X-Planes: Martin Marietta X-23 PRIME and a Contested Assignment

The Martin Marietta X-23A PRIME, whose name stood for Precision Recovery Including Maneuvering Entry, was six feet eight inches long, weighed 894 pounds, and was thrown at the Pacific Ocean three times from the top of an Atlas. On the third attempt, on 19 April 1967, it flew more than 710 miles to one side of the path a stone would have taken, deployed a parachute, and was caught in mid-air by a transport aeroplane near Kwajalein, as the official history of the project records. It is the smallest vehicle in this series so far and it answered a larger question than most of the aircraft that dwarf it. This article is the twenty-fourth in the X-Planes series, following the X-1, the X-2, the X-3, the X-4, the X-5, the X-6, the X-7, the X-8, the X-9, the X-10, the X-11, the X-12, the X-13, the X-14, the X-15, the X-16, the X-17, the X-18, the X-19, the X-20, the X-21, and the X-22.

The number also presents a serious difficulty. The designation X-23A is attached to this vehicle by encyclopaedias and by the historical literature. Available United States Air Force nomenclature records show that it was never assigned, and further that it was never even requested, in the standard reference on United States military aircraft designations. This article treats the vehicle and the paperwork as two separate subjects, because they are, and because the paperwork, far from being a clerical footnote, is evidence about how the designation system worked.

The Research Question

Can a vehicle returning from orbit choose where it lands?

In 1964 that question was open. A ballistic capsule cannot choose. It falls where the atmosphere and its entry conditions put it, and the only control available is when to start. The landing point is therefore wherever the orbital ground track happens to be at the moment of the deorbit burn, and if the track then crosses the middle of an ocean, the vehicle comes down in the ocean.

The alternative was known in principle. A body that generates lift as well as drag can hold itself up, glide, and by rolling that lift vector to one side, turn. The open question was how much of it a returning vehicle could obtain, because the lift available to a shape that must also survive entry heating is very small. A lifting body of the period had a hypersonic lift-to-drag ratio somewhere near one, in Reed, against roughly seventeen for a transport aeroplane at cruise, in the encyclopaedia entry on the lift-to-drag ratio. The article turns on this ratio, defined as

\[\frac{L}{D} = \frac{C_L}{C_D}\]

so a value near unity means a vehicle that produces as much drag as lift. The lifting body gives up a factor of about fourteen against a transport wing, and the question is what the remaining lift can achieve.

The keystone of this article is the conversion of that small lift-to-drag ratio into lateral distance, which the period literature calls lateral range and the modern literature calls crossrange, in Garland and Hall 1958, Jackson 1961, Baradell 1962, Baradell and McLellan 1963, Kornreich 1963, Wang 1963, Wang and Skulsky 1963, Lessing et al 1964, Ashford 1965, Wagner 1965, Lau 1967, Pritchard and Holloway 1967, Holloway 1968, NlEMANN 1968, Moote 1970, Bump 1977, Vinh et al 1977, Johnson et al 1982, Kelley et al 1982. Every part of the vehicle was dimensioned against it. The shape exists to produce the lift, the ablator exists to let the vehicle stay in the atmosphere long enough to use it, the reaction controls and flaps exist to hold the bank angle that converts it, and the recovery system exists so that the measurement survives.

The X-20 Dyna-Soar had asked a version of this question and had been cancelled in December 1963 without flying, as a programme of 458 million dollars, in Reed’s history of the lifting bodies. PRIME asked the narrowest possible form of it, without a pilot, for a small fraction of the money. A programme memorandum of May 1967 puts the investment in PRIME at about 70 million dollars, not counting PILOT, in Vitelli and Hallion’s history of the project, so the ratio is

\[\frac{70}{458} = 0.153\]

or about a seventh of the X-20’s cost.

Programme Origin

PRIME was one part of a United States Air Force programme called START, for Spacecraft Technology and Advanced Reentry Tests, which Reed dates to January 1964. The accounts divide the programme differently. Hallion’s history of the Dryden centre and the inventory of American X-vehicles published by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA, describe three phases, ASSET, PRIME and PILOT, for Piloted Low-Speed Tests. Reed names only PRIME and PILOT. The START development plan forwarded in January 1965, in Vitelli and Hallion, comprised the PRIME project, the PILOT project, configuration and design studies, and the ASSET project. ASSET, for Aerothermodynamic Elastic Structural Systems Environmental Tests, was a small unmanned McDonnell glider launched between September 1963 and March 1965, according to Hallion, and addressed structures and heating. PRIME addressed manoeuvring, which ASSET had not. ASSET had flown simple hypersonic glides, and PRIME was to fly far to one side of its path, in Heppenheimer’s history of the Space Shuttle decision.

The institutional context is the cancellation of Dyna-Soar. The Air Force had spent years and a great deal of money on a piloted, winged, manoeuvring re-entry vehicle and had been left with the question unanswered and the answer still wanted, in Reed. START was the cheap route to the same information. Two small unmanned vehicles, launched on existing boosters, instrumented and recovered, could measure heating and manoeuvring without a pilot, without a runway, and without a programme large enough to be worth cancelling.

Martin Marietta supplied the airframe. The company had been developing a family of lifting-body shapes under the designation SV-5, and the family is the reason three vehicles appear here where the title names one. The SV-5D was the small unmanned entry vehicle that became PRIME. The SV-5P was the larger piloted low-speed vehicle that became the X-24A, in Reed. The two are the same aerodynamic idea at different sizes and different ends of the speed range, and that kinship is why the designation question became tangled.

The PRIME contract followed in November 1964. The Space Systems Division of the Air Force Systems Command engaged Martin to design, build and test a manoeuvring re-entry vehicle, in Reed and Hallion, and the project’s own statement of May 1967 says it was approved in November 1964 with first flight due in 24 months, in Vitelli and Hallion. Both Reed and Vitelli and Hallion record the six features on which Martin argued for the SV-5 shape. The second is the subject of this article, a hypersonic lift-to-drag ratio of 1.2 or better, permitting a lateral range of 1,000 miles, which would allow a recall to any preselected site at least once a day and an emergency recall to a suitable location from every orbit.

The wider programme record is in Ingber 1965, Atlas-Centaur AC-12 flight performance 1968, Atlas-Centaur flight performance for 1968, Adimurthy 1976, Shrivastava and Reddy 1976, Brusch 1977, Adimurthy 1987, Rasky 1998, Trefny 1999, Wallace 1999, Calhoun 2000, Naughton 2002, and the survey’s cluster on lifting bodies and the SV-5 family collects the family of shapes the vehicle came from.

The Vehicle

The SV-5D was a teardrop-shaped lifting body fitted with fins, in Heppenheimer, and Vitelli and Hallion add two hydraulically driven flaps at the rear. It was 6 feet 8 inches long, 3 feet 10 inches across and 2 feet 10 inches high, and weighed 894 pounds, in the encyclopaedia entry.

The record gives its weight several ways. The official history records the first vehicle lifting off at 895 pounds, about 4 percent below the weight goal, and states that all three were more than 3 percent below the specification maximum launch weight, in Vitelli and Hallion’s history of the project, whose press statement of May 1967 calls them 860-pound vehicles. Reed gives 880 pounds, Hallion 400 kilograms, and Cochrane and Graham about 800 pounds. This article uses 894 pounds, which differs from the first vehicle’s lift-off weight by

\[\frac{895}{894} - 1 = 0.11\%\]

Almost the whole of its surface was thermal protection. The primary structure was aluminium, and Vitelli and Hallion describe an elastomeric ablative heat shield, Martin’s ESA 3560HF, bonded directly to it, with a mechanically attached carbon phenolic nose cap. The flaps were beryllium plates faced with carbon phenolic beneath and with ESA 3560HF above, and the fins were beryllium sheet on a steel honeycomb. The shield was to hold the aluminium to 400 degrees Fahrenheit and the flaps and fins to 800. The encyclopaedia entry gives the shield’s thickness as between 0.75 and 2.75 inches and lists titanium among the structural metals, which the official history does not mention. Attitude was held by nitrogen gas reaction jets and by the two hydraulically driven flaps, which took over as the air became thick enough to be useful.

One quantity that the analysis below needs is not published. The reference area of the SV-5D does not appear in the accessible record, so it is derived here from the X-24A, the same shape at larger scale. The X-24A’s conventional reference area is 162 square feet on a reference length of 23 feet and a reference span of 10 feet, in Falarski and Mort, and those are reference quantities rather than the vehicle’s outline. Its whole planform is 195.0 square feet against a length of 24.50 feet and a tip-to-tip span of 13.63 feet in Saltzman, Wang and Iliff, and the ratio of that area to the length-times-span box is

\[k_S = \frac{S_\text{X-24A}}{l\,b} = \frac{195.0}{24.50 \times 13.63} = 0.5839\]

and applying that ratio to the SV-5D’s own length and span gives

\[S = k_S\, l\, b = 0.5839 \times 2.032 \times 1.168 = 1.386\ \text{m}^2\]

or 14.9 square feet. McTigue gives the X-24A body 191 square feet against 24.5 and 13.5, which makes the ratio

\[\frac{191}{24.5 \times 13.5} = 0.5775\]

and the derived area 1.1 percent smaller. This is an assumption and every number that depends on it inherits that status. The crossrange result does not depend on it at all.

One check on the scaling fails, and the failure is informative. The two vehicles are in a linear ratio of

\[\frac{l_\text{SV-5D}}{l_\text{X-24A}} = \frac{2.032}{7.47} = 0.272\]

so if they were the same thing at different sizes their weights would stand as the cube of that, or 0.020. The X-24A weighed about 12,000 pounds at launch, in Reed, and about 5,500 pounds empty, in Cochrane and Graham, so the actual ratio is

\[\frac{894}{12{,}000} = 0.075, \qquad \frac{894}{5{,}500} = 0.163\]

Between nearly four and eight times what geometric scaling predicts. The reason is that the SV-5D is densely packed, its inboard profile filling the body with ballast, electronics, instrumentation, recovery gear and reaction controls beneath a bonded heat shield, in Vitelli and Hallion, while the X-24A is mostly enclosed volume with a pilot and a rocket engine inside it. Areas scale and contents do not. That difference makes the reference area derived above defensible where a weight derived the same way would not have been. Estimating what a vehicle will weigh, and knowing which parts of it obey a scaling law and which do not, is a methodical discipline, with a literature collected in the survey’s cluster on weight estimation and vehicle sizing.

Sizing From First Principles

The Force Balance That Makes a Glide an Equilibrium

A vehicle at orbital speed needs no lift, because the centrifugal effect of travelling that fast round a curved Earth supports it entirely. At rest it needs lift equal to its full weight. In between, an equilibrium glide is one that holds the difference.

Written out, the radial balance carries three terms rather than two, and the middle one is the effect the previous sentence names,

\[L\cos\phi + \frac{m V^2}{R} = W\]

Writing $\bar V = V/V_c$ for speed as a fraction of circular satellite speed, and $\phi$ for the angle through which the lift vector has been rolled away from vertical, and using $V_c^2 = gR$ to turn the centrifugal term into $W\bar V^2$, the balance collapses to

\[L\cos\phi = W\left(1 - \bar V^2\right)\]

which says that the lift a gliding vehicle needs is its weight less whatever its own speed is already carrying. At $\bar V = 1$ it needs none. At three quarters of circular speed it needs

\[1 - 0.75^2 = 0.4375\]

of its weight, and at entry, where $\bar V = 0.972$, it needs 0.056 of it. That entry speed, 25,200 feet per second, is assumed throughout, and the flight record below sets it against the speeds the record gives. The glide therefore begins almost unloaded, a fact that explains the deceleration figures further down.

The circular speed itself follows from equating gravitational and centripetal acceleration at the surface, giving

\[V_c = \sqrt{g R} = \sqrt{9.80665 \times 6.371\times 10^6} = 7{,}904\ \text{m/s}\]

which is 25,933 feet per second. The equilibrium glide is the reference trajectory of the subject, and the survey devotes a cluster to it under the equilibrium glide and analytic entry trajectories.

Why the Turn Rate Does Not Depend on the Atmosphere

Two further statements complete the mechanics. Drag decelerates the vehicle along its path, and the sideways component of the rolled lift vector turns it,

\[m\frac{dV}{dt} = -D, \qquad m V \frac{d\psi}{dt} = L\sin\phi\]

where $\psi$ is the heading. Dividing the second by the first eliminates time, and substituting the force balance eliminates the weight, leaving

\[\frac{d\psi}{dV} = -\frac{L}{D}\,\frac{\sin\phi}{V}\]

Every property of the vehicle except its lift-to-drag ratio has dropped out, and so has the atmosphere. Mass, size, reference area and air density are all gone. That is the reason this analysis can be done at all for a vehicle whose reference area is not published. Integrating from the entry speed gives

\[\psi(V) = \frac{L}{D}\sin\phi \, \ln\frac{V_e}{V}\]

The heading change is logarithmic in the speed ratio, which means the great majority of the turning happens late, when the vehicle is slow. None of this is original to this article. The equilibrium glide and the relations that follow from it are standard material, set out in Vinh’s treatment of atmospheric flight trajectories and in Regan and Anandakrishnan on re-entry dynamics. What is done here is to carry them through to a requirement and then to invert them on a measurement. At a lift-to-drag ratio of 1.2 and a bank of 45 degrees, slowing from circular speed to a quarter of it turns the vehicle through

\[\psi = 1.2 \times \sin 45^\circ \times \ln 4 = 1.176\ \text{rad} = 67.4^\circ\]

The Crossrange Integral

Crossrange accumulates at $\dot y = V\sin\psi$. The classical treatment replaces $\sin\psi$ by $\psi$ at this point, the substitution that makes a closed form available at all. That step is examined below and it turns out to cost about a tenth of the answer, but it is kept here because it is the step the period literature took and the closed form it produces is the relation the subject is built on. Dividing the lateral rate by the deceleration removes time here as well,

\[\frac{dy}{dV} = -\,\frac{V\psi\,(L/D)\cos\phi}{g\left(1-\bar V^2\right)}\]

and the substitution $u = \bar V^2$, for which

\[V = V_c\sqrt{u}, \qquad dV = \frac{V_c}{2\sqrt{u}}\,du, \qquad g = \frac{V_c^2}{R}\]

makes every factor of $V_c$ cancel, leaving

\[dy = -\frac{R}{2}\,\frac{L}{D}\cos\phi\,\frac{\psi\,du}{2\left(1-u\right)}\]

Substituting the heading solution, in which $\ln(V_e/V) = \tfrac{1}{2}\ln(u_e/u)$, turns the accumulated lateral distance into a single integral,

\[y = \frac{R}{4}\left(\frac{L}{D}\right)^2 \sin\phi\cos\phi \; I(u_e), \qquad I(u_e) = \int_0^{u_e} \frac{\ln(u_e/u)}{1-u}\,du\]

For entry at exactly circular speed the integral has a closed form, and deriving it is more instructive than quoting it. Expand the denominator as a geometric series,

\[\frac{1}{1-u} = \sum_{n\ge 0} u^n \qquad \text{for} \quad 0 \le u < 1\]

and integrate term by term. Each term is a standard integral,

\[\int_0^1 (-\ln u)\,u^n\,du = \frac{1}{(n+1)^2}\]

so the sum is over the reciprocal squares, which is the Basel series,

\[I(1) = \int_0^1 \frac{-\ln u}{1-u}\,du = \sum_{k\ge 1} \frac{1}{k^2} = \frac{\pi^2}{6} = 1.6449\]

A constant from elementary number theory turns up in the range of a re-entry vehicle. The coincidence arises in the integral and carries no information about spacecraft, but it is a pleasing one.

The Bank Angle Is Already Decided

The only free choice in the expression is $\phi$, and it appears as

\[\sin\phi\cos\phi = \tfrac{1}{2}\sin 2\phi\]

Differentiating and setting the result to zero gives the condition, and the second derivative confirms which kind of stationary point it is,

\[\frac{d}{d\phi}\left(\tfrac{1}{2}\sin 2\phi\right) = \cos 2\phi = 0, \qquad \frac{d^2}{d\phi^2} = -2\sin 2\phi = -2 < 0\]

so the stationary point is a maximum and it sits at

\[\phi_\text{opt} = 45^\circ, \qquad \sin\phi\cos\phi = \tfrac{1}{2}\]

This does not depend on the lift-to-drag ratio, on the entry speed, or on anything about the vehicle. Any vehicle wanting maximum crossrange banks 45 degrees, and the guidance system’s apparently central decision turns out to have been made in advance by the arithmetic.

Putting the optimum and the closed form together gives the governing relation of the subject,

\[\frac{y_\text{max}}{R} = \frac{\pi^2}{48}\left(\frac{L}{D}\right)^2 = 0.2056\left(\frac{L}{D}\right)^2\]

Crossrange goes as the square of the lift-to-drag ratio. Worked at a ratio of 1.2, for a vehicle entering at circular speed,

\[y_\text{max} = 0.2056 \times 1.2^2 \times 6.371\times 10^6 = 1.886\times 10^6\ \text{m} = 1{,}019\ \text{nmi}\]

and the same arithmetic gives 1,310 kilometres at a ratio of 1.0 and 2,568 at 1.4. A ballistic capsule at zero gets nothing. For it the capability is absent altogether, a difference of kind from a small value.

What the Small-Angle Step Costs

The closed form above was checked against a numerical integration that keeps $\sin\psi$ exactly, and the two disagree by more than a rounding error.

The reason is visible in the heading solution, which can be evaluated directly at the end of the glide. Taking that to be one percent of circular speed,

\[\psi_\text{end} = \frac{L}{D}\sin 45^\circ \ln\frac{V_e}{0.01\,V_c}\]

which gives 148 degrees at a ratio of 0.8, 185 degrees at 1.0, 222 at 1.2 and 260 at 1.4. Beyond 180 degrees $\sin\psi$ does not merely differ from $\psi$, it has the opposite sign. The approximation does not degrade gracefully. It inverts.

The exact treatment makes a related point precise. Lateral displacement accumulates as $\dot y = V\sin\psi$, so it stops accumulating exactly where the heading passes half a turn,

\[\sin\psi = 0 \quad \Longrightarrow \quad \psi = 180^\circ, \qquad V_{180} = V_e\exp\left(-\frac{\pi}{(L/D)\sin\phi}\right)\]

At a ratio of 1.2 that speed is 189 metres per second, reached very near the end of the flight. Crossrange is therefore maximised at the moment the vehicle finishes turning round, and everything after that is spent flying back toward the plane it started in.

Lift-to-drag ratio	Closed form	Exact	Over-prediction
0.8	838 km	797 km	5.2 percent
1.0	1,310 km	1,214 km	7.9 percent
1.2	1,886 km	1,696 km	11.2 percent
1.4	2,568 km	2,233 km	15.0 percent

The classical relation is optimistic, and increasingly so as the lift-to-drag ratio rises, because a better gliding vehicle turns further and the approximation is worse the further it turns. Both numbers are given from here on.

That table hides a physical statement. A vehicle holding 45 degrees of bank through a full lifting entry turns through half a circle. It arrives pointing the way it came. Real entry guidance reverses the bank part way through for this reason, and the Space Shuttle flew a series of such roll reversals, in the encyclopaedia entry on the Space Shuttle. The constant-bank assumption that makes the mathematics tractable is not a trajectory anyone would fly.

The Requirement

Now the other half. How much crossrange does a returning vehicle need?

