frac{V}{n D}, \qquad V_{\mathrm{tip}} = \sqrt{(\pi n D)^2 + V^2}, \qquad M_{\mathrm{tip}} = \frac{V_{\mathrm{tip}}}{a} \tag{40}\]

Equation 41, Bespoke Cruise Propeller Tip Conditions. The advance ratio and tip Mach number at cruise are evaluated for an assumed six-foot propeller turning at 2,700 revolutions per minute.

\[J = \frac{53.0}{45.0 \times 1.829} = 0.644, \qquad V_{\mathrm{tip}} = 263.9\ \mathrm{m/s}, \qquad M_{\mathrm{tip}} = 0.776 \tag{41}\]

Equation 42, Propeller Efficiency. The propeller efficiency is the thrust power divided by the shaft power.

\[\eta_p = \frac{T V}{P_{\mathrm{shaft}}} \tag{42}\]

Notation

  • $A$, the wing aspect ratio
  • $S$, the wing reference area
  • $W$, the weight, with $W_{\mathrm{fuel}}$ the fuel weight
  • $C_{L_{\max}}$, the maximum lift coefficient
  • $C_{D_0}$, the zero-lift drag coefficient
  • $K$, the induced drag factor
  • $e$, the Oswald efficiency number, except in the detection law, where it is the base of natural logarithms
  • $q$, the dynamic pressure in pascals
  • $\rho$, the air density, with $\rho_w$ the density of sea water
  • $V_{\mathrm{stall}}$, the stall speed, with $V_{\mathrm{mp}}$ the minimum-power speed and $V_{\mathrm{loiter}}$ the loiter speed
  • $\eta_p$, the propeller efficiency
  • $P_{\mathrm{shaft}}$, the engine shaft power
  • $c$, the specific fuel consumption
  • $E$, the endurance
  • $W_{\mathrm{sweep}}$, the sweep width
  • $\varphi$, the coverage factor relating sweep width to twice the maximum sighting range
  • $C_{\mathrm{cov}}$, the coverage
  • $P_{\mathrm{det}}$, the probability of detection
  • $\Delta$, the displacement, equal to the gross weight
  • $\gamma_w$, the specific weight of water
  • $\mathrm{Fr}_b$, the beam Froude number
  • $A_{\mathrm{disc}}$, the propeller disc area
  • $J$, the propeller advance ratio
  • $M_{\mathrm{tip}}$, the propeller tip Mach number
  • $\lambda$, the wavelength of a deep-water wave

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