Successive orbits do not retrace the same ground. The Earth turns underneath, so each pass lays its track to the west of the last by the rotation accumulated in one orbital period. The rate wanted here is the rotation relative to the fixed stars, because the orbit plane is fixed in that frame and not in the one that tracks the Sun,

\[\omega_E = \frac{2\pi}{86{,}164\ \text{s}} = 7.292\times 10^{-5}\ \text{rad/s}\]

Using the solar day of 86,400 seconds instead would overstate the interval by 0.27 percent, which is small but is an avoidable error. The track spacing in longitude is then

\[\Delta\lambda = \omega_E T = 7.292\times 10^{-5} \times 5400 = 0.3937\ \text{rad} = 22.56^\circ\]

for a nominal ninety-minute low orbit. The geometry of ground tracks, and of the orbits that lay them down, is standard astrodynamics, in Bosanquet 1958, Ambrosio et al 1961, Musen and Squires 1965, Alderson 1967, Endres 1967, Mullins 1981, Teles 1989, Shapiro and Bhat 1993, Shapiro et al 1993, Shapiro 1994, Bettner 1995. At the equator that is a ground distance of

\[d = R\,\Delta\lambda = 6.371\times 10^6 \times 0.3937 = 2{,}509\ \text{km}\]

An arbitrary landing site lies somewhere between two adjacent tracks, so it is at most half that distance from the nearer one. And those two tracks are consecutive in time. The requirement to reach a chosen site on one pass or the next is therefore

\[y_\text{req} = \tfrac{1}{2} R\,\Delta\lambda = 1{,}254\ \text{km}\]

The Answer

Inverting the crossrange relation on that requirement gives the lift-to-drag ratio a returning vehicle must have,

\[\frac{L}{D} = \sqrt{\frac{y_\text{req}/R}{\pi^2/48}} = \sqrt{\frac{0.1968}{0.2056}} = 0.978\]

Solving the same requirement against the exact integration instead, which cannot be done in closed form and has to be bisected, gives

\[\left(\frac{L}{D}\right)_\text{exact} = 1.018\]

The correction moves the answer toward unity, a fortunate accident that argues for neither number. Both are reported because the first is what the period could compute and the second is what is true.

A lift-to-drag ratio near unity is not a round number chosen for convenience. It is the threshold at which a spacecraft stops being a passenger of its orbit and starts being able to come home when it wants to. Below it the vehicle waits for the ground track to come back, which for a general orbit means a day or more and may mean never. At it, the longest wait is one orbit.

The requirement falls at higher latitudes, because the tracks crowd together as the meridians converge. The spacing carries a cosine, so the required ratio carries its square root,

\[y_\text{req}(\varphi) = \tfrac{1}{2} R\,\Delta\lambda\cos\varphi, \qquad \left(\frac{L}{D}\right)_\text{req}(\varphi) = \left(\frac{L}{D}\right)_\text{req}(0)\sqrt{\cos\varphi}\]

At 28.5 degrees that is 0.917, at Vandenberg’s 34.7 degrees it is 0.887, and at 45 degrees it is 0.823. The hardest case is the equator, and a vehicle sized for the equator is sized for everywhere.

What the Flight Record Says About a Disputed Number

The sources do not agree on this vehicle’s hypersonic lift-to-drag ratio. One gives 1.0, in the encyclopaedia entry, and another gives 1.2 for the SV-5 shape, in Vitelli and Hallion.

As ratios those differ by twenty percent, which sounds tolerable. They do not differ by twenty percent in the quantity this article is about, because crossrange goes as the square,

\[\frac{y(1.2)}{y(1.0)} = \left(\frac{1.2}{1.0}\right)^2 = 1.44\]

A twenty percent disagreement about the vehicle is a forty-four percent disagreement about what it can do, and it cannot be waved away.

It can, however, be attacked, because two facts about the third flight are independently known and both are consequences of the same trajectory. The vehicle achieved 1,143 kilometres of crossrange, and it flew from Vandenberg Air Force Base to a recovery area near Kwajalein, in Vitelli and Hallion, a great-circle distance of

\[d = 2R\arcsin\sqrt{\sin^2\frac{\Delta\varphi}{2} + \cos\varphi_1\cos\varphi_2\sin^2\frac{\Delta\lambda}{2}} = 7{,}787\ \text{km}\]

The equilibrium glide gives a downrange to go with the crossrange, and it comes from the same two statements. Distance along the path accumulates at $\dot x = V$, and dividing by the deceleration gives

\[\frac{dx}{dV} = -\frac{V\,(L/D)\cos\phi}{g\left(1-u\right)}\]

Applying the same substitution as before, every factor of $V_c$ again cancels and the integrand becomes elementary,

\[dx = -\frac{R}{2}\,\frac{L}{D}\cos\phi\,\frac{du}{1-u}\]

which integrates directly to

\[x = \frac{L}{D}\cos\phi \;\frac{R}{2}\ln\frac{1}{1-u_e}\]

Downrange is linear in the lift-to-drag ratio where crossrange is quadratic in it, which is the reason the two together determine both unknowns. Banking to gain crossrange costs downrange as $\cos\phi$, so at the optimum the vehicle gives up

\[1 - \cos 45^\circ = 0.293\]

or twenty-nine percent of the distance it could have flown straight ahead.

Two equations, two unknowns. Writing $A$ and $B$ for the two geometric factors, the pair is $\;(L/D)\cos\phi = x/A\;$ and $\;(L/D)^2\sin\phi\cos\phi = y/B$, and dividing one by the square of the other gives the bank angle without needing the lift-to-drag ratio first,

\[\tan\phi = \frac{y/B}{(x/A)^2}, \qquad \frac{L}{D} = \frac{x/A}{\cos\phi}\]

Assuming a bank angle of 45 degrees and recovering 45.13 looks like a confirmation and is nothing of the kind. A check that assumes the bank angle feeds the assumed lift-to-drag ratio of 1.2 straight back in. A suspiciously clean agreement is the signal that such a check is circular, so the solution here assumes neither quantity and solves for both.

The glide does not begin at the launch pad. The Atlas covers part of that great circle before entry interface, and the table varies that boost range so that its effect is visible. The pair is solved twice, once with the closed form and once against the exact integration.

Boost range before entry	Bank, closed form	Ratio, closed form	Bank, exact	Ratio, exact
0 km	35.1 degrees	1.035	37.0 degrees	1.060
500 km	38.8 degrees	1.016	41.0 degrees	1.050
1,000 km	42.8 degrees	1.006	45.5 degrees	1.052
1,500 km	47.2 degrees	1.006	50.3 degrees	1.070
2,000 km	51.9 degrees	1.019	55.5 degrees	1.111
2,500 km	56.8 degrees	1.049	60.9 degrees	1.183

Each solve carries its own bank angle, because the two models do not agree on what bank produces a given crossrange and pairing one model’s ratio with the other’s angle would be meaningless.

The bank angle swings through twenty-four degrees and the lift-to-drag ratio moves very little. Across the range of boost distances in the table the exact solution stays between 1.05 and 1.18. The flight record determines one of the two unknowns much better than the other. That uneven result is more useful than a single number would have been.

The result sits between the two disputed figures and is nearer the lower one. Flying the exact model at a ratio of 1.0 produces 1,043 kilometres against the 1,143 demonstrated, an under-prediction of 8.8 percent. Flying it at 1.2 produces 1,453 kilometres, an over-prediction of 27 percent,

\[\frac{1{,}042.7}{1{,}143} - 1 = -8.8\%, \qquad \frac{1{,}452.9}{1{,}143} - 1 = +27\%\]

Neither published figure reproduces the flight and the truth is in between, somewhere near 1.05 to 1.10.

The point needs plain statement, because the closed form alone appears to vindicate the 1.0 figure to within one percent, and removing the approximation takes that vindication away and replaces it with a value that neither source gives.

It does not settle the conflict and this article does not claim that it does. Several readings survive. If 1,143 kilometres was the vehicle’s maximum capability, the solution above is a measurement and both published figures are somewhat wrong. If it was a demanded value below capability, the solution is a lower bound and the 1.2 figure survives comfortably while 1.0 does not. There is also a reading in which both sources are right about different things, with 1.2 the maximum trimmed ratio the shape can reach and 1.0 a nominal or rounded value, since nothing obliges a vehicle to fly at its best lift-to-drag ratio. The record bears on the second reading. The third flight was planned as the maximum crossrange trajectory, yet Vitelli and Hallion record that the fourth was to reach about 790 nautical miles by flying a lower angle of attack and a steeper bank, so the third flight’s crossrange was the most the vehicle reached at the attitude it flew, short of the shape’s ceiling. A lift-to-drag ratio inferred from it describes that attitude rather than the shape’s maximum.

The two disputed figures do not have equal standing. The 1.2 is Martin’s design figure for the SV-5 shape, quoted above. The 1.0 appears in the encyclopaedia entry, which gives no source for it. Martin’s claim of 1,000 miles at 1.2 is itself consistent with the relation derived here, since the exact integration from circular speed at 1.2 gives 1,696 kilometres, which is

\[\frac{1{,}696}{1.609} = 1{,}054\ \text{statute miles}\]

The record fixes the boost range, and the pair solve does not survive it. The chart of the maximum crossrange ground track that accompanies the third flight’s account, figure 19 in Vitelli and Hallion’s history of the project, marks re-entry at 400,000 feet, 26,808 feet per second and a flight path angle of 2.03 degrees, 1,360 nautical miles from launch, which is

\[1{,}360 \times 1.852 = 2{,}518.7\ \text{km}\]

just beyond the last row of the table. Solved exactly at that boost range, the pair gives a bank of 61.1 degrees and a lift-to-drag ratio of 1.187. The record contradicts that bank angle. The second flight was programmed to hold a constant bank of 46 degrees through re-entry until terminal guidance began, and a memorandum of May 1967 proposing the fourth flight describes its planned 47 degrees as higher than the 39 degrees previously flown, both in Vitelli and Hallion. The downrange relation is the weak half of the pair. It grows without bound as the entry speed approaches circular, through the factor $\ln(1/(1-u_e))$, and the documented entry speed lies above the circular speed the model uses,

\[u_e = \left(\frac{26{,}808}{25{,}933}\right)^2 = 1.069 > 1\]

where the relation has no finite value at all. The pair solve therefore depends on the assumed entry speed, and the record’s bank angles show that it does not describe the flight.

The crossrange alone, at a documented bank, is the firmer inversion. Holding the bank fixed removes the downrange from the problem. At the second flight’s 46 degrees, the exact integration needs a lift-to-drag ratio of 1.007 to reach the 654 miles, or 1,052.5 kilometres, that the narrative gives for that flight. The third flight’s bank is not stated, and at either 39 or 46 degrees its 710 miles, 1,142.6 kilometres, need 1.053,

\[y_\text{exact}\left(1.007,\ 46^\circ\right) = 1{,}052.5\ \text{km}, \qquad y_\text{exact}\left(1.053,\ 46^\circ\right) = 1{,}142.6\ \text{km}\]

The programme’s own curve sits close to these values. Figure 20 of the same history, presented among the quantities analysed from the flights, plots the SV-5D’s trimmed hypersonic lift-to-drag ratio against angle of attack. Read from the figure, it rises to a maximum of about 1.1 near 20 degrees at 200,000 feet, against about 1.4 for the inviscid estimate, and falls to about 0.9 at 35 degrees, the angle of attack that the fourth-flight memorandum gives for the flights already flown. The inversions, 1.007 and 1.053, lie between the curve’s value at the flown angle of attack and its maximum, and Martin’s 1.2 lies above the viscous curve everywhere.

The record also disagrees with itself about the crossranges. The narrative in Vitelli and Hallion gives 654 miles for the second flight and more than 710 miles for the third, and Heppenheimer also gives 710 miles for the third. This article uses that reading. The same history’s summary table gives 499 and more than 710 nautical miles instead. Read as nautical miles, the third flight’s crossrange is

\[710 \times 1.852 = 1{,}314.9\ \text{km}\]

and the inversion at a documented bank gives 1.14 rather than 1.05, while the second flight’s 499 nautical miles, 924.1 kilometres, give 0.94 at 46 degrees. The two figures for the second flight cannot be one distance in two units, since 654 statute miles is 568.3 nautical miles.

What can be said without qualification is narrower and firmer. The vehicle’s effective lift-to-drag ratio through the manoeuvring phase of the third flight was close to one, it was not close to zero, and a ballistic vehicle on the same trajectory would have landed 1,143 kilometres from where this one did.

Dependent Systems

The Shape

A lifting body generates its lift with its body instead of with wings. For a re-entry vehicle this is not an aesthetic choice. A wing is thin, and thin things have small radii, and small radii get hot. The survey’s cluster on stagnation-point, convective and radiative heating treats that problem. Removing the wing removes the worst heating problem and the structure that would have to survive it, at the cost of a lift-to-drag ratio that a winged vehicle would consider a failure.

The lifting-body shapes the SV-5 belongs to were worked out through the late 1950s and early 1960s, the SV-5D lying between the cone-like M2 and the modified delta HL-10, in Hallion, and their aerodynamics are documented in the survey’s clusters on lifting bodies and on hypersonic aerodynamics. Holding such a shape at a chosen attitude through the whole speed range is a separate subject, in Magnus A Haw and Sebastian V Colom, Nonweiler 1959, Arabian 1960, Demetriades 1960, Kaufman 1963, Kaufman and Louis G. 1963, Kaufman and Louis G. 1963, Whitfield and Wolny 1963, Flight Sciences Lab Inc Buffalo Ny 1964, Kaufman and Louis G. 1964, Meckler 1964, Meckler 1965, Walchner and Clay 1965, Kyriss and Rie 1967, Pottsepp and Shi 1968, Walchner 1974, Compton et al 1983, Markopoulos and Mease 1990, Tarpley and Lewis 1993, Brauckmann et al 1995, Reed 1997, Nydick and Friedmann 1999, Bowersox and Fan 2000, Groves et al 2005, Stueber et al 2009.

Thermal Protection

The equilibrium glide fixes the density at every speed, because the force balance demands it. Rearranging,

\[\rho = \frac{2\beta_L(1-u)}{V^2\cos\phi}, \qquad \beta_L = \frac{W}{S\,C_L}\]

so the heating history follows from the trajectory and leaves the designer no choice. The companion quantity is the ballistic coefficient, the same construction on the drag side,

\[\beta = \frac{W}{S\,C_D}\]

and the two stand in a fixed ratio, and that ratio offers a useful consistency check on the assumed coefficients,

\[\frac{\beta}{\beta_L} = \frac{C_L}{C_D} = \frac{L}{D}\]

With the derived reference area and an assumed hypersonic drag coefficient of unity,

\[\beta = \frac{3{,}977}{1.386 \times 1.0} = 2{,}869\ \text{N/m}^2 = 60\ \text{lb/ft}^2\]

and the lift parameter is 2,391 newtons per square metre. That is a low ballistic coefficient, and low is what a research vehicle wants, because it decelerates high up where the air is thin. The quantity is the single most compressed description of an entry vehicle there is, and the period literature treats it as such, in Scherberg and Rubin 1953, Schweppe 1964, Chen 1965, Schoenenberger et al 2005.

Stagnation-point heat flux at a blunt nose is one of the most heavily worked correlations in the subject, and the accumulated body of it is Eggers et al 1958, Goulard 1961, Kivel 1961, Scala 1961, Wittliff and Wilson 1961, Scala 1962, Chow 1963, Fay and Kemp 1963, Rose and Stankevics 1963, Reilly 1964, Horton and Zeh 1966, Tokuda and Yang 1966, Derienzo and Pallone 1967, Derienzo and Pallone 1967, Anderson 1968, Vidal 1974, Bade 1975, Nomura 1983, Gupta et al 1992. The form used here is that of Sutton and Graves,

\[\dot q_s = k\sqrt{\frac{\rho}{R_n}}\,V^3, \qquad k = 1.7415\times 10^{-4}\]

in metric units for air, with the density in kilogrammes per cubic metre, the nose radius in metres and the speed in metres per second. Substituting the glide density collapses the speed dependence. Since $\rho \propto (1-u)/V^2$, the square root carries $\sqrt{(1-u)/u}$ and the cube carries $u^{3/2}$, so

\[\dot q_s \propto \sqrt{\frac{1-u}{u}}\;u^{3/2} = u\sqrt{1-u}\]

Maximising is easiest on the square, whose derivative is a quadratic,

\[\frac{d}{du}\left[u^2(1-u)\right] = 2u - 3u^2 = 0 \quad \Longrightarrow \quad u = \tfrac{2}{3}\]

so the worst heating happens at

\[u = \tfrac{2}{3}, \qquad V = 0.8165\,V_c = 6{,}454\ \text{m/s}\]

In the equilibrium glide, peak heating is at eighty-two percent of circular speed regardless of the vehicle, because every property of it cancelled on the way to that quadratic.

The density there follows from the glide balance,

\[\rho = \frac{2 \times 2{,}391 \times \tfrac{1}{3}}{6{,}454^2 \times \cos 45^\circ} = 5.41\times 10^{-5}\ \text{kg/m}^3\]

and with an assumed nose radius of 0.1 metres the peak is

\[\dot q_{s,\text{max}} = 1.7415\times 10^{-4}\sqrt{\frac{5.41\times 10^{-5}}{0.1}}\,\left(6{,}454\right)^3 = 109\ \text{W/cm}^2\]

which is modest by the standards of a ballistic capsule and sustained for far longer.

That figure comes from the model glide and does not hold for the flight. The programme’s computed trajectory for a 700 nautical mile crossrange, figure 21 of Vitelli and Hallion’s history of the project, is not an equilibrium glide. Read from the figure, its altitude oscillates through several cycles over about 1,200 seconds, and its stagnation heating rate peaks above 480 British thermal units per square foot per second in the first dip, about 200 seconds after entry, which is

\[480 \times 1.1357 = 545\ \text{W/cm}^2\]

or five times the equilibrium value. The same history notes that the heat flux on the small PRIME vehicles was considerably more extreme than larger operational vehicles would meet.

That correlation omits radiation, and the omission is deliberate. Shock-layer radiation becomes a significant part of the heat load only above roughly ten kilometres per second, the regime of a lunar or interplanetary return. An orbital return stays below it. PRIME entered at 8.2 kilometres per second, the 26,808 feet per second of the programme’s ground-track chart in Vitelli and Hallion, so the radiative term is small and the convective correlation carries the analysis. At Apollo’s entry speed it would not, and the literature of that regime is Christopher O Johnston, Yoshikawa and Wick 1961, Koh 1962, Nerem and Stickford 1964, Cooper 1966, Cooper 1966, Analytical, experimental, and developmental 1967, Bloor 1967, Engel and Spradley 1968, Liu 1968, Olstad 1969, Biberman et al 1972, Golovachev 1972, Page and Woodward 1972, Edquist 1974, Sutton 1976, Golovachev 1979, Nelson 1980, Nelson 1983.

The altitude of the peak follows from the density. No altitude quoted here was measured. Each comes from a model of the atmosphere, and the modelling of atmospheric density and its scale height has a long and careful literature, which the survey collects in its cluster on the atmosphere that entry is computed against. Inverting an exponential atmosphere of scale height 7,160 metres,

\[h = -H\ln\frac{\rho}{\rho_0} = -7{,}160\ln\left(4.42\times 10^{-5}\right) = 71.8\ \text{km}\]

or about 236,000 feet. The vehicle takes its worst heating some seventy kilometres up and never comes near the speeds involved again. Integrating the flux over the glide, using $dt = -(L/D)\cos\phi\,dV/(g(1-u))$, gives a closed form,

\[Q = k\,\frac{L}{D}\sqrt{\cos\phi}\sqrt{\frac{2\beta_L}{R_n}}\frac{V_c^3}{g}\cdot\frac{\arcsin a - a\sqrt{1-a^2}}{2}\]

with $a = \sqrt{u_e}$, evaluating to 107 kilojoules per square centimetre. The same integral gives the duration,

\[t = \frac{L}{D}\cos\phi\,\frac{V_c}{g}\,\text{artanh}\,\sqrt{u_e} = 1{,}452\ \text{s}\]

Twenty-four minutes. That is the price of using the lift.

A heat shield’s thickness and a heat load together imply an effective heat of ablation,

\[H_\text{eff} = \frac{Q}{\rho_\text{abl}\,t_\text{abl}}\]

At the thick end of the encyclopaedia’s range, 2.75 inches at an assumed charring-ablator density of 550 kilograms per cubic metre, the model’s heat load gives an areal mass and a heat of ablation of

\[\rho_\text{abl}t_\text{abl} = 550 \times 0.0699 = 38.4\ \text{kg/m}^2, \qquad H_\text{eff} = \frac{1.067\times 10^9}{38.4} = 27.8\ \text{MJ/kg}\]

and at the thin end, 0.75 inches, it gives 102 megajoules per kilogram. The primary record does not allow this to serve as a check. The one heat load the programme states appears in Vitelli and Hallion as a stagnation heat load of 7,000 British thermal units per square foot, planned for the fourth flight’s harsher entry, which is

\[7{,}000 \times 11{,}357 = 7.95\times 10^7\ \text{J/m}^2 = 7.95\ \text{kJ/cm}^2\]

one thirteenth of the model’s figure. It is also hard to reconcile with the same history’s figure 21, whose heating rate, read from the figure, stays above 160 British thermal units per square foot per second for more than 300 seconds in all, so that

\[160 \times 300 = 48{,}000\ \text{BTU/ft}^2\]

is a floor under the load that curve implies. The history also says the shield was conservative, since the SV-5D’s shield could be redesigned for the same environment with substantial reductions in thickness and weight, and that its task was to hold the aluminium to 400 degrees Fahrenheit. The thickness was set by insulation and margin rather than by the heat load, so dividing a heat load by it measures neither the material nor the heating, and the two thicknesses cannot be assigned to the stagnation region and to lightly heated surfaces on this arithmetic.

The survey’s cluster on ablation and thermal protection covers the materials, running from the thermal protection of the Apollo command module in Curry et al 1966 and the flight test of its heat shield material on the Pacemaker vehicle in Graves and Witte 1968 to thermal protection materials for re-entry in Johnson et al 2001. The ablation physics is in the same cluster, and the flow conditions that set the heating, such as the real gas effects of hypersonic flow over blunt bodies in Nagamatsu et al 1960 and the laminar boundary layer of dissociated air in Beckwith and Cohen 1963, are in the cluster on hypersonic aerodynamics, flow fields and the boundary layer.

Control

The vehicle’s guidance task through the glide was to hold a bank angle. Vitelli and Hallion report that the second flight was programmed to hold 46 degrees from re-entry until terminal guidance began, one degree from the optimum derived above, and that a ground-based terminal guidance system then steered toward the recovery point. The derivation above explains why the glide law could be that simple. Attitude was held by nitrogen reaction jets at high altitude and by flaps once the dynamic pressure was sufficient, as the description of the vehicle above records, and the reaction-jet literature of the period, such as the performance of low-thrust cold-gas jets in a vacuum in Greer and Griep 1967, falls within the survey’s cluster on reaction control, attitude control and control surfaces. The guidance methods of the era, surveyed at the time in Wingrove 1963, and the entry guidance later flown by the Shuttle, in Harpold and Graves 1978, appear in the clusters on entry guidance and on the Space Shuttle orbiter, and the question of what ground the vehicle could reach, treated for orbital lifting re-entry vehicles in Stern and Chu 1964, is the subject of the cluster on crossrange, lateral range and the entry footprint.

Deceleration

The same balance that sets the density sets the deceleration. In equilibrium glide it is

\[\frac{a}{g} = \frac{1-u}{(L/D)\cos\phi}\]

which is smallest at the beginning and greatest at the end. At entry, where $u = 0.944$, it is

\[\frac{a}{g} = \frac{1 - 0.944}{1.2\cos 45^\circ} = 0.066\]

so the vehicle barely feels the atmosphere at first, and by the end of the glide it has risen only to

\[\frac{a}{g} = \frac{1}{1.2\cos 45^\circ} = 1.18\]

The entire lifting entry is gentler than standing up. The same entry flown ballistically, from the 26,808 feet per second and 2.03 degree flight path angle at 400,000 feet that the programme’s ground-track chart gives, in Vitelli and Hallion, yields the Allen and Eggers result

\[a_\text{max} = \frac{V_e^2\sin\gamma_e}{2eH} = \frac{\left(8{,}171\right)^2\sin 2.03^\circ}{2e \times 7{,}160} = 60.8\ \text{m/s}^2 = 6.20\ g\]

where $H$ is the atmospheric scale height. The unlifted case is no strawman, since ballistic warheads and the first capsules came back that way, and it has a large literature, collected in the survey’s cluster on capsules and ballistic entry, from which the lifting case is the departure. The ratio is

\[\frac{6.20}{1.18} = 5.25\]

A factor of about five. The lift purchases a far gentler deceleration as well as crossrange, and for the piloted vehicles that this programme was clearing the way for, that was the more immediately valuable of the two.

Recovery as Data Return

A vehicle that measures something and then sinks has measured nothing that cannot be telemetered. The recovery system is therefore instrumentation, and twice it was the part of PRIME that failed.

The sequence in Vitelli and Hallion was a drogue ballute at about Mach 2 and 100,000 feet, then the main parachute at 45,000 to 50,000 feet, then mid-air retrieval by a JC-130B at about 10,000 feet, using the technique already in service for returning film capsules. The encyclopaedia entry gives the main parachute as 47 feet across, while the parachute drawing in the official history, its figure 17, marks a dimension of 32 feet labelled $D_p$.

On the first flight the ballute deployed at 99,850 feet, or 30.4 kilometres, in Vitelli and Hallion, where the speed of sound follows from the local temperature,

\[a = \sqrt{\gamma R_\text{air} T} = \sqrt{1.4 \times 287 \times 226.5} = 302\ \text{m/s}\]

so Mach 2 is 603 metres per second and the fabric has to be opened against a load that the supersonic-decelerator literature exists to predict, in Alejandro Pensado et al, Modeling and Simulation of the Dr, Alejandro R Pensado et al, Evan Roelke and Justin Green, Evan Roelke et al, Advanced Supersonic Parachute Inf, F Cadieux and M Barad, Francois Cadieux and Michael F Barad, Fluid-Structure Interaction Simul, Francois Cadieux and Michael F Barad, Supersonic Parachute Inflation Si, Francois Cadieux et al, Jonathan Boustani et al, Sims 1963, Heinrich 1966, McEwan 1970, Poole 1973, Brinkman 1992, Gnoffo and Anderson 2002, Cruz et al 2003, Miller et al 2003,

\[q = \tfrac{1}{2}\rho V^2 = \tfrac{1}{2} \times 0.0184 \times 603^2 = 3{,}350\ \text{Pa} = 70\ \text{lb/ft}^2\]

That is a mild load by supersonic-decelerator standards, and keeping it mild is the point of deploying that high and that late.

The recovery parachute’s area follows from its diameter,

\[S_p = \frac{\pi D^2}{4} = \frac{\pi \times 14.33^2}{4} = 161\ \text{m}^2\]

and under it the vehicle descends at

\[V_d = \sqrt{\frac{2W}{\rho\,C_D S_p}} = \sqrt{\frac{2 \times 3{,}977}{1.225 \times 0.75 \times 161}} = 7.33\ \text{m/s}\]

or 24 feet per second at sea level. The recovery sequence in Vitelli and Hallion specifies 25 feet per second at 10,000 feet, where the standard atmosphere’s density is 0.9046 kilograms per cubic metre, and there the same relation gives

\[V_d = 7.33\sqrt{\frac{1.225}{0.9046}} = 8.53\ \text{m/s} = 28.0\ \text{ft/s}\]

so the specified rate needs a drag coefficient of

\[C_D = 0.75\left(\frac{28.0}{25}\right)^2 = 0.94\]

on a 47 foot canopy, against the 0.75 assumed. The literature of that technique is Braun 1953, Downing et al 1956, French 1965, French 1966, Jamison 1966, Eckstrom and Preisser 1967, Jamison 1967, Neustadt et al 1967, Preisser et al 1967, Cassanto et al 1968, Brearley 1969, Chakoian 1969, Goodrick 1969, Pepper and Cronin 1969, Eckstrom 1970, Michal et al 1970, Wolf 1971, Pearson 1972, Pepper and Biesterveld 1973, Whitlock et al 1973, Wei and Pearson 1974, Fu and Koch 1977, Pepper 1980, Roberts 1980, Schatzle and Curry 1980, Pepper and Collins 1982, High Drag Rotating Parachute Developed and Tested 1985, Knacke 1985, Yavuz 1985, Sengupta et al 2009.

The Flight Test Record

Four vehicles were built and three flew, launched by SLV-3 Atlas boosters from Space Launch Complex 3 East at Vandenberg, in the NASA inventory of American X-vehicles and in Vitelli and Hallion. The fourth completed its checkout, and its flight was cancelled on 12 May 1967 because the third had met every objective.

Flight	Date	Crossrange flown	Miss distance	Outcome
PRIME 1	21 December 1966	zero	0.15 nmi	Main parachute never left its container. Vehicle lost in the Pacific.
PRIME 2	5 March 1967	654 miles, 1,053 km	1.91 nmi	Line cutters installed without charges. Catch not attempted, vehicle sank.
PRIME 3	19 April 1967	more than 710 miles, 1,143 km	4.27 nmi	Terminal guidance radar inoperative. Caught in mid-air at 12,000 ft.

The dates, crossranges and miss distances are those of Vitelli and Hallion, whose summary table gives the crossranges as 499 and more than 710 nautical miles instead, the disagreement discussed above.

The programme’s three flights were a failure, a failure and a success, and what failed needs to be stated precisely. In neither of the first two cases did the vehicle fail to fly the entry. Both flew their profiles and both telemetered, and the telemetry recovered on the three flights was 91.2, 99.3 and 99.5 percent. What failed was the recovery chain, twice, in two different components. On the first flight the ballute deployed about 4,300 miles downrange and within 900 feet of the preselected point, but the main parachute was never pulled from its container, and a premature power shutdown had already disabled the flaps. On the second the explosive line cutters had been installed without their charges, a human error, so the vehicle hung nose down from three points instead of one and the aircraft did not attempt the catch. The third flight demonstrated the largest crossrange of the three and was the one that came back, and post-flight tests found it capable of flying again, all in Vitelli and Hallion.

The record does not agree on how fast PRIME flew. Reed gives 14,900 miles an hour, Hallion 24,000 kilometres an hour, the inventory of X-vehicles about 16,500 miles an hour at re-entry, and Heppenheimer a peak above 17,000. The programme’s ground-track chart in Vitelli and Hallion gives 26,808 feet per second at 400,000 feet on the third flight. The quoted values span

\[14{,}900\ \text{mph} = 21{,}853\ \text{ft/s}, \qquad 26{,}808\ \text{ft/s} = 18{,}278\ \text{mph}\]

and the 25,200 feet per second assumed for the model lies inside that span. The sources do not say at what point of the flight the lower figures apply.

The vehicle that flew PRIME 3 is at the National Museum of the United States Air Force.

Comparison With Ground Prediction

The equilibrium-glide model in this article is what could be computed with a slide rule in 1964, and this section sets out how well it does. The comparison is only meaningful against what the period knew, and the body of work it knew is large, since 581 of the survey’s research records were published in 1967 or earlier.

Quantity	Model	Flight
Crossrange at a lift-to-drag ratio of 1.0, closed form	1,133 km	1,143 km
Crossrange at a lift-to-drag ratio of 1.0, exact	1,043 km	1,143 km
Crossrange at a lift-to-drag ratio of 1.2, exact	1,453 km	1,143 km
Downrange at the solved bank angle	7,787 km by construction	Vandenberg to Kwajalein
Bank angle at the documented boost range	61.1 degrees	46 degrees on flight 2, 39 degrees reported as flown
Lift-to-drag ratio at a documented bank	1.007 and 1.053	about 1.1 at most, about 0.9 at the flown 35 degrees
Peak deceleration	1.18 g	not published in the accessible record
Peak stagnation heating	109 W/cm²	above 545 W/cm² in the programme’s computed trajectory
Glide duration	24.2 min	about 20 min in the programme’s computed trajectory

The closed form is good to one percent at the lower of the two disputed lift-to-drag ratios, and that agreement is an accident of two errors cancelling. The small-angle step over-predicts by eight percent and the assumed ratio is low by about the same, so the product comes out right for the wrong reason. Removing the approximation removes the coincidence and leaves the flight sitting between the two published figures.

Here the lesson concerns method more than the vehicle. A model that agrees with a measurement to one percent is not thereby correct, and the way to find out is to improve the model and see whether the agreement survives. Here it did not.

The comparison is weaker than it looks in one respect that must be said. PRIME entered at a shallow 2.03 degrees but above circular speed, and the programme’s computed trajectory dips deep and then oscillates through several cycles of altitude rather than settling into an equilibrium glide, in figures 19 and 21 of Vitelli and Hallion. The model describes the mission being simulated more faithfully than the trajectory flown.

What the Data Changed

PRIME fed the X-24A directly. The same shape, at larger scale and with a pilot, first flew at Edwards on 17 April 1969, in the inventory of X-vehicles, and McTigue describes the X-24A as having evolved from the SV-5 PRIME vehicle. Vitelli and Hallion state that the SV-5D’s external shape was held rigorously to the SV-5 configuration so that its data would serve larger vehicles. Between them the two programmes flew the one shape from Mach 24 to Mach 2.0 and from Mach 1.6 to landing, in Reed, though the fourth-flight memorandum puts the end of PRIME’s flights at Mach 2.4. The vehicles that followed, and the manned entry programmes this one was clearing ground for, are Driscoll et al 1966, Mueller et al 1967, Minott et al 1976, Duggan 1977, Space Shuttle maiden 1979, Waldrop 1980, Grooms et al 1984, Joosten 1985, Logsdon 1986, Space shuttle log 1986, Space shuttle flight rates 1987, Space shuttle flight rates and ut, Space shuttle setback 1987, Space shuttle setback, Brookfield et al 1989, Whitesides et al 1990, Ware et al 1991, Cruz and Ware 1992, Sawko and Goldstein 1992, Iliff and Shafer 1993, Pielke 1993, Ware and Cruz 1993, Pielke 1994, Chaudhary et al 2001, Straube et al 2002, McCluskey 2004.

The larger consequence is the Space Shuttle’s crossrange requirement, and the arithmetic connects the two. The requirement, the entry it drove, and the guidance built to fly it are documented at length, in Adams 1971, Dejarnette and Jones 1971, Deyst et al 1971, Deyst et al 1971, Deyst et al 1972, McGlathery 1973, Space shuttle guidance, navigation 1973, Stolarski et al 1974, Kriegsman and Tao 1975, Ramnath and Sinha 1975, Jeffs 1979, Emero 1980, Park and Rakich 1980, Rowell et al 1980, Iliff et al 1981, Compton et al 1982, Fraser 1983, Kanipe 1983, Romere and Young 1983, Romere et al 1983, Bayle 1984, Campbell et al 1989, Rosello 1995, Restrepo and Valasek 2006, Campbell 2007, Wood and Alter 2008. The Shuttle was required to achieve 1,100 nautical miles of crossrange, a figure that came from the Air Force and was driven by a once-around polar mission returning to its launch site, in Heppenheimer’s history of the Space Shuttle decision, who gives the reason in the same terms, that after one orbit from Vandenberg the base has moved 1,100 nautical miles to the east. The launch site moves with the Earth, so in one orbit it displaces by the full track spacing at its own latitude rather than half of it,

\[d_\text{VAFB} = R\,\Delta\lambda\cos\varphi = 6.371\times 10^6 \times 0.3937 \times \cos 34.74^\circ = 2{,}061\ \text{km}\]

against a stated requirement of 1,100 nautical miles, which is 2,037 kilometres. The agreement is

\[\frac{2{,}061 - 2{,}037}{2{,}037} = 1.2\ \text{percent}\]

and nothing here was fitted to anything. The requirement that shaped the Space Shuttle’s wing, and through it a great deal of the vehicle, is the distance Vandenberg travels while a spacecraft goes round once.

That requirement also explains why the Shuttle has wings and PRIME did not. Putting 1,100 nautical miles through the same relation that gave 0.978 for the general case,

\[\frac{L}{D} = \sqrt{\frac{2{,}037/6{,}371}{0.2056}} = 1.25\]

which is above the SV-5D’s own trim curve and at the upper end of the 1.0 to 1.4 that Reed gives for the piloted lifting bodies. Reed records the Air Force projecting a need for ratios as high as 2.0, a requirement that made winged vehicles more attractive, and Heppenheimer reproduces a NASA comparison in which a delta-wing orbiter reaches 1.7 against 0.5 for a straight-wing design. The once-around requirement bought the Shuttle its wing.

PRIME demonstrated a fraction

\[\frac{1{,}143}{2{,}037} = 0.56\]

of that figure with a vehicle weighing 894 pounds.

The programme is also a data point about unmanned research vehicles, which the designation section below turns out to bear on directly.

A Designation That Was Never Requested

The encyclopaedias call it the X-23A, and so do NASA’s histories. Hallion’s history of the Dryden centre says the Air Force ordered four SV-5D vehicles and designated them X-23A, Reed says the same, and the NASA inventory of American X-vehicles lists the vehicle as the X-23. The nomenclature records, as reported by the standard reference on United States military aircraft designations, show that the designation was never assigned, and further that it was never requested.

The sequence, which is stranger than a simple omission, runs as follows.

On 16 November 1965 a request was submitted for the designation X-23A. It was submitted for the SV-5P, the piloted low-speed vehicle, and the vehicle description accompanying the request clearly described a manned lifting-body aircraft flying from Mach 2 to landing.

On 15 December 1965 the request was disapproved, on the ground that the subject aircraft was unmanned. At that date the designation system applied to manned aircraft only, so the reason was a valid one in general. It was not true of this aircraft, and the paperwork accompanying the request said so.

In late 1966 the offices responsible reconsidered the question. A proposal to create an entirely new designation category for gliding re-entry vehicles was raised and abandoned. The decision instead was to request X-23A for the unmanned SV-5D and X-24A for the piloted SV-5P. X-24A was requested and approved. No request for X-23A appears ever to have been sent. The sequence is documented in the standard reference on designations.

The reason is not recorded. The plausible reading, offered as a reading and not as a finding, is that having been told a year earlier that unmanned aircraft need no designation, nobody saw the point of asking.

Three points here should be kept separate.

First, the designation is in universal use and is not official. This article uses it, as its title does, because refusing to would make the vehicle harder to find without making it more accurately described.

Second, the disapproval was wrong on its facts. The 1965 refusal turned on the vehicle being unmanned, and the vehicle in that request was the piloted one. The manned vehicle was refused a number for being unmanned, and a year later received a different number for being manned.

Third, and most useful to this series, the system briefly considered growing a new limb and did not. A separate designation category for gliding re-entry vehicles was proposed and dropped. The X-series absorbed the problem instead, informally and without paperwork. The episode is a small piece of evidence about how the designation system accommodated things it was not built for. The series’ closing article argues that the designation system is not a counter. This is one of the cases behind that argument, and it should be read alongside the reserved-but-never-allocated X-39 and the refused X-52, both in the standard reference on designations.

This article states the conflict and does not resolve it. The records say the number was never assigned. The world says the vehicle is the X-23A. Both statements are true about different things, and collapsing them would destroy the evidence.

The Contemporary Literature

Cluster	Records
Parachutes, decelerators and recovery	650
Hypersonic aerodynamics, flow fields and the boundary layer	496
Ablation and thermal protection	462
Planetary and superorbital entry, descent and landing	442
Entry guidance, trajectory optimisation and hypersonic flight control	412
Lifting bodies and the SV-5 family	264
Hypersonic glide vehicles, their tracking and their interception	252
Stagnation-point, convective and radiative heating	243
Capsules and ballistic entry	232
The equilibrium glide and analytic entry trajectories	227
The Space Shuttle orbiter and its requirement	218
Reusable launch vehicles, spaceplanes and booster return	153
Entry flight experiments, measurements and programmes	120
Debris, casualty risk and range safety	97
Reaction control, attitude control and control surfaces	90
The atmosphere that entry is computed against	63
Crossrange, lateral range and the entry footprint	61
Entry vehicles in general	60
Weight estimation and vehicle sizing	57
Orbits, ground tracks and astrodynamics	43
Total	4,642

The problem PRIME was built for did not go away. What happened instead is stranger and is the organising fact of this survey. The capability was demonstrated, it was adopted, it was then given up by the very class of vehicle it had been built for, and it was adopted again by a different class of vehicle for the opposite reason.

The field as it currently stands is large, since 2,237 of the survey’s research records were published in 2010 or later, and the clusters below divide it by subject.

The Vehicles It Was Built For Gave the Capability Up

Every crewed spacecraft flying to orbit today comes home as a blunt capsule, as Mercury did. The Space Shuttle is the only crewed spaceplane to have flown in orbit, and Orion, Dragon, Soyuz and Shenzhou are the current capsules, in the encyclopaedia entry on space capsules, and the literature of that choice is gathered below under capsules and ballistic entry.

The relation derived here is still the quickest way to see what that costs. A blunt capsule trims at a lift-to-drag ratio near 0.3, a nominal value assumed here, and the crossrange it yields is

\[y = \pi^2/48 \times 0.3^2 \times 6.371\times 10^6 = 118\ \text{km}\]

or 117 kilometres by the exact integration, the two being close here because at so small a lift-to-drag ratio the heading barely turns and the small-angle step costs almost nothing. Set against the once-per-orbit requirement of 1,254 kilometres derived earlier, that is

\[\frac{117}{1{,}254} = 0.09\]

Nine percent. A modern crewed spacecraft has, by deliberate choice, about one eleventh of the crossrange that would let it come home when it wants to.

The ratios in the table are nominal values assumed for illustration. The lifting-body rows sit within the 1.0 to 1.4 that Reed gives for the piloted lifting bodies.

Vehicle	Lift-to-drag ratio	Crossrange, exact
A ballistic capsule with no lift	0	0 km
Mercury and Vostok	0.05	3 km
Apollo, Orion and Soyuz	0.30	117 km
PRIME, at the lower disputed figure	1.00	1,214 km
The Space Shuttle orbiter	1.10	1,447 km
The X-24A	1.40	2,233 km

The regression came from the requirement disappearing, and engineering did not fail. The once-around polar mission that generated the Shuttle’s 1,100 nautical miles was an Air Force requirement, in Heppenheimer, and when Shuttle operations from Vandenberg were cancelled before they began, in the history of Space Launch Complex 6, nothing else needed that number. An ocean landing needs no runway, a parachute weighs less than a wing, and a capsule’s heat shield is a simpler object than an orbiter’s. The Shuttle’s wing was the last time crossrange drove a crewed vehicle’s shape, and PRIME is part of the reason that wing could be drawn with confidence.

Crossrange Became a Weapon’s Virtue

The capability did not disappear. It moved to weapons, whose literature appears below under hypersonic glide vehicles, their tracking and their interception.

A hypersonic glide vehicle wants lateral range for exactly the reason a spacecraft did not. A returning spacecraft wanted to reach a chosen site. A glide vehicle wants a trajectory that cannot be extrapolated, because an interceptor must be committed early and a manoeuvring target invalidates the prediction it was committed against. The literature reflects that inversion, being largely about estimating and tracking a manoeuvring entry body, where the period literature was about designing one.

The relation is the same and the motive is not, and the equation cannot tell the difference. The derivation above contains nothing that distinguishes a landing site from an evasive manoeuvre.

One limit constrains the treatment given here, though not the literature. A slender glide vehicle may reach a lift-to-drag ratio of 2.5, which Reed reports for the slender lifting bodies, and the closed form would offer 8,187 kilometres for it. That number should not be believed. At such a ratio the closed form over-predicts by 41 percent, the accumulated heading change passes 400 degrees, and even the exact constant-bank integration is describing a trajectory no vehicle would fly. The relation that describes PRIME does not describe its successors, and saying so is more useful than extrapolating it past its assumptions.

The Computation Became Free

What changed most is not the physics but the cost of solving it, as the cluster below on entry guidance, trajectory optimisation and hypersonic flight control shows.

The crossrange relation derived above is a closed form obtained by forcing the trajectory to be an equilibrium glide at constant bank. That was necessary in 1964 because the alternative was unaffordable. The modern equivalent solves the trajectory numerically, onboard, in real time, and increasingly by convex optimisation whose convergence can be guaranteed rather than hoped for. It arrives at very nearly the same answer, because the physics did not move.

The closed form’s role has changed rather than ended. It is no longer how a vehicle is sized. It is now how an optimiser’s answer is checked, the same use made of it above.

The Ablator Is Computed Rather Than Tested

The 1960s route to a heat shield thickness was arc-jet testing and margin. Vitelli and Hallion write that PRIME’s design procedures rested on a mathematical model and plasma arc testing and that its shield proved conservative. The modern route computes the material response, in Arnold et al 2013, Li et al 2015, Milos et al 2015, Chen 2016, Kumar and Mahulikar 2016, Brune et al 2017, Harpale et al 2018, Meurisse et al 2018, Cinquegrana et al 2019, Gulli and Maddalena 2019, Rivier et al 2019, Wang et al 2019, Shilav and Khosid 2020, Pratibha Raghunandan et al 2021, Hasan 2022, He et al 2022, Price et al 2022, Chinnaraj et al 2023, He et al 2023, Lai and Leu 2023, Lai and Leu 2023, Scandelli et al 2023, Chen and Gökçen 2024, Yang et al 2024, Price et al 2025, Wang et al 2025, Cutrone et al 2026, Zibitsker and Martin 2026.

That is the largest single practical change in the subject. The cross-check performed earlier in this article, inverting a published thickness to recover an effective heat of ablation of 27.8 megajoules per kilogram, is the crude version of what a material response code now does properly, with pyrolysis chemistry, in-depth conduction and a quantified uncertainty on the answer. Arc-jet testing did not go away. It became validation instead of design.

Lifting Bodies Came Back Mostly Uncrewed

The shape survived, and the clusters below on lifting bodies and the SV-5 family and on reusable launch vehicles, spaceplanes and booster return record that work.

What is flying now is closer to PRIME than to the X-24A, in the sense that it is mostly uncrewed and mostly automatic. Alongside them sits the deployable or inflatable aeroshell that packs small and opens to a large low-ballistic-coefficient decelerator. That attacks the problem from the opposite end. PRIME lowered its ballistic coefficient to 60 pounds per square foot by being light. A deployable aeroshell lowers it by growing.

Catching Things in the Air Is Now Routine

The part of PRIME that failed twice in three flights is the part that has been most thoroughly vindicated. The cluster below on parachutes, decelerators and recovery documents that outcome.

Mid-air retrieval by helicopter has since been demonstrated on a returning orbital booster, in the encyclopaedia entry on mid-air retrieval, and the supersonic parachute work that Mars entry demanded has produced a decelerator literature far deeper than anything available in 1967. The technique outlived the aerodynamics, which is not the outcome anyone would have predicted from a programme that lost two vehicles to a main parachute that never left its container and to line cutters fitted without their charges, in Vitelli and Hallion.

The Footprint Became a Safety Calculation

Here the inversion is at its sharpest, in Falsone and Prandini 2017, Kim et al 2018, Lee et al 2018, Annaloro et al 2020, Braun et al 2020, Jorgensen and Sharf 2021, Santos and Sampaio 2021, Bohman et al 2024, Chen et al 2025, Chen et al 2025, Jain and Hastings 2025, Navaz and Ntantis 2026, Park et al 2026, Yuricich 2026.

PRIME wanted a large footprint. Modern practice wants a small and precisely predicted one. The reachable area treated above as a capability is, for a spent stage or a decaying satellite, a hazard to be bounded, and the same trajectory mathematics now serves debris casualty risk, controlled disposal and range safety. A quantity computed to show what a vehicle could reach is now computed to prove what it cannot.

The Same Relations, on Other Planets

Nor can the equation tell which planet it is being asked about, and the cluster below on planetary and superorbital entry, descent and landing is the evidence.

The equilibrium glide with a different gravitational parameter and a different atmosphere is what every planetary entry and every aerocapture study solves. Mars is where the modern work concentrates, because it has enough atmosphere to matter and not enough to make entry easy, and because the crossrange question there is the same question PRIME asked, being whether a vehicle can reach a chosen site rather than wherever the ballistic track puts it.

How It Flies, Computed to a Standard Nobody Had

Underneath all of it is the aerodynamic and aerothermodynamic prediction that the period could only estimate, surveyed below under hypersonic aerodynamics and under heating.

The decades between PRIME and the current revival were not empty, and 1,411 of the survey’s research records were published between 1973 and 2009.

What the Survey Shows

The arithmetic has not moved at all. Crossrange still goes as the square of the lift-to-drag ratio, the optimal bank angle is still 45 degrees, the footprint still goes as the cube, and the once-per-orbit requirement is still about a lift-to-drag ratio of one.

What moved twice is the requirement. It went from the Air Force wanting a spacecraft that could come home on the next pass, to nobody wanting that and crewed vehicles giving up ninety-one percent of the capability, to a different community wanting lateral range specifically because it defeats prediction.

And the thing PRIME was worst at turned out to be the thing that lasted. The programme lost two of three vehicles to the recovery system. Mid-air retrieval is now a demonstrated commercial technique, in the encyclopaedia entry on mid-air retrieval, and the aerodynamic configuration it was carrying is not flown by anyone.

Parachutes, decelerators and recovery

The recovery system and its descendants, being parachutes and their deployment, inflation, reefing and fabrics, ballutes and inflatable or deployable decelerators, and the mid-air retrieval of a descending payload. It is the largest cluster, and it includes parachute engineering for aircraft, ordnance and personnel because they share the deployment and inflation problem. 135 of the 650 titles say supersonic and 161 name a ballute, an aeroshell or an inflatable or deployable decelerator.

650 records. [A supersonic parachute 1949] [Abramova 2021] [Abramova and Reznik 2020] [Accorsi and Leonard 2002] [Adams 2014] [Aebischer and Suters 1970] [Al-Ebiary et al 2017] [Averyanov 2022] [Braun and Walcott 1963] [Carten and Wuest 1980] [Figucia and McCafferty 1966] [French 1963] [French 1969] [French 1969] [Garrard and Konicke 1981] [Greene and Preisser 1970] [Guan et al 2025] [Guruswamy 2015] [Heinrich and Jamison 1966] [Heinrich and Saari 1978] [Heinrich et al 1965] [Jailer et al 1960] [Kim 2016] [Klimas 1972] [Landman 2020] [Lavrakas 1955] [Lorenz et al 2021] [Nicolaides 1971] [Niemi 1992] [Pan and Yu 2023] [Pensado et al] [Pensado et al] [Amirkhizi et al 2024] [An Experimental Study of 2002] [An experimental study on 2008] [An overview of munition 1984] [Analysis of the Working 2016] [Anderson 2004] [Andrianov et al 2015] [Androsenkov et al 2007] [Anton et al 2023] [Antonenko and Belavskiy 2009] [Armand 2013] [Arnold et al 2011] [Arnold et al 2013] [As’ad et al 2022] [Askins et al 1997] [As’ad et al 2025] [Autonomously guided Ram-air parachute 2009] [Axdahl et al 2009] [Babakov 2025] [Babakov 2026] [Babish 1970] [Baginski et al 2013] [Bahrami 2012] [Bai et al 2022] [Baker] [Baker and Swallow 1956] [Banerjee and Utreja 1975] [Banerji et al 2018] [Barlog 1979] [Barnhardt et al 2007] [Bartz and Miklosovic 2003] [Bassett et al 2017] [Behr 1989] [Behr 1989] [Behr et al 1991] [Bennett et al 1976] [Berexa et al 2019] [Bergeron et al 2015] [Bohon and Miserentino 1970] [Bohon et al 1974] [Bose et al 2013] [Boulware et al 2007] [Boundy et al 1968] [Boustani et al 2019] [Boustani et al 2020] [Bowman] [Brandeau et al 2015] [Purvis 1982] [Reddish et al] [Braun 1953] [Brearley 1969] [Brinkman 1992] [Brock et al 2019] [Brookfield et al 1989] [Brown 1989] [Brown et al 2001] [Brown et al 2003] [Brune et al 2015] [Brune et al 2016] [Brune et al 2017] [Cadieux and Barad 2025] [Campos 1977] [Cannon and Koch 1989] [Cao et al 2017] [Caqueo Jara et al 2023] [Carandente et al 2015] [Carten and Wuest 1979] [Cassanto et al 1968] [Cassell et al 2011] [Cassell et al 2018] [Cassell et al 2019] [Cassell et al 2021] [Catch a Falling Star 1993] [Chakoian 1969] [Chambe et al 2024] [Chandler 1967] [Charles 2017] [Chen et al 2015] [Chen et al 2025] [Chen et al 2026] [China achieves first reusable rocket booster recovery with world’s first net-capture system 2026] [Civelek and Kıvrak 2024] [Clapp et al 2015] [Clark et al 2006] [Clark et al 2009] [Clark et al 2015] [Clark et al 2015] [Clark et al 2021] [Coatta et al 2013] [Coleman et al 2026] [Cook 2013] [Cowan et al 2025] [Craley and Desabrais 2007] [Crimi 1986] [Crimi and Jorgensen 1991] [Cruz et al 2003] [Currin et al 2012] [Dahal et al 2018] [Dahal et al 2018] [Dahal et al 2020] [Day 2013] [Defense Documentation Center Alexandria Va 1971] [Deitering and Hilliard 1965] [Delurgio et al 1981] [Derkevorkian et al 2019] [Desabrais et al 2015] [Deshmukh et al 2025] [Desimone 1981] [Di Caprio et al 2021] [Dillman 2015] [Dillman et al 2010] [Dillman et al 2013] [Dillman et al 2013] [Dillman et al 2024] [Dimino et al 2023] [Dinh] [DiNonno and Cheatwood 2026] [Dinonno et al 2016] [Downing et al 1956] [Downs and Bartlett 1989] [Drynan] [Dunker and Berland 2007] [Dutta et al 2020] [D’Amato et al 2022] [Eckstrom 1970] [Eckstrom 1975] [Eckstrom and Mayhue 1969] [Eckstrom and Preisser 1967] [Ericksen et al 1984] [Eslambolchi and Johari 2013] [Roelke and Green] [Roelke et al] [Everett and Henke 1981] [Cadieux and Barad] [Fallon 1991] [Fallon and Fallon 1997] [Fallon et al 1986] [Fan et al 2022] [Farhall et al 2007] [Fedele et al 2021] [Fields and Basore 2015] [Fields et al 2026] [Fogell et al 2017] [Fomichev and Yadrenkin 2013] [Fomichev et al 2011] [Cadieux and Barad] [Cadieux and Barad] [Cadieux et al] [French 1965] [French 1966] [French 1967] [French 1979] [French 1980] [French 1988] [Fu and Koch 1977] [Fukiba et al 2023] [Further development and flight 1994] [Gaglio et al 2026] [Gallon and Witkowski 2015] [Gallon et al 2013] [Gao et al 2015] [Gao et al 2016] [Gao et al 2016] [Garba 1968] [Gasparoni et al 2026] [Gates et al 2010] [Gates Medlock and Longuski 2008] [Ghasimi and Rabinovitch 2023] [Ghoreyshi et al 2014] [Ghoreyshi et al 2015] [Giersch et al 2015] [Gionfriddo 2011] [Gnoffo and Anderson 2002] [Goglia 1952] [Goglia et al 1955] [Goldman et al 2015] [Gombos and Reed 1975] [Gong and Wu 2021] [Goodrick 1969] [Goulding and Adams 2010] [Graham 1965] [Graham 2001] [Gramola et al 2021] [Green et al 2013] [Griebel 2010] [Griebel 2011] [Griebel 2011] [Griebel 2011] [Grippon 2022] [Grychanyuk et al 2015] [Guo et al 2017] [Guruswamy 2017] [Guruswamy 2025] [Güven and Şamiloğlu 2022] [Güven and Şamiloğlu 2022] [Ham 1963] [Hao et al 2018] [Hara and Yokoo 2018] [Haubelt et al 2001] [He 2024] [He et al 2022] [Heinrich 1966] [Heinrich 1966] [Heinrich and Rust 1965] [Henke and Nerem 1968] [Herrington et al 2019] [Higgins and Speelman 1973] [High Drag Rotating Parachute Developed and Tested 1985] [Highley 1970] [Hinada et al 1991] [Hintzke and Haggard 1991] [Hiraki et al 1997] [Hirst and Jorgensen 1995] [Hollis 2018] [Hornung 2001] [Hoter et al 2026] [Huang et al 2020] [Hughes et al 2011] [Iacovazzo et al 2015] [Ibos et al 1999] [Inatani et al 1999] [Irving Air Chute-Brake Parachute 1968] [Ivanov et al 2020] [Izadi and Razzaz 2008] [Jain et al 2022] [Jamison 1966] [Jamison 1967] [Janda et al 2013] [Jann 2015] [Jann and Ward 2019] [Jaremenko 1967] [Jasztal and Kłosiński 2024] [Jasztal et al 2022] [Johari and Desabrais 2002] [DiNonno and Cheatwood] [Johnson 1986] [Johnson 1989] [Johnson and Lyons 2004] [Boustani et al] [Jorgensen 1991] [Jorgensen et al 2005] [Just 1991] [Kanai et al 2018] [Kandis and Witkowski 2019] [Karlgaard et al 2019] [Karlgaard et al 2019] [Kelly et al 2016] [Kelly et al 2018] [Kenig et al 2013] [Kenig et al 2015] [Kennedy and Lowry 1995] [Kennedy et al 1997] [Kimata et al 2015] [King et al 2011] [Knacke 1985] [Knapik et al 2011] [Koenig et al 1995] [Koike et al 2018] [Kou and Zhan 2022] [Kozlov 2013] [Kramer et al 2011] [Kross and Webb 1979] [Kurinnyy 2020] [Kustas et al 2000] [Křemenáková et al 2026] [Langston et al 2016] [Lavier 1955] [Lavier 1955] [Ledyankina et al 2018] [Lee 1993] [Lee et al 2007] [Levin and Shpund 1995] [Lewis 1964] [Li 2015] [Li et al 2023] [Liang and Mease 2019] [Lin 1986] [Lin et al 1979] [Lingard 2015] [Lingard and Darley 2005] [Lingard et al 2013] [Lingard et al 2015] [Lingard et al 2017] [Liu et al 2000] [Long 1993] [Lorenz and Allen 2023] [Lorenz and Lam 2026] [Lucas 2022] [Ludtke 1991] [Lyalin and Morozov 2005] [Lyons and Johnson 2004] [MacCarthy 1954] [Machin and Daum 2026] [Machin et al 2001] [MacNeal and Schuerch 1963] [Manjith 2026] [Mars Parachute Testing Suffers Setback 2019] [Matsunaga et al 2015] [Matsunaga et al 2017] [Maydew and Johnson 1972] [Mayhue and Eckstrom 1969] [McCarty 1978] [McEwan 1970] [McMenomy 2022] [McRonald 2000] [Meacham et al 2013] [Melzig and Schmidt 1965] [Meyer 1958] [Meyerson 2001] [Michal et al 1970] [Mickey and Stuart 1967] [Miller 1954] [Miller et al 2003] [Mingaleev et al 2020] [Mingaleev et al 2021] [Minnesota Univ Minneapolis Inst Of Tech 1962] [Mizukaki et al 2019] [Mkrtchyan and Johari 2011] [Modular heavy payload autonomously 2009] [Mohaghegh and Jahannama 2007] [Montanez and Pantano 2026] [Montanez et al 1997] [Moog 1975] [Moog et al 1979] [Moore 2013] [Moore and Morris 2011] [Moore and Morris 2011] [Moorman and Yechout 2009] [Mori and Kuzuo 2018] [Morris and Olson 2011] [Mortaloni and Stewart 1999] [Moss 2005] [Mosseev 1999] [Mungiguerra et al 2017] [Muppidi et al 2015] [Murman 2009] [Murray 1961] [Nadal Mora et al 2005] [Nadal Mora et al 2007] [Nagata et al 2013] [Nakao et al 2022] [Nelsen 1995] [Nerem 1966] [Neustadt et al 1967] [Newberg et al 2026] [Nie et al 2023] [Nie et al 2023] [Nie et al 2024] [Noel et al 2026] [O’Farrell et al 2016] [O’Farrell et al 2018] [O’Farrell et al 2019] [O’Farrell et al 2022] [O’Farrell et al 2023] [O’Farrell et al 2024] [Ohashi et al 2018] [Orlandini et al 2026] [Ortega et al 2017] [Otsu 2008] [Otsu 2011] [Otsu and Abe 2008] [Otsu and Abe 2015] [Otsu and Abe 2016] [Otsu and Takama 2012] [Ouyang and Zhang 2026] [Ouyang et al 2026] [O’Farrell and Clark 2024] [Palharini 2020] [Pantano and Montanez 2024] [Parachutes - Yesterday, today 1989] [Parate 2020] [Park 1986] [Payne and Band 1976] [Peacocke et al 2019] [Pearson 1972] [Pedersen 1961] [Pepermans et al 2018] [Pepper 1967] [Pepper 1977] [Pepper 1980] [Pepper 1984] [Pepper 1984] [Pepper and Biesterveld 1973] [Pepper and Collins 1982] [Pepper and Cronin 1969] [Pepper et al 1984] [Peralta and Johari 2015] [Peri et al 2024] [Perin and Patoux 2022] [Perschbacher and Potvin 1999] [Peterson et al 1986] [Peterson et al 2018] [Peterson et al 2024] [Pilyugin and Khlebnikov 2010] [Placco 2023] [Placco 2023] [Placco et al 2025] [Placco et al 2026] [Pleasants 1973] [Pleasants 1975] [Ploskov 2020] [Pm et al 2024] [Poole 1973] [Potvin 1997] [Potvin 2001] [Potvin 2001] [Potvin 2023] [Potvin and Peek 1998] [Potvin and Potvin 1997] [Potvin et al 1997] [Prabhu et al 2013] [Pratap et al 2019] [Preisser et al 1967] [Priyadarshi et al 2020] [Purvis 1983] [Purvis 1984] [Purvis 1984] [Puskas 1984] [Puskas 1989] [Puthalapattu 2025] [Pyle et al 1973] [Qingsong and Surong 2024] [Qiu et al 2021] [Bodkin et al] [Rabinovitch et al 2018] [Rabinovitch et al 2019] [Rabinovitch et al 2019] [Rabinovitch et al 2020] [Rabinovitch et al 2022] [Raghunandan et al 2023] [Rasheed et al 2001] [Ravnitzky 1989] [Ray 2013] [Reinhard et al 1997] [Reza et al 2007] [Reznik et al 2020] [Richards 2022] [Richardson et al 2005] [Rioseco Olave et al 2023] [Roberts 1974] [Roberts 1980] [Rodier 1979] [Roland et al 2016] [Rollstin 1986] [Rong et al 2015] [Runkle and Drobnik 1979] [Runkle and Woodis 1979] [Rybakiewicz and Plachá 2023] [Rysev 1993] [Sandstrom 1971] [Sanganeria 2025] [Santos et al 2021] [Santos et al 2022] [Saxena et al 2021] [Schaefer et al 2001] [Schatzle and Curry 1980] [Schuerch 1965] [Seidel and Bergeron 2017] [Seidel et al 2016] [Sengupta et al 2007] [Sengupta et al 2008] [Sengupta et al 2008] [Sengupta et al 2009] [Shankar et al 2018] [Shepardson 1954] [Sheta et al 2015] [Shi et al 2022] [Siegel et al 2022] [Siegel et al 2024] [Silbert 1983] [Silbert et al 1986] [Silbert et al 1989] [Sims 1963] [Sivasubramanian et al 2026] [Skelton and Abbott 1974] [Smith et al 2001] [Smollett 1955] [Sonneveldt et al 2019] [Speelman 1975] [Speelman 1977] [Steeves 1986] [Steltzner et al 2003] [Hughes et al] [Hughes et al] [Stewart 2013] [Study on Critical Parachute 2024] [Suit et al 1964] [Sun et al 2025] [Sundberg 1975] [Swanson et al 2025] [Sweeney 1955] [Szafran and Kramarski 2019] [Taguchi et al 2015] [Taguchi et al 2015] [Taguchi et al 2021] [Takabayashi and Kitamura 2019] [Takabayashi et al 2019] [Takahashi and Yamada 2018] [Takahashi et al 2012] [Takahashi et al 2013] [Takahashi et al 2015] [Takahashi et al 2018] [Takahashi et al 2020] [Takayanagi et al 2021] [Takizawa et al 2016] [Tang and Qian 2015] [Tang et al 2015] [Tang et al 2021] [Tanner et al 2015] [Tatsuta et al 2025] [Teichroew 1954] [Terahara et al 2025] [Thomas and Thomas 2008] [Thomas et al 2007] [Tiaden and Yakimenko 2008] [Tiaden and Yakimenko 2009] [Tibbits and Ivanov 2015] [To] [Tomcsak 1960] [Toni 1968] [Townend 1970] [Trabandt et al 2003] [Tutt et al 2003] [Tutt et al 2015] [Tutt et al 2022] [Usry 1968] [Usry 1969] [Vardi] [Vishnyak 1995] [Vo et al 1993] [Votta et al 2009] [Votta et al 2010] [Wailes and Carlson 1986] [Walcott 1963] [Wang and Shih 1991] [Wang et al 2020] [Wang et al 2021] [Wang et al 2022] [Watkins 1995] [Way 2018] [Waye 1991] [Waye et al 1986] [Webb 1986] [Wegereef et al 2011] [Wei 1991] [Wei and Pearson 1974] [Wei et al 2024] [Wercinski et al 2015] [Wernet et al 2009] [Whalley 1973] [Whitlock et al 1973] [Whitmore et al 2004] [Wijaszka et al 2023] [Williams 2017] [Williamson 1979] [Witkowski 1999] [Witkowski and Kandis 2010] [Witkowski et al 2009] [Witkowski et al 2022] [Wolf] [Wolf 1971] [Wolf 1974] [Wolf 1999] [Wolf and Croll 1979] [Wolf and Fallon 2011] [Wolf and Fallon 2011] [Wolf and Ivanov 2008] [Woodruff et al 2015] [Wu et al 2021] [Xie et al 2015] [Xing and Liang 2025] [Xing et al 2022] [Xing et al 2024] [Xing et al 2025] [Xu et al 2025] [Xue and Nakamura 2011] [Xue and Nakamura 2013] [Xue et al 2013] [Xue et al 2015] [Xue et al 2015] [Xue et al 2016] [Xue et al 2019] [Xue et al 2019] [Xue et al 2022] [Yakimenko et al 2008] [Yamada et al 2011] [Yamada et al 2013] [Yamada et al 2015] [Yamada et al 2022] [Yang 2021] [Yang et al 2017] [Yang et al 2018] [Yang et al 2019] [Yang et al 2020] [Yang et al 2022] [Yasumura and Kitamura 2021] [Yavuz 1985] [Ye et al 2026] [Yeakle et al 2009] [Young 1976] [Young et al 2018] [Yount et al 2012] [Yu et al 2023] [Yu et al 2025] [Yun and Liu 2023] [Yun and Liu 2024] [Zhang 2003] [Zhang and Gao 2018] [Zhang and Gao 2019] [Zhang et al 2024] [Zhang et al 2025] [Zhao and Li 2019] [Zhao et al 2019] [Zhao et al 2020] [Zhao et al 2022] [Zhu et al 2023] [Zuppardi et al 2016] [Бабаков and Финченко 2022]

Hypersonic aerodynamics, flow fields and the boundary layer

The flow the vehicle flies through, being blunt-body and slender-body hypersonic aerodynamics, nonequilibrium and rarefied flow, the boundary layer and its transition, wakes, the plasma sheath and communications blackout, and the computational test cases of the double ellipse and the double ellipsoid.

496 records. [Abarbanel 1977] [Abdel-Gawad et al 2019] [Abe et al 2003] [Abgrall and Merlo 1992] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1987] [Albertson 1989] [Albisser et al 2017] [Allegre et al 1992] [Allouche et al 2011] [Alsalihi and Deconinck 1991] [Amato et al 2026] [An et al 2021] [An et al 2025] [Andersen and Connor 1970] [Anfuso et al 2026] [Angrand et al 1991] [Archer and Hermann 1965] [Argyris et al 1991] [Argyris et al 1992] [Arkhipov and Polenov 1971] [Arney et al 1963] [Artamonov and Arkhipov 1979] [Asif et al 2004] [Atkins 2026] [Atkinson et al 2013] [Baganoff 1990] [Balakumar and Chou 2018] [Barbera 1980] [Bartel et al 1988] [Becker 1964] [Beckwith and Cohen 1963] [Berry et al 2021] [Bhutani and Chandran 1978] [Bhutta and Lewis 1988] [Bhutta and Lewis 1989] [Bhutta and Lewis 1989] [Bingyan et al 2015] [Bloor 1965] [Blum and Yoshihara 1988] [Boccaccio et al 1992] [Boeing Scientific Research Labs Seattle Wa 1963] [Bogdonoff 1970] [Bogdonoff 1999] [Boppe and Davis 1989] [Borrelli and Pandolfi 1991] [Borrelli et al 2010] [Boudreau 1979] [Bowersox and Fan 2000] [Boyd 2004] [Boyd 2008] [Boylan 1965] [Brauckmann 1986] [Breeza Paulose et al 2016] [Brooke and Thomas 1964] [Brunk 1963] [Bulakh 1964] [Bush 1958] [Bush 1959] [Bykerk et al 2020] [Bykerk et al 2020] [Campbell et al 2012] [Candler 2001] [Carden and Potter 1968] [Carlomagno et al 1993] [Cassanto 1966] [Chalot et al 1991] [Chao et al 2015] [Chapter 5 Physicochemical Models 2013] [Chapter 9 Model of 2013] [Chasovnikov 2020] [Chaussee et al 1975] [Chavez and Schmidt 1993] [Cheah et al 2025] [Chen and Gibbons 2022] [Chen et al 2016] [Chen et al 2022] [Chen et al 2022] [Chen et al 2023] [Cheng et al 2011] [Cheng et al 2023] [Chrusciel 1975] [Chu 1967] [Chuanzhen et al 2022] [Chung 2023] [Computational Fluid Dynamics Design 1990] [Cox et al 1966] [Cresci 1966] [Cunningham 1985] [Dai et al 2020] [Davenport 1972] [Kessler et al 2021] [de Moura and Ribeiro 2026] [de Moura and Ribeiro 2026] [Decker and Laschka 2001] [Demele and Brownson 1961] [Demetriades 1960] [Denman et al 1991] [Device May eliminate communications blackout during re-entry of space vehicle 1962] [Dietrick 2013] [Ding et al 2015] [Ding et al 2018] [Ding et al 2019] [Dirling et al 1975] [Divitiis and Vitale 2010] [Dix 1962] [Dong and Li 2021] [Dongre 2024] [Dortmann 1991] [Dortmann 1992] [Druguet et al 1992] [Dubois and Michaux 1992] [Eliasson et al 1991] [Ericsson 1969] [Ericsson 1971] [Ericsson 1977] [Ericsson 1977] [Ericsson 1977] [Ericsson 1979] [Ericsson and Scholnick 1969] [Evans et al 1970] [Fante et al 1970] [Fedele et al 2014] [Feiereisen 1991] [Fey et al 1992] [Finke 1970] [Finley 1990] [Finson 1973] [Finson 1975] [Fournier 1960] [Frayssinet 2019] [Frayssinet et al 2013] [Galkin and Gladkov 1961] [Gamertsfelder et al 2022] [Gao 2023] [Gao et al 2020] [Gao et al 2026] [Garvine 1966] [Gazaix 1992] [Gielda et al 1990] [Ginoux 1966] [Gnoffo 1991] [Gockel 1993] [Goldberg and Scala 1965] [Golden 1969] [Goldman 1958] [Goldman and Obremski 1973] [Golovachev 1979] [Golovachev 1981] [Gong et al 2006] [Gonor 1964] [Gorenbukh and Nikolaev 1988] [Grasso et al 1992] [Grawe and Häuser 1992] [Gregorek et al 1963] [Griffith 1958] [Groves et al 2005] [Gruhn and Gülhan 2018] [Gui et al 2023] [Guillen and Borrel 1991] [Guo et al 2019] [Guo et al 2020] [Gupta and Hall 1977] [Guruswamy 2016] [Gökçen 1991] [GÜlçat 2021] [Han and Cao 2019] [Harloff 1987] [Harney 1963] [Harney and Petrie 1971] [Harris et al 1980] [Hartsell 1961] [Haya Ramos et al 2009] [Hayes 1959] [Hayes et al 1960] [Heinrich 1961] [Heller and Widnall 1968] [Henckels and Maurer 1991] [Henckels and Maurer 1992] [Herdrich et al 2000] [Hettena et al 1992] [Hillier 1978] [Hitzel 1991] [Holland et al 2000] [Horlock 1964] [Horstman 1963] [Hossan and Srinivas 2023] [Hu et al 2017] [Huang 1968] [Hughson and Beran 1991] [Hui 1969] [Hui 1972] [Huynh and Kriz 2009] [Hypersonic Aerodynamics 1988] [Hypersonic Aerodynamics on the 2019] [Hypersonic Aerodynamics Slender Bodies 2025] [Hypersonic and Supersonic Flight 2023] [Hypersonic Flows 2025] [Hypersonic Flows for Reentry 1991] [Hypersonic Reentry 2011] [Hypersonic Research Facilities Study 1970] [Hypersonic Thin Viscous Shock 2018] [Inger 1989] [Inger 1995] [Introduction to the Virtual Collection for Predicting Hypersonic Boundary-Layer Transition on Complex Geometries 2026] [Ismagilov and Sidelnikov 2015] [Ivanov et al 2006] [Jaffe 1970] [Ji et al 2019] [Jiang and Richards 1991] [Jin et al 2026] [Johnson and Joseph A. 1977] [Johnston et al 2026] [Joint Conference on Lifting 1960, Joint Conference on Lifting Manne] [Joint Conference on Lifting 1960, Joint Conference on Lifting Manne] [Jung et al 2018] [Jurak et al 1972] [Kaiser and Fluegge-Lotz 1968] [Kang 1969] [Kang 1970] [Kaplan and Oran 2021] [Kelly 1973] [Kelly 1973] [Kenyon 1961] [Kenyon and Sutton 1961] [Khalil et al 2023] [Kim and Park 2000] [Kim et al 2025] [Klothakis and Nikolos 2024] [Knight 2015] [Kordulla et al 1991] [Krause 1992] [Kryvoruka and Ashurst 1973] [Kubota and Berg 1977] [Lacomb and Lerat 1992] [Ladyzhenskii and Lipin 1966] [Ladyzhenskij 1963] [Lapygin and Tret’yakov 1986] [Lapygin and Yakunina 2009] [Laser power may lift space re-entry blackout 1963] [Lawrence 1991] [Ledu and Pollak 1968] [Lee 1965] [Lee and Chen 2018] [Lees and Hromas 1961] [Lees and Kubota 1972] [Levermore and Brio 1994] [Lew 1973] [Lewis 1991] [Leyland 1991] [Leyland 1992] [Li 1985] [Li et al 2011] [Li et al 2015] [Li et al 2017] [Li et al 2021] [Li et al 2024] [Lin and Rubin 1979] [Lin et al 2006] [Liu and Lu 2015] [Liu et al 2018] [Lobanovskii 1983] [Lobb et al 1955] [Lobbia 2017] [Lobbia and Suzuki 2003] [Lukasiewicz 1961] [Lunev et al 1966] [Lusty and Miele 1966] [Haw and Colom] [Magomedov 1970] [Manna and Deconinck 1992] [Markopoulos and Mease 1990] [Mason 1991] [Maurer and Henckels 1992] [Mayne 1976] [Mbagwu et al 2023] [McCOWN et al 1966] [McDowell and Williamson 1980] [McDowell and Williamson 1982] [McKiernan et al 2026] [Menne and Schröder 1992] [Meyer 1969] [Miles and Macheret 2006] [Miró Miró and Pinna 2018] [Miró Miró and Pinna 2020] [Monaghan 1959] [Moreira et al 2022] [Morimoto and Kinefuchi 2025] [Morrison and Fiscina 1982] [Morrison et al 1981] [Morrison et al 1982] [Moss and Bird 1984] [Muchnaya 1979] [Mudford et al 1980] [Mulard and Moules 1992] [Mundt 1992] [Murzinov 1966] [Musal 1962] [Müller 1992] [NACA Conference on High-speed 1958] [Nagamatsu et al 1960] [Nakasato et al 2015] [Nance 2013] [Narain et al 1991] [Nark and Lee 1963] [Nauleau] [Nelson and Nelson 1997] [Netterfield 1991] [Netterfield 1992] [Newman et al 1992] [Nikiforov and Omelik 1976] [Nishino 1993] [Niu and Su 2023] [Non-Contact Measuring Section in the Problem of Hypersonic Aerodynamics 2019] [Nonweiler 1959] [Nydick and Friedmann 1999] [Oertel 1991] [Ortell 1967] [Osiptsov 1979] [Otsu et al 2009] [Ozawa et al 2014] [Panaras et al 1992] [Park et al 2024] [Peng and Wang 2026] [Perrel and Lafon 1992] [Petrova and Ryzhov 1969] [Pezzella and Viviani 2016] [Pfaff 1968] [Phillips and Cruz 1991] [Phillips and Cruz 1993] [Pironneau 1991] [Pironneau 1992] [Pittman and Dillon 1977] [Poddar and Sharma 2015] [Potter 2006] [Qiao et al 2025] [Qin and Richards 1991] [Qin and Richards 1992] [Qin et al 1997] [Qiu et al 2020] [Qiu et al 2024] [Radespiel 1992] [Radespiel et al 1991] [Rarity 1966] [Rathakrishnan 2025] [Rault 1992] [Reed 1997] [Reed 2005] [Reed 2006] [Reggiori 1971] [Rehder 1973] [Reshotko 1987] [Reshotko 1991] [Riabov 2011] [Riedelbauch 1991] [Riedelbauch 1992] [Riley and McNamara 2017] [Rizk et al 1987] [Rochefort et al 1974] [Rona and Zavalan 2022] [Rouhi Youssefi and Knight 2017] [Ruble 1964] [Rudy et al 1992] [Ryzhov and Terent’bev 1978] [Ryzhov and Terent’ev 1974] [Ryzhov and Terent’ev 1983] [Sanders 1991] [Santos 2007] [Santos 2009] [Santos 2011] [Satofuka and Morinishi 1991] [Sawley and Wüthrich 1992] [Sayapin 1966] [Scaggs 1966] [Scalabrin and Boyd 2006] [Schmatz 1989] [Schneider 2015] [Schröder and Menne 1992] [Schröder et al 1992] [Schwane and Hänel 1991] [Segal 2011] [Selmin and Formaggia 1991] [Sforza 2020] [Sha et al 2026] [Shang and Yan 2020] [Shannon] [Shao et al 2016] [Shope 1991] [Shope 2006] [Shope and Spinetti 1993] [Simons 1975] [Singh 1995] [Singh et al 1989] [Singh et al 2022] [Skujins and Cesnik 2010] [Skujins and Cesnik 2011] [Smith 1973] [Smith and Wu 1964] [Sobieczky 1991] [Spearman 2003] [Spekreijse 1991] [Spencer 1971] [Spravka and Jorris 2015] [Srinivas 1992] [Srinivasan et al 1992] [Stetson 1990] [Stetson and Lewis 1977] [Stueber et al 2009] [Subramanian and Dwarakanath 1969] [Supersonic/Hypersonic Euler Flowfield Prediction 1990] [Suzuki et al 2001] [Swain 1975] [Swain et al 1975] [Swigart 1962] [Swigart 1963] [Swigart 1964] [Tao et al 2016] [Tao et al 2017] [Tao et al 2017] [Thomas et al 1991] [Thompson and Hull 1970] [Tirumalesa 1968] [Tittmann and Bömmel 1968] [Tong 1991] [Tu et al 2021] [Turri et al 2011] [Tuttle et al 1994] [Uffelman and Deffenbaugh 1979] [Upadhyay et al 2019] [Van 1963] [Vankeirsbilck and Deconinck 1991] [Varwig 1963] [Vendemia 1965] [Vigdorovich 1982] [Viviand 1991] [Viviani and Pezzella 2010] [Viviani et al 2020] [Voland et al 2005] [Voronin 1967] [Vos and Bergman 1991] [Vos and Bergman 1992] [Walchner 1974] [Wang and Richards 1991] [Wang et al 2024] [Wang et al 2026] [Wang et al 2026] [Watt and Aronson 1964] [Wells and Thornley 1996] [Wen et al 2023] [West and Hosder 2014] [White 1993] [Whitfield and Wolny 1963] [Wilcox 1974] [Dukes 1962] [Woods and Thompson 1993] [Wray 2008] [Xie et al 2022] [Xiong et al 2021] [Xu et al 2013] [Yang et al 2025] [Yang et al 2026] [Yanow 1972] [Yasuhara and Kondo 1971] [Yates and Bennett 1972] [Ye 2015] [Ye et al 2015] [Yin et al 2023] [Young 1966] [Yu and Yuan 2016] [Yu et al 2022] [Yuan et al 2017] [Yushchenkova et al 1967] [Zana and Thomas 1970] [Zeitoun et al 1991] [Zemlyanskii 1966] [Zeng et al 2026] [Zhang 1992] [Zhang and Li 2019] [Zhang et al 2018] [Zhang et al 2019] [Zhang et al 2020] [Zhang et al 2022] [Zhang et al 2022] [Zhang et al 2023] [Zhang et al 2025] [Zhao et al 2018] [Zhi et al 2015] [Zhi et al 2026] [Zhong 2009] [Zhou et al 2015] [Zhou et al 2016] [Zhou et al 2018] [Zhu 2022] [Zhu et al 2016] [Zhu et al 2020] [Zubin et al 1997] [Калиновский 2016, Comparison of hypersonic aircraft]

Ablation and thermal protection

The ablator and what it protects, being charring and non-charring ablators, their material response, arc-jet testing, nose tips, heat shields, and reusable and active thermal protection.

462 records. [Abdullah et al 2020] [Achenbach 1971] [Adarkar and Hartsook 1966] [Agrawal and Chavez-Garcia 2011] [Akers et al 1970] [Alberts et al 2026] [Alexander 1986] [Alkandry et al 2014] [Amar et al 2016] [Amokrane et al 2024] [Anderson 1969] [April] [April et al 1970] [Arne 1965] [Aronov and Klyagin 2021] [Aronov and Klyagin 2021] [Babashov and Varrik 2020] [Badea et al 2025] [Badea et al 2025] [Bailet et al 2021] [Bailet et al 2022] [Baker 1972] [Baker and Kramer 1982] [Balhoff and Pike 1973] [Bauer and Kummer 1965] [Bauer and Kummer 1966] [Guo et al 2020] [Huang et al 2019] [Libben et al] [Berardi et al 2026] [Bhatia and Roy 2010] [Bhesania et al 2022] [Bhutta and Lewis 1992] [Biberman et al 1980] [Bisek et al 2011] [Bishop and Dicristina 1967] [Blome et al 1975] [Blosser et al 2015] [Boehrk 2017] [Bose 2014] [Brewer 1967] [Brewer 1970] [Brewer and Pittman 1966] [Hollis and Hollingsworth 2025] [Budnik et al 2020] [Butler et al 2016] [Böhrk et al 2010] [Campbell et al 1966] [Carman 1966] [Anderson et al] [Cas et al 2026] [Chaboki et al 1990] [Champman 1972] [Chang et al 2011] [Chang et al 2011] [Chang et al 2022] [Channon and Barry 1967] [Chaturvedi et al 2024] [Chen 2016] [Chen 2016] [Chen 2022] [Chen and Chang 1971] [Chen and Gokcen 2013] [Chen and Gokcen 2015] [Chen and Gökçen 2024] [Chen and Milos 2000] [Chen and Milos 2011] [Chen and Milos 2013] [Chen et al 1993] [Chen et al 1995] [Chen et al 2021] [Cheng et al 2011] [Chinnaraj et al 2023] [Chinnaraj et al 2023] [Cinquegrana et al 2019] [Clarke 1980] [Clarke 2008] [Clayton 1971] [Clever and Denny 1975] [Coheur et al 2017] [Combs et al 2014] [Condren et al 2024] [Congdon et al 2002] [Congdon et al 2003] [Coria and Parisse 2026] [Coskun and Sert 2024] [Coskun et al 2019] [Couch 1973] [Covington et al 2004] [Crose and McKinley 1972] [Cross 1967] [Curry 1965] [Curry 1965] [Curry et al 1966] [da Costa and Sachs 2005] [Dang et al 2022] [Daryabeigi et al 2006] [Davuluri et al 2021] [Davuluri et al 2023] [Determination of the density 1968] [Diaconis et al 1961] [Dickey and Haacker 1963] [Dicristina and Richards 1977] [Dirling 1973] [Dow and Tompkins 1966] [Drawin 1993] [Duston et al 2004] [Elliott 1969] [Ericsson 1967] [Erzincanli et al 2010] [Evaluation of resin-ceramic heat-shield 1965] [Ewing and Pincock 2016] [Experimental evaluation of thermostructural 1979] [Fahy et al 2019] [Farmer 1970] [Feild 1964] [Feldman et al 2012] [Feng et al 2025] [Fleming 1965] [Fleurotte et al 2022] [Friedman 1961] [Friedman et al 1967] [Fu et al 2020] [Fu et al 2020] [Gao 2014] [Gao and Zhu 2025] [Gao et al 2020] [Gao et al 2021] [Gao et al 2026] [Gerasimov 2025] [Gluck et al 1964] [Gluck et al 1968] [Gomez et al 1970] [Gramola 2020] [Graves and Witte 1968] [Greenwald 1972] [Grigat et al 2020] [Grinberg et al 1968] [Groener et al 1980] [Gui et al 1999] [Gulli and Maddalena 2019] [Guo and Huang 2018] [Guo et al 2023] [Hains 1970] [Hakkaki-Fard and Kowsary 2007] [Hall and Nowlan 1978] [Hamaker 1960] [Han et al 2023] [Hannah and Muessig 1970] [Harpale et al 2018] [Hasan 2022] [Havstad and Ferencz 2002] [He et al 2022] [He et al 2023] [Heat shield 1971] [Heat shield delivery 2001] [Heat-shield ablation and sublimation 1965] [Helber et al 2014] [Helber et al 2016] [Heller 1967] [Hollis 2011] [Hou et al 2022] [Howell 1974] [Huang and Dai 2023] [Huang and Fan 2022] [Huang and Yao 2018] [Huang and Yao 2019] [Huang and Yao 2019] [Huang and Yao 2020] [Huang et al 2019] [Huang et al 2019] [Huang et al 2023] [Huang et al 2025] [Huang et al 2026] [Hull et al 1981] [Hunter et al 1985] [Hurwicz et al 1964] [Hypersonic Materials for Thermal Protection 2023] [Islam and Dutta 2025] [Jia et al 2021] [Jin et al 2024] [Johnson and Boisseau 1961] [Johnson et al 2001] [Johnson et al 2006] [Johnson et al 2007] [Jones and Shukla 1999] [Jones et al 1965] [Juneau et al 1970] [Kalashnikov 2021] [Kalugin and Slobodyanyuk 2020] [Kannan and Katte 2018] [Karim et al 2026] [Kato et al 2016] [Kennedy et al 2024] [Kianifar and Mohammadiun 2010] [Kim 2017] [Kim et al 2024] [Knight and Quinn 1971] [Kobayashi and Saperstein 1981] [Koenig et al 2019] [Komurasaki and Candler 2000] [Koo and Mensah 2017] [Koo et al 2018] [Kowal 2010] [Krusos 1968] [Kryvoruka 1976] [Kubota and Uchida 1999] [Kubota et al 2017] [Kubota et al 2018] [Kubota et al 2020] [kumar et al 2017] [Kundu 2013] [Kuznetsov 1996] [Laganelli et al 1974] [Lai and Leu 2023] [Lai and Leu 2023] [Langston et al 2018] [Langston et al 2021] [Lazic and Hrabar 1992] [Le and Goo 2025] [Le Bel and Russell 1965] [Le Bel and Russell 1966] [Le et al 2019] [Le Maout et al 2025] [Lee and Kim 2021] [Lee and Kim 2022] [Lei et al 2026] [Li et al 2015] [Li et al 2015] [Li et al 2020] [Li et al 2020] [Li et al 2021] [Li et al 2025] [Li et al 2025] [Liang et al 2023] [Libby and Hendricks 1970] [Libby and Hendricks 1970] [Lin et al 1984] [Lincoln 1981] [Liu et al 2002] [Liu et al 2018] [Liu et al 2019] [Liu et al 2021] [Long et al 2025] [Low density ablator compositions 1978] [Lundell and Wakefield 1969] [Luo et al 2025] [Lv et al 2026] [Löhle et al 2017] [Machado 2018] [Maddu et al 2023] [Mehta et al] [Mehta et al] [Mansour et al 2011] [Mansour et al 2024] [Marquis et al 2016] [Martin 2013] [Martin and Boyd 2010] [Martin and Panesi 2022] [Martin Co Denver Co 1965] [Martinez et al 2011] [Maslen and Ostrach 1957] [Mastanaiah 1976] [Mazzaracchio 2018] [McAfee et al 2026] [Mei et al 2020] [Meurisse et al 2018] [Miller et al 2011] [Miller et al 2023] [Mills 1971] [Mills et al 1971] [Milos and Chen 2009] [Milos and Gasch 2015] [Milos et al 2015] [Mishra et al 2021] [Mitchel 1971] [Mizuno et al 2007] [Mohammadiun and Mohammadiun 2012] [Moody et al 1982] [Morrison 1975] [Moyer and Wool 1970] [Mullen] [Mullenix and Povitsky 2016] [Multi-Dimensional Thermal Properties of] [Muppidi et al 2014] [Nagata et al 2020] [Natali et al 2016] [Nathan and Bindu 2005] [Nikolaev et al 2006] [Nix 1959] [Olson et al] [Nenarokomov et al 2016] [Nichols and Sichel 1967] [Odion Iyinomen 2022] [Ogawa et al 2019] [Olsen and Chapman 1972] [Ono et al 2024] [Oruganti et al 2026] [Otsu et al 1999] [Otsu et al 2005] [Otsu et al 2010] [Otsu et al 2012] [Oz and Kara 2024] [Paciorri et al 2026] [Paglia et al 2019] [Panesi and Martin 2020] [Park 1983] [Park and Shin 2024] [Park et al 1998] [Parmenter et al 2001] [Pastore et al 2021] [Paydayesh and Kokabi 2015] [Penide-Fernandez and Sansoz 2019] [Pfahl and Dropkin 1966] [Pfahl and Mitchel 1970] [Pitts and Kourtides 1989] [Platus 1983] [Poovathingal and Chen 2022] [Pope and Vojvodich 1964] [Pope et al 2021] [Potts 1984] [Potts 1990] [Prasad 1978] [Prasad and Agrawal 1974] [Pratibha Raghunandan et al] [Pratibha Raghunandan et al 2021] [Price et al 2022] [Price et al 2025] [Prussing and Krier 1978] [Puiroux et al 2002] [Putz and Bartlett 1972] [Qian et al 2015] [Qin et al 2026] [Quinn et al 2024] [Rabinskiy and Tushavina 2019] [Rahimi 2012] [Raper 1981] [Re-radiating heat shield assembly 1989] [Reda et al 2004] [REENTRY EXPERIMENT WILL TEST 1963] [Reentry vehicle nosetip material 1977] [Reinikka and Sartell 1965] [Reinikka and Wells 1963] [Ren 2025] [Ren et al 2021] [Riccio et al 2017] [Riley and Landahl 1968] [Rindal and Dahm 1967] [Rivier et al 2019] [Rong 2017] [Rostkowski and Panesi 2022] [Rostkowski et al 2019] [Rostkowski et al 2022] [Ruperti et al 2004] [Rusert et al 1978] [Sabarilal and Kumar 2018] [Sai Naga Bharghava et al 2024] [Sakai et al 2017] [Salazar and Amar 2021] [Salazar et al 2016, Development and Verification of E] [Salazar et al 2016, Development, Verification and Val] [Salvi et al 2026] [Santos et al 2008] [Satheesh Chandran et al 2021] [Sawant et al 2019] [Schmitt 1972] [Schneider et al 1973] [Schrooyen et al 2017] [Sessim et al 2024] [Shang and Surzhikov 2010] [Shao et al 2026] [Sharma et al 2019] [Shen and Liu 2018] [Shen and Liu 2020] [Sherman 1978] [Shi et al 2023] [Shilav and Khosid 2020] [Shu et al 2024] [Simon et al 2014] [Skolnik and Putnam 2022] [Smith et al 2015] [Sohn et al 2011] [Son and Shin 2019] [Sperow 1965] [Spokes et al 1971] [Stroud and Swann 1965] [Sugavanam and Sastry 1975] [Sullivan and Kobayashi 1987] [Sun and Zhu 2019] [Suzuki et al 2007] [Suzuki et al 2010] [Suzuki et al 2010] [Suzuki et al 2012] [Szasz et al 2015] [Tahmasbi and Noori 2018] [Tahsini and Mousavi 2014] [Tatar 2019] [Tatar 2021] [Thareja and Lewis 1982] [Thermal protection 1970] [Thermal Protection for a Re-Entry Vehicle Using Heat Ablation Process 2015] [Titov and Levin 2011] [Titov et al 2011] [Tolstykh 1969] [Tompkins and Kabana 1973] [Triebes et al 1978] [Tsukamoto et al 2022] [Tushavina 2025] [Ungar 1967] [Vander Kam 2022] [Vander Kam and Gage 2021] [Vaulin et al 2023] [Venkatapathy et al 2016] [Verbinski et al 1976] [Viviani and Pezzella 2007] [Vojvodich 1973] [Vojvodich and Pope 1963] [Wakefield and Lundell 1971] [Walker and Zeigler 1968] [Wang et al 2019] [Wang et al 2022] [Wang et al 2023] [Wang et al 2024] [Wang et al 2025] [Welsh et al 1963] [Wen et al 2023] [Weng and Martin 2013] [Weng and Martin 2014] [Weng and Martin 2014] [Weng and Martin 2015] [Weng et al 2012] [Weng et al 2015] [White et al 2019] [Whitnah 1967] [Wilder and Reda 2004] [Willard 2022] [Williamson 1977] [Winter et al 2014] [Winters 1964] [Wu 2019] [Wu et al 2025] [Wuxing et al 2015] [Xiao et al 1991] [Xiao et al 2022] [Xin et al 2026] [Xu et al 2023] [Yamada and Inatani 2002] [Yamada et al 2002] [Yang et al 2024] [Yang et al 2026] [Yoko et al 2018] [Yoko et al 2019] [Yu et al 2025] [Yuan et al 2024] [Zhang et al 2023] [Zhang et al 2024] [Zheng et al 2025] [Zhu et al 2016] [Zibitsker and Martin 2026] [Zibitsker et al 2022] [Zibitsker et al 2023] [Hoter et al]

Planetary and superorbital entry, descent and landing

The same relations on other planets, and Earth entry faster than orbital speed, including Mars, Venus, Titan and the outer planets, aerocapture, powered descent, sample return capsules and lunar return. 162 of the 442 titles name Mars, which is where the analytic subsection above places the modern work.

442 records. [Abilleira 2013] [Adler 1998] [Afzal et al 2009] [Ai et al 2016] [Albert et al 2022] [Alejandro Pensado et al, Uranus Probe Entry and Descent Tr] [Ali and Braun 2018] [Alkandry et al 2012] [Allen et al 1963] [Amato 2021] [Andrade and Deacon 1969] [Armenise et al 2016] [Atlas-Centaur AC-12 flight performance 1968] [Atlas-Centaur flight performance for 1968] [Babineaux 1966] [Baird et al 2004] [Ball et al 2022] [Bannova 2006] [Bansal et al 2012] [Beck et al 2018] [Beck et al 2021] [Beuf et al 1966] [Bhaskaran and Stern 2024] [Bigham 1970] [Birch et al 2022] [Birch et al 2022] [Bishop et al 2025] [Blette and Braun 2016] [Braun et al] [Broome and Johnson 2007] [Bryson and Denham 1962] [Bryson et al 2018] [Burkhart et al 2005] [Burkhart et al 2006] [Burkhart et al 2013] [Byrne 2020] [Cabrera and Spencer 2024] [Cabrera and West 2026] [Cabrera et al 2022] [Calhoun and Queen 2002] [Calise and Bae 1990] [Casani 1968] [Chakrabarti et al 2024] [Chang et al 2026] [Chapman 1959] [Chapman 1960] [Chapman 1965] [Cheng-Chih Chu] [Chevalier et al 2026] [Chin et al 1964] [Ching et al 2022] [Cho et al 2024] [Choi and Kim 2024] [Christensen and Ko 1969] [Christian et al 2007] [Dickmanns 1986] [Girija 2023] [Gomez-Delrio and Dutta 2024] [Hull et al 1985] [Karlgaard et al] [Karlgaard et al 2020] [Clark et al 2021] [Coate and Lessing 1965] [Coelho and Lino da Silva 2023] [Congdon 1973] [Congdon 1974] [Congdon and Curry 2001] [Cornette and Sullivan 1971] [Crowe and Panda 2026] [Cruden 2012] [Cruz et al 2005] [Dai et al 2017] [Engel et al] [Engel et al] [De Zaiacomo et al 2009] [Dees 2015] [Deng et al 2022] [Desai and Lyons 2008] [Desai et al 1999] [Desai et al 2006] [Desai et al 2008] [Desautel 1984] [Dieriam 1990] [Djamshidpour] [Doihara 2001] [Doihara and Nishida 2001] [Doihara and Nishida 2004] [Duan et al 2023] [Dutta 2025] [Dutta and Braun 2014] [Dutta et al 2012] [Dutta et al 2012] [Dutta et al 2023] [Dutta et al 2023] [Dutta et al 2024] [Dutta et al 2025] [Edquist 1974] [Edquist et al 2023] [Foudriat and Wingrove 1961] [Engel and Putnam 2025] [Engel et al 2022] [Engel et al 2025] [Esch] [Esposito et al 2020] [Fawley and Putnam 2021] [Ferri et al 2017] [Flight performance of Atlas-Agena 1969, Flight performance of Atlas-Agena] [Fonseca et al 2019] [French et al 1971] [Friz and Samareh 2020] [Fujino and Ishikawa 2013] [Fujita et al 1997] [Fujita et al 2011] [Fukuda et al 2017] [Furfaro and Wibben 2012] [Gao et al 2015] [Gao et al 2024] [Gao et al 2025] [Gao et al 2026] [Gao et al 2026] [Garcia et al 2010] [Gebbie et al 2004] [Genge 2016] [Genge 2016] [Genge 2017] [Genge et al 2020] [Girija et al 2021] [Girija et al 2023] [Gnoffo et al 2016] [Golovachov and Lunkin 1979] [Gong et al 2020] [Grasso et al 2010] [Green and Nicolet 1978] [Grover et al 2008] [Guan et al 2025] [Gulick and Edquist 1998] [Gupta et al 1992] [Gülhan et al 2019] [Hamilton et al 1991] [Hao et al 2018] [Harms et al 2010] [Harrison and Slocumb 1969] [Havill et al 1966] [Hilary L. Justh, Status of Venus Global Reference] [Hoelscher 2007] [Holstein-Rathlou et al 2016] [Horvath et al 2002] [Hu et al 2016] [Hu et al 2022] [Huang 2019] [Huang and Li 2016] [Huang et al 2021] [Huang et al 2023] [Ilgen et al 1991] [Inatani 2018] [Interplanetary guidance systems requirements 1966] [Ito and Sakai 2023] [Jenniskens et al 2012] [Ji 2020] [Jiang and Li 2019] [Jiang et al 2018] [Jiang et al 2019] [Jianwei et al 2019] [Jing Pei et al 2025] [Johannesen et al 1985] [Johnson and Arnold 2001] [Johnson et al 2020] [Johnston and Brandis 2022] [Julian Allen 1967] [Jupiter Probe Heat-Shield Configuration 1979] [Kangas et al 2021] [Karlgaard et al 2021] [Karlgaard et al 2023] [Katsurayama and Abe 2010] [Katsurayama and Abe 2012] [Katsurayama et al 2011] [Keys et al 2006] [Mease and Vinh 1985] [Ray et al] [Kc et al 2025] [Kennet and Taylor 1966] [Khan and Hoffman 2009] [Khan and Hoffman 2009] [Kihara et al 2013] [Kipp et al 2007] [Kitting et al 2012] [Kluever 2008] [Koelsch 2011] [Korchagin 2019] [Korzun et al 2020] [Kraetzig et al 2014] [Kumar and Bansal 2023] [Kuwata and Balaram 2011] [Kwon et al 2021] [Kyriss and Rie 1967] [Lakshminarayana et al 2026] [Lasher and Wilson 1968] [Laure and Auweter-Kurtz 1994] [Lee and Lee 2023] [Lee et al 2024] [Lee et al 2025] [Lee et al 2026] [Lefevre] [Lefevre et al 2022] [Lefland and Stehura 2022] [Leibowitz and Kuo 1975] [Leonov and Grishko 2019] [Lessing et al 1964] [Levine 1966] [Li et al 2015] [Li et al 2021] [Liu et al 2008] [Liu et al 2021] [Liu et al 2024] [Liu et al 2026] [Lockwood et al 2005] [Longitudinal Range Control For 1962] [Lorenz and Putnam 2019] [Lu 2018] [Lu 2019] [Lu 2020] [Lu and Callan 2023] [Lu and Davami 2024] [Lu et al 2024] [Luidens 1961] [Lundell 1982] [Lyons and Desai 2005] [Moul et al 1964] [Ma et al 2025] [Maddock et al 2021] [Maddock et al 2021] [Maigler et al 2024] [Mall et al 2024] [Maringer and Manning 1960] [Martin and Boyd 2015] [Martin et al 2015] [Marvin and Pope 1966] [Marvin and Pope 1967] [Marwaha et al 2009] [Mathavaraj and Padhi 2017] [Mathavaraj et al 2016] [Mazzaracchio 2015] [McGilvray et al 2024] [McGruer] [Methods for Predicting Off-Stagnation-Point 1980] [Metzger 2024] [Metzger 2024] [Milos 1996] [Milos et al 1995] [Mischna 2024] [Mischna 2025] [Mischna et al 2022] [Mitchel 1967] [Mitcheltree and Gnoffo 1990] [Miyayama et al 2025] [Modenini et al 2019] [Molina et al 2005] [Mooij 2024] [Moul et al 1961] [Mu et al 2023] [Murakami and Fujiwara 2001] [Murphy et al 1981] [Murray and Tartabini 2001] [Mustafa and Shofiqul 2016] [Nakazawa et al 2022] [Nelson 1980] [Nelson 1983] [Nelson and Mezines 1978] [Nicolet 1975] [Nishikawa et al 2026] [Niu et al 2026] [NlEMANN 1968] [Nurre and Taheri 2026] [Ogino et al 2015] [Olstad 1974] [Onishi and Azimov 2020] [Otsu et al 1998] [Otsu et al 2006] [Otsu et al 2008] [Otsu et al 2009] [Otsu et al 2014] [Ozawa et al 2011] [Page and Woodward 1972] [Palaszewski 2009] [Palazzo 2025] [Pardha Sai Chadalavada et al] [Park 2005] [Park 2008] [Pastor et al 2000] [Peng et al 2018] [Placco et al 2023] [Polsgrove and Dwyer-Cianciolo 2016] [Prakash and Zhong 2008] [Prince et al 2008] [Qiao and Zhang 2026] [Quadrelli et al 2011] [Rairden and Jenniskens 2010] [Rao et al 2022] [Rataczak et al 2025] [Ray 2021] [Reynier 2021] [Reynolds and Mesbahi 2020] [Ridderhof and Tsiotras 2021] [Rimer and Sperling 1966] [Robbiani et al 2025] [Rodi 2021] [Wercinski and Langhoff 1997] [Wingrove and Coate 1962] [Rouzaud et al] [Rui Teng et al 2016] [Sagliano 2018] [Sagliano 2019] [Samareh 2020] [Samareh and Komar 2011] [Sandoval et al 2024] [Santini De Leon et al 2020] [Santini De Leon et al 2022] [Saranathan 2025] [Sato et al 2012] [Scala 1961, Heating problems of entry into pl] [Scamfer et al 2026] [Scandelli et al 2023] [Schoenenberger et al 2005] [Schroenenberger et al 2009] [Seedhouse 2009] [Seiff and Kirk 1976] [Sharma et al 2024] [Shevelev 2018] [Shi et al 1971] [Shoemaker et al 2012] [Silber 2026] [Silber and Bowman 2025] [Silber and Scamfer 2026] [Skalecki et al 1984] [Smith and Yound 1967] [Smith et al 2022] [Son et al 2025] [Sonandres et al 2025] [Sonandres et al 2026] [Song et al 2021] [Sostaric et al 2017] [Southworth 1962] [Spiegel et al 1969] [Stadter and Weiss 1976] [Stafford and Von Struve 1969] [Steiner 1964] [Stiltner et al 2017, Cold Gas Reaction Control System] [Strahan and Sostaric 2016] [Strauss 1966] [Striepe et al 2002] [Su et al 2026] [Su et al 2026] [Subrahmanyam and Rasky 2017] [Sun and Rao 2022] [Sun et al 2015] [Surzhikov 2016] [Surzhikov 2024] [Surzhikov and Yatsukhno 2022] [Sutton 1976] [Suzuki et al 1997] [Suzuki et al 2011] [Suzuki et al 2014] [Tang et al 2025] [Tang et al 2026] [Tauber 1969] [Tauber and Sutton 1991] [Tauber and Yang 1988] [Tauber et al 1988] [Tigges and Ling 1989] [Tiwari and Subramanian 1983] [Tobak and Peterson 1964] [Trent et al 2021] [Tsurumoto et al 2018] [Urraza Atue and Bruce 2025] [V Jha et al] [Venkatapathy and Hash 2026] [Venkatapathy et al 2021] [Vigil and Pérez 2026] [Vinh et al 1977] [Vinh et al 1980] [Vinh et al 1984] [Vinh et al 2000] [Vivek Jacob 2025] [Vorreiter 1972] [Wan 2023] [Wan et al 2022] [Wang 1963] [Wang and Chen 2026] [Wang and Grant 2017] [Wang and Yao 2017] [Wang et al 2024] [Warga and Hailey 1964] [Way 2011] [Way 2013] [Way et al 2006] [Way et al 2007] [Way et al 2022] [Wei et al 2021] [Weng et al 2021] [Werner and Braun 2019] [West et al 2016] [White et al 2013] [Wibben and Furfaro 2016] [Williams et al 2012] [Williams et al 2025] [Wilson and Riccardi 2021] [Wingrove 1965] [Wingrove 1965] [Wingrove 1966] [Winter et al 2012] [Winter et al 2019] [Worth 1966] [Xia et al 2015] [Xiao et al 2025] [Xu et al 2018] [Xu et al 2022] [Yamada 2022] [Yamada et al 2010] [Yamada et al 2011] [Yamagishi et al 2024] [Yang and Liu 2020] [Yang et al 1991] [Ye et al 2022] [Yeh] [Yoshikawa and Wick 1961] [You et al 2021] [You et al 2022] [Zander et al 2024] [Zewge and Bang 2023] [Zhang 2017] [Zhang et al 2017] [Zhang et al 2018] [Zhang et al 2021] [Zhang et al 2025] [Zheng and Cui 2015] [Zheng and Cui 2015] [Zheng et al 2017] [Zhong et al 2019] [Zuppardi 2021] [Zuppardi and Mongelluzzo 2023] [Zuppardi and Mongelluzzo 2024] [Дугин 2017, Flight module and Venus entry veh]

Entry guidance, trajectory optimisation and hypersonic flight control

Steering an entry vehicle and computing the trajectory it should fly, including predictor-corrector guidance, numerical trajectory optimisation and the attitude control of hypersonic vehicles. 277 of the 412 records date from 2010 or later. 85 titles name a convex, pseudospectral, predictor-corrector, evolutionary, swarm, neural or learning method, which is what the free computation described above looks like in a title.

412 records. [Adams and Stoll 1969] [Adimurthy 1976] [Adimurthy 1987] [Alexander 1978] [Batcha et al] [An et al 2019] [Anhtuan D. Ngo] [Archer and Sworder 1979] [Automatic Re-Entry Guidance At 1962] [Bae et al 2024] [Balakrishnan et al 1997] [Baltrum] [Bao et al 2023] [Bao et al 2024] [Bibeau and Rubinstein 2000] [Bin Jiang and Qi 2017] [Boutelle et al] [Brinda et al 2006] [Brusch 1977] [Bryson 1969] [Bu and Lei 2018] [Bu et al 2015] [Buchanan and Crosby 1983] [Burchett 2003] [Byczkowski and Rao 2026] [Byrne et al 1996] [Cai and Huang 2022] [Cai et al 2013] [Cai et al 2015] [Carter 1965] [Carter et al 2005] [Cavallo et al 1996] [Chai et al 2020] [Chander and Krishna 2013] [Chang et al 2018] [Chang et al 2022] [Changsheng et al 2006] [Chao Song et al 2011] [Chen and He 2025] [Chen and Liu 2013] [Chen and Tan 2019] [Chen and Tseng 2011] [Chen et al 2018] [Chen et al 2020] [Chen et al 2021] [Chen et al 2026] [Cheng et al 2016] [Cheng et al 2019] [Cheng et al 2023] [Chi et al 2024] [Childs 1970] [Chimonas 1986] [Chirayath and Bindu 2014] [Chu et al 2026] [Chudej and Bulirsch 1993] [Cole and Aroesty 1965] [Cui et al 2022] [Cui et al 2024] [D’Souza 2015] [D’souza et al 2014] [da Costa and Sachs 2003] [Dai et al 2025] [Dan et al 2022] [Daxini et al 2024] [De Does 1969] [DeMarinis and Huttenlocher 1964] [Deng et al 2017] [Deng et al 2025] [Dewell and Speyer 1993] [Deyst 1968] [Divya and Jayashree 2023] [Dou et al 2018] [Doupe 2015] [Du et al 2015] [Du et al 2024] [Duan et al 2011] [Dukeman 2002] [Dulikravich and Sheffer 1992] [Dulov 1976] [Efremov et al 2023] [Elliott and Rau 1968] [Elsey and Carlson 1968] [Ely et al 2001] [Ernst et al 2024] [Erzberger and Lee 1980] [Eyi et al 2019] [Filatyev 2000] [Fiorentini and Serrani 2012] [Fogarty 1967] [Franze and Barz 2025] [Fu et al 2019] [Fuhry 1999] [Gaiduchenko and Gritsyk 2019] [Gao and Yao 2018] [Gao et al 1997] [Gao et al 2018] [Gao et al 2019] [Gao et al 2022] [Gao et al 2023] [Gao et al 2024] [Gao et al 2024] [Gaohua et al 2014] [Gefert and Wright 2014] [Geng et al 2013] [Geng et al 2014] [Girerd and Barton 2000] [Gohatre and Ram Singla 2019] [Good 1975] [Gracey et al 1981] [Grasso and Passalacqua 1991] [Grimm and Rotärmel] [Gui et al 2020] [Guidance and navigation for 1968] [Guo and Liu 2024] [Guo and Lu 2021] [Guo et al 2017] [Guo et al 2018] [Guo et al 2019] [Guo et al 2020] [Hankey 1963] [Hanson and Jones 2004] [Harpold 1980] [Harpold and Gavert 1982] [Hassan et al 1991] [He et al 2019] [Heller et al 2000] [Hoge and Vaughn 2001] [Hongbo and Yongyuan 2016] [Hooks and Hankey 1965] [Horing et al 2025] [Horneman et al 2010] [Hu et al 2015] [Hu et al 2016] [Hu et al 2021] [Hu et al 2022] [Hu et al 2022] [Hu et al 2022] [Hu et al 2024] [Hu et al 2024] [Huang et al 2018] [Huang et al 2025] [Huang et al 2026] [Ishikawa and Yamazaki 2021] [Ishizuka et al 1998] [Islam 2024] [Jaensch and Markl 1991] [Ji et al 2019] [Ji et al 2025] [Ji et al 2025] [Jiang et al 2018] [Jiang et al 2019] [Johnson 2019] [Jouhaud et al 2007] [Junchun et al 2006] [Jurovics 1961] [Kamm and Johnson 1973] [Keshmiri et al 2006] [Kidner 1993] [Kieszek et al 2024] [Kim and Mavris 2023] [Kim et al 2026] [Klafin and Barnhart 1973] [Klimin and Yaroshevski 1970] [Komorowski and Zalewski 2026] [Kong and Zhang 2024] [Kumar et al 2018] [Langston 1967] [Lee] [Leite et al 2022] [Leonardi 2023] [Leondes and Niemann 1966] [Li et al 2016] [Li et al 2016] [Li et al 2018] [Li et al 2021] [Li et al 2022] [Li et al 2023] [Li et al 2024] [Lian et al 2004] [Liang and Zhu 2021] [Liang et al 2017] [Liang et al 2020] [Liao and Li 2013] [Lim et al 2007] [Lin-lin et al 2015] [Liu 2020] [Liu et al 2005] [Liu et al 2016] [Liu et al 2020] [Liu et al 2024] [Liu et al 2026] [Liwei Zheng and Wuxing Jing] [Lobbia 2017] [Love and Neustadt 1963] [Lu 1991] [Lu 1999] [Lu 2007] [Lu 2014] [Lu and Xue 2009] [Lu et al 2000] [Lu et al 2017] [Luo et al 2023] [Lv et al 2023] [Lysenko and Tachinina 2019] [Ma and Cai 2018] [Ma et al 2018] [Ma et al 2023] [Ma et al 2024] [Ma et al 2025] [Mackle] [Mackle et al 2024] [Mallick et al 2024] [Mallick et al 2026] [Marchetti and Minisci 2021] [Marchetti and Minisci 2023] [Marinescu 1973] [Mease et al 2000] [Meng et al 2016] [Meng et al 2019] [Menon et al 1992] [Merlinge et al 2019] [Miele 1962] [Miele and Saaris 1963] [Miller and Barton 2008] [Miyazawa et al 1993] [Miyazawa et al 1999] [Moch 1966] [Mooij 2001] [Mooij 2004] [Mooij 2005] [Mooij 2014] [Mooij 2017] [Mooij 2018] [Mooij 2018] [Mooij and Barkana 2005] [Mooij and Hanninen 2009] [Mooij et al 2007] [Mor and Livne 2007] [Mu and Wang 2012] [Munipalli et al 2005] [Nair et al 2022] [Naresh Kumar et al 2017] [Nassif et al 2026] [Ni et al 2019] [Niu et al 2018] [Okuno and Watanabe 1992] [Omar and Bevilacqua 2019] [Oñate et al 1991] [Page and Rogers 1977] [Peng et al 2019] [Peng et al 2019] [Peng et al 2022] [Pengxin et al 2015] [Piet-Lahanier and Serre 2017] [Porcelli 1968] [Potsawat et al 2019] [Pratap and Pratap 2025] [Pu et al 2016] [Qu et al 2023] [Rao et al 2023] [Rataczak et al 2025] [Richmond 2022] [Ridderhof et al 2022] [Roenneke 2001] [Roenneke and Cornwell 1992] [Roenneke and Well 1996] [Rosenbaum 1971] [Sachs and Schoder 1991] [Sachs and Schoder 1992] [Sagliano and Mooij 2021] [Shan et al 2015] [Shao and Wang 2015] [Shao and Wang 2016] [Shao et al 2015] [Shen et al 2016] [Shen et al 2018] [Shen et al 2023] [ShengZe Chen et al 2014] [Shenming et al 2017] [Shi et al 2014] [Shi et al 2025] [Shou et al 2021] [Shrivastava and Reddy 1976] [Shu-Chun Zhang et al] [Skaar and Kraige 1982] [Son et al 2022] [Song and Choi 2020] [Song et al 2019] [South 1974] [Starkey et al 2006] [Stengel 1971] [Stoffel et al 2024] [Su et al 2023] [Su et al 2025] [Sun and Duan 2012] [Sun and Zhang 2011] [Sworder and Archer 1977] [Sworder and Wells 1976] [Talole et al 2007] [Tang et al 2022] [Tang et al 2023] [Tannas 1966] [Tao Xu et al 2011] [Tarpley and Lewis 1993] [Taylor 1970] [Teng et al 2016] [Tian and Shen 2022] [Tracy et al 2023] [Trent et al 2007] [Tsuchiya et al 1982] [Vemuri 1982] [Verderese 1971] [Verma et al 2007] [Villanueva 2022] [Vinh and Chern 1979] [Vinh et al 1972] [Wagner 1966] [Wan et al 2023] [Wang and Grant 2018] [Wang and Ren 2011] [Wang and Zhang 2018] [Wang et al 2013] [Wang et al 2014] [Wang et al 2015] [Wang et al 2015] [Wang et al 2017] [Wang et al 2017] [Wang et al 2017] [Wang et al 2017] [Wang et al 2018] [Wang et al 2019] [Wang et al 2019] [Wang et al 2020] [Wang et al 2022] [Wang et al 2022] [Wang et al 2022] [Wang et al 2023] [Wang et al 2024] [Wang et al 2025] [Wang et al 2026] [Wang et al 2026] [Weiner and Homsley 1977] [Weiwei et al 2022] [Wenming et al 2015] [Wingrove 1963] [Wingrove and Coate 1961] [Wu 2018] [Wu and Guo 2018] [Wu et al 2015] [Wu et al 2017] [Xia et al 2020] [Xiao Jiaping and Shen Zuojun 2016] [Xie and Wang 2012] [Xie et al 2024] [Xingling and Honglun 2014] [Xu 2015] [Xu and Zhang 2015] [Xu et al 2011] [Xu et al 2015] [Xu et al 2025] [Xue and Haibin 2017] [Yafei et al 2015] [Yan et al 2020] [Yan et al 2026] [Yang and Li 2023] [Yang and Wang 2012] [Yang et al 2026] [Yao and Jia 2023] [Yao and Xia 2023] [Yao and Xia 2024] [Yao et al 2024] [Ye and Jiang 2020] [Ye et al 2017] [Ye et al 2017] [Yeo and Sng 1980] [Yin et al 2023] [Yongfeng Xie and Shuo Tang 2010] [Yu et al 2023] [Zeng et al 2018] [Zeng et al 2021] [Zerar et al] [Zhai et al 2016] [Zhai et al 2019] [Zhang 2015] [Zhang and Chen 2011] [Zhang and Chen 2011] [Zhang and Ding 2023] [Zhang and Duan 2016] [Zhang and Han 2024] [Zhang and Tang 2008] [Zhang and Wang 2022] [Zhang et al 2012] [Zhang et al 2016] [Zhang et al 2017] [Zhang et al 2021] [Zhang et al 2022] [Zhang et al 2022] [Zhang et al 2023] [Zhang et al 2025] [Zhang et al 2026] [Zhao and Liang 2019] [Zhao et al 2021] [Zhao et al 2022] [Zheng 2021] [Zheng and Selezneva 2022] [Zhi and Yang 2015] [Zhongjie Meng et al 2008] [Zhou 2023] [Zhou and Wang 1987] [Zhou et al 2020] [Zhou et al 2025] [Zhu and Shen 2015]

Lifting bodies and the SV-5 family

The shape PRIME flew and the vehicles that share it, from the M2, HL-10 and X-24 lifting bodies and their flight tests to the HL-20, the X-38, Dream Chaser and the Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle, with the hypersonic aerodynamics of lifting-body shapes.

264 records. [Adams 1975] [Adams and Martindale 1973] [Adams and Martindale 1974] [Adams et al 1973] [Aerothermodynamic design of a 1993] [Allen 2024] [Almosnino 2016] [Anderson et al 1963] [Anderson et al 1967] [Angelini and Denaro 2016] [Aradag et al 2007] [Arrington and Woods 1972] [Aso et al 2004] [Balepin and Hendrick 1998] [Banks and Fisher 2006] [Barret 1998] [Barret 1999] [Baumgartner and Elvin 1995] [Benson 2006] [Billig et al 2016] [Biswell and Puig-Suari 1996] [Bogar et al 1996] [Bohn 1967] [Bonasia et al 1967] [Boylan and Potter 1967] [Brumley and Perich 2022] [Brunner 1966] [Brunner et al 1966] [Bryson et al 1968] [Bugg and Sleeman 1967] [Burkhardt et al 1999] [Béjar-Romero et al 2016] [Campbell et al 1996] [Campbell et al 2004] [Chen et al 2022] [Chen et al 2025] [Chen et al 2026] [Chen et al 2026] [Chernyi and Gonor 1973] [Chin 1970] [Clapp 1965] [Colvin 2021] [Couch and Morris 1968] [Crouch 1999] [Cruz and Ware 1992] [Cutrone et al 2026] [D’Angelo et al 1999] [Dana 1968] [Dana et al 1969] [Davenport et al 1992] [Davis 1966] [Delgado et al 2000] [Delgado et al 2001] [Deng et al 2017] [Deng et al 2017] [Deng et al 2018] [Deng et al 2024] [Design features of lifting 2013] [Dingell et al 1999] [Direct numerical simulations of hypersonic boundary layer transition over a hypersonic transition research vehicle model lifting body at different angles of attack 2023] [Dolan et al 1966] [Dong et al 2024] [Draper and Buck 1968] [Dussy et al 2011] [Eckhardt 2001] [Eggers and Swenson 1966] [Eliseev et al 2014] [Elliott and Hankey 1968] [Erwin 1990] [Falarski and Mort 1970] [Fannelop 1967] [Filatov 1972] [First Glide Flight of 1966] [Fong et al 1970] [Foss and Whitcomb 1960] [Fuhrmann 2003] [Layton 1970] [Gawehn et al 2011] [Gentry 1972] [Gentry et al 1966] [Gibson and Goetz 1971] [Goldberg 1966] [Golubkin and Negoda 1995] [Gérard and Tumino 2006] [Hallion 1998] [Hassell 1960] [Hodge et al 1981] [Holmes 1970] [Holt et al 2016] [Hook and Freeman 1989] [Horvath et al 1990] [Horvath et al 2000] [Ishimoto 1995] [Jackson and Rivers 1998] [Jackson et al 1993] [Jackson et al 1993] [Jackson et al 1994] [Stevens et al 1966] [Jeong et al 2007] [Jeong et al 2009] [Jernell 1971] [Jie Gu et al 2016] [Cochrane and Graham 1971] [McTigue 1970] [Johnson et al 1982] [Kaminsky and Johnson 1964] [Katz and Roglin 2000] [Katz et al 1998] [Kawato et al 2002] [Kawato et al 2003] [Kawato et al 2005] [Kazi et al 2019] [Kempel and Painter 1993] [Kempel and Thompson 1971] [Kempel et al 1971] [Kempel et al 1975] [Kempel et al 1994] [Khurana and Suzuki 2012] [Khurana and Suzuki 2013] [Khurana and Suzuki 2013] [Khurana and Suzuki 2013] [Khurana and Suzuki 2014] [Khurana et al 2012] [Kotfila and Painter 1969] [Krevor et al 2011] [Krevor et al 2011] [Krusos 1967] [Kumar and Mahulikar 2016] [Kurita et al 2006] [La et al 1993] [Ladson 1970] [Lagimoniere and Avram 2024] [Laporte 1966] [Larson 1972] [Layton and McTigue 1969] [Lewellen and Mirels 1966] [Li et al 2010] [Liang et al 2014] [Ling 2017] [Liu et al 2019] [Loddoni et al 2010] [Lusty 1966] [Lynch 1966] [M2-F2 Lifting Body Accident 1967] [MacConochie 2000] [Machin et al 1999] [Maikapar 1967] [Masaki and Yakura 1968] [McGhee 1970] [McTigue and Ryan 1968] [Merlin 2014] [Meyer-Allyn et al 2012] [Micol 1990] [Miele 1968] [Minami and Tsukamoto 2006] [Tang 1970] [Morio et al 2009] [Naeseth 1970] [Nelson et al 1997] [Nietubicz 1975] [Otsu 2016] [Otsu 2018] [P.V and Laxman 2023] [Page and Anderson 1996] [Painter and Sitterle 1974] [Palmer et al 1995] [Peipei et al 2017] [Penland 1975] [Peterson 2004] [Petrov and Soudakov 2016] [Powell 1993] [Powell and Cruz 1991] [Pyle 1971] [Qi et al 2021] [Reed et al 1997] [Raible and Jacob 2003] [Rana and Chudoba 2016] [Rana et al 2017] [Rana et al 2017] [Rasmussen 1978] [Rasmussen 1979] [Reaser 1997] [Recasens et al 2005] [Reimann 2016] [Rice and Cheng] [Rivers et al 1994] [Rizvi et al 2012] [Rizvi et al 2013] [Rizvi et al 2015] [Kempel et al 1970] [Ruf et al 1996] [Saccani 2020] [Sager 1995] [Saltzman et al 1999] [Saltzman et al 2002] [Saltzman et al 2007] [Savino et al 2015] [Scallion 1999] [Schouler et al 2021] [Schouler et al 2021] [Schweikart and Hallion 1998] [Seegmiller 1968] [Shi et al 1969] [Shin et al 1999] [Shin et al 2001] [Slender Lifting Body Axial 1994] [Smith 1965] [Smith et al 1998] [Soccini et al 2015] [Soistmann and Spain 1993] [Spearman 1985] [Squire 1971] [Stadler 1993] [Stalony-Dobrzanski 1966] [Stone and Piland 1991] [Stubbs 1966] [Study of the influence 1967] [Sun et al 2026] [Talay 1992] [Talay 1992] [Talay and Stone 1991] [Tang and Pearson 1973] [Tartabini et al 2000] [Tartabini et al 2002] [Taylor and Allison 2015] [Taylor and Howard 2008] [Thompson 1964] [Thompson 1964] [Thompson 1966] [Thompson 1970] [Thompson 1970] [Tongue and Dingell 1999] [Trifoni and Lafferty 2025] [Trifoni et al 2026] [Van Ghele et al 2018] [van Oort et al 2007] [Vella] [Vetter 1966] [Vidal 1974] [Viladegut 2018] [Ware and Cruz 1993] [Ware et al 1991] [Wartemann et al 2018] [Webb and Bettinger 2024] [Weber et al 2000] [Dana and Gentry 1970] [Winnick 1996] [Woffinden et al 2011] [Wu et al 2009] [Wurster 1983] [Xia et al 2016] [Xiang and Kun 2017] [Xue et al 2023] [Yang et al 2014] [Yang et al 2025] [Yin et al 2024] [Young et al 1972] [Zea et al 2012] [Zhang et al 2019] [Zhang et al 2024] [Zhang et al 2024] [Zhang et al 2026] [Zhang et al 2026] [Zou et al 2025]

Hypersonic glide vehicles, their tracking and their interception

The glide vehicle as a weapon, with its trajectory design and control, and the tracking, prediction and interception of it. 235 of the 252 records date from 2010 or later, and 91 of the titles name tracking, prediction, estimation, detection, radar, interception, intention or defence, which is the inversion the analytic subsection above describes, from designing a manoeuvring entry body to predicting one.

252 records. [Acton 2015] [Ansari and Bernstein 2019] [Arabian 1960] [Arputharaj and Mukherjee 2026] [Ashford 1965] [Autenrieb and Gruhn 2025] [Autenrieb and Gruhn 2026] [Autenrieb et al 2025] [Bahman Zohuri et al 2019] [Bai et al 2025] [Barr et al 2026] [Bartusiak et al 2022] [Barz 2026] [Baxter and Arthur 1965] [Bedrov et al 1965] [Berthelot et al 2026] [Bonavita et al 2026] [Brockmann and Stefanovich 2022] [Burns 2020] [Butler et al 2022] [Butler et al 2023] [Cai and Zhuang 2025] [Cai et al 2026] [Candler and Leyva 2022] [Cangelosi et al 2024] [Chen 2017] [Chen et al 2015] [Chen et al 2016] [Chen et al 2018] [Chen et al 2020] [Chen et al 2020] [Chen et al 2020] [Chen et al 2020] [Chen et al 2021] [Chen et al 2022] [Chen et al 2025] [Cheng et al 2019] [Cheng et al 2020] [Cheng et al 2021] [Cheng et al 2022] [Chiriac 2022] [Coupled dynamic model of state estimation for hypersonic glide vehicle 2018] [Dai et al 2026] [Dendy et al 2026] [Deng 2026] [Deng and Zhao 2026] [Ding et al 2016] [Dong and Cai 2017] [Dong et al 2021] [Dong et al 2023] [Doronzo 2026] [Du et al 2026] [Fan et al 2016] [Fan et al 2017] [Fang et al 2024] [Feng and Zhang 2016] [Feng et al 2017] [Feng et al 2025] [Fergusson] [Froning et al 1996] [Fu et al 2024] [Gao et al 2018] [Gottlieb et al 2024] [Graves and Carmel 1968] [Guo et al 2018] [Guo et al 2023] [Hall et al 2026] [Han et al 2024] [Hao and Yongqi 2024] [Hao et al 2025] [Harris and Davidson 1962] [He et al 2016] [He et al 2017] [He et al 2024] [He et al 2025] [He et al 2026] [He et al 2026] [He et al 2026] [Herrmann et al 2025] [Hou et al 2023] [Hu et al 2021] [Hu et al 2022] [Hu et al 2025] [Huang et al 2017] [Huang et al 2018] [Huang et al 2020] [Huang et al 2021] [Huang et al 2023] [Huang et al 2024] [Jaeger and Hemati 2025] [Jewel and Whitten 1960] [Jia et al 2018] [Jian-bo et al 2017] [Jiang et al 2022] [Jung et al 2024] [Kelley et al 1982] [Kessler 2022] [Knight et al 2026] [Kumar et al 2018] [Kurilova and Li 2026] [Kwon et al 2021] [Le et al 2023] [Lee and Ryoo 2018] [Leng et al 2025] [Li 2021] [Li and Nan 2023] [Li et al 2009] [Li et al 2014] [Li et al 2015] [Li et al 2016] [Li et al 2017] [Li et al 2018] [Li et al 2021] [Li et al 2022] [Li et al 2022] [Li et al 2024] [Li et al 2024] [Li et al 2025] [Li et al 2026] [Li et al 2026] [Liang et al 2015] [Liang et al 2025] [Liang et al 2025] [Liu and Shen 2015] [Liu et al 2010] [Liu et al 2021] [Liu et al 2022] [Liu et al 2023] [Liu et al 2024] [Liu et al 2024] [Liu et al 2025] [Liu et al 2025] [Liu et al 2025] [Liu et al 2025] [Liu et al 2025] [Liu et al 2026] [Liu et al 2026] [Liu et al 2026] [Lock et al 2025] [Lu and Qian 2024] [Luo et al 2022] [Ma et al 2024] [Mai et al 2026] [Malinowski 2020] [Matheny and Smith 2026] [McGrory 2001] [Melville and Helmich 2021] [Meng and Tian 2020] [Meng et al 2021] [Müller and Petervari 2025] [Nguyen et al 2026] [Paulson and Shanks 1959] [Paulson and Shanks 1961] [Ping et al 2017] [Pinto et al 2023] [Pinto et al 2023] [Pottsepp and Shi 1968] [Pulimidi et al 2018] [Qiu et al 2016] [Radhakrishnan and Ozana 2025] [Ragnoli et al 2024] [Rataczak et al 2024] [Raza and Mehmood 2023] [Reentry Maneuvering Vehicle Ascent 2025] [Ren et al 2023] [Rizvi et al 2017] [Rodi 2020] [Rosner and Cibrian 1974] [Sayadi et al 2018] [Scala and Nolan 1960] [Sethi 2025] [Shan et al 2018] [Shao et al 2025] [Shi et al 2023] [Su et al 2024] [Sun 2026] [Sun and Zhang 2020] [Sun et al 2017] [Sun et al 2024] [Sun et al 2025] [Sun et al 2025] [Sun et al 2026] [Sun et al 2026] [Sun et al 2026] [Tan et al 2019] [Tarjáni 2023] [Tianyang et al 2024] [Tong et al 2026] [Tracy and Wright 2020] [ul Islam Rizvi et al 2015] [Wan et al 2019] [Wang 2019] [Wang 2019] [Wang and Chen 2023] [Wang et al 2019] [Wang et al 2022] [Wang et al 2024] [Wang et al 2025] [Wang et al 2026] [Wang et al 2026] [Way et al 2024] [Wei et al 2026] [Wei-wei et al 2013] [Weidong et al 2015] [Weijie et al 2016] [Williams 2021] [Williams et al 2024] [Williams et al 2025] [Williamson et al 2026] [Wright 2015] [Wu and Ma 2019] [Wu et al 2018] [Wu et al 2019] [Xie et al 2021] [Xie et al 2024] [Xie et al 2024] [Xu et al 2023] [Xu Mingliang et al 2010] [Xue et al 2023] [Xue et al 2026] [Yakubayev et al 2026] [Yan and Wang 2012] [Yan et al 2014] [Yan et al 2017] [Yan et al 2024] [Yang et al 2026] [Yanli et al 2016] [Yao et al 2023] [Ye et al 2022] [Yogaswara et al 2017] [Yu et al 2022] [Yuan et al 2026] [Zhai and Yang 2020] [Zhan et al 2017] [Zhang and Du 2017] [Zhang and Zhou 2022] [Zhang and Zhou 2022] [Zhang et al 2015] [Zhang et al 2015] [Zhang et al 2019] [Zhang et al 2022] [Zhang et al 2022] [Zhang et al 2022] [Zhang et al 2022] [Zhang et al 2023] [Zhang et al 2025] [Zhang et al 2025] [Zhang et al 2026] [Zhao et al 2018] [Zhou et al 2026] [Zhu et al 2018] [Zope et al 2026]

Stagnation-point, convective and radiative heating

The heat load the ablator answers, being stagnation-point and convective heating correlations, shock-layer radiation and the aerothermal prediction of entry vehicles.

243 records. [Aerothermodynamic Predictions for Hypersonic 2004] [Anderson 1968] [Anoop et al 2026] [Appar et al 2022] [Arc-Heated Facilities as a 2002] [Avduevskii and Ivanov 1968] [Bade 1975] [Beier 1988] [Bettis and Hosder 2010] [Biberman et al 1972] [Bird 1960] [Blackwell et al 1972] [Bloor 1967] [Boiarski and Parobek 1980] [Bonin et al 2017] [Bose 2009] [Bourdon and Bultel 2008] [Bouslog et al 1993] [Boyd 2002] [Hollis 2020] [Brunner 1959] [Bryson et al 1962] [Bulmer 1975] [Nath 1971] [Pavlov 1967] [Potter and Bailey 1963] [Varghese et al 2023] [Carlozzi] [Cauchon 1967] [Cauchon et al 1967] [Chapman 1967] [Chapter 1 Asymptotically Simplified 2013] [Chapter 13 Numerical Modeling 2013] [Chen 1958] [Chen 1958] [Chen and Fan 2025] [Chen et al 2023] [Chew] [Chou and Smith 1974] [Johnston] [Chun 1991] [Clark et al 1978] [Compton and Cooper 1965] [Conti 1964] [Cooper 1966] [Cooper 1966] [Cozzarelli and Vito 1969] [de Góes Maciel 2022] [DeChant and Wagnild 2020] [Derienzo and Pallone 1967] [Derienzo and Pallone 1967] [Dicristina 1979] [Dobrov et al 2023] [Dogra et al 1987] [Dohnanyi 1964] [Dreyer et al 2021] [Druguet 2012] [Dusinberre 1958] [Eggers et al 1958] [Eliseev and Cherkez 1978] [Engel and Spradley 1968] [Ermak and Neiland 1967] [Fay and Kemp 1963] [Feldick et al 2008] [Finke 1990] [Finson et al 1980] [Fomin 1966] [Fontenot 1965] [Francis 1972] [Fujino et al 2008] [Gai and Cao 2025] [Gally and Campbell 2002] [Gershbein and Kolesnikov 1980] [Glawe et al 1963] [Gnoffo 2007] [Goates et al 2026] [Goekcen and Edwards 1996] [Golovachev 1972] [Golovachev 1979] [Goulard 1961] [Gros 1963] [Gu 2026] [Gu 2026] [Guinn 1961] [Gülhan et al 2001] [Hankey and Hooks 1963] [Hao et al 2017] [Harloff and Petrie 1987] [Hartung et al 1991] [Harvey 1965] [Hassan et al 1991] [Hawkins et al 1999] [Hayes 1964] [Hollis and Hollingsworth 2012] [Hong and Neuenschwander 1991] [Horton and Babineaux 1967] [Horton and Zeh 1966] [Hossain 2025] [Hove and Shih 1977] [Huber 1966] [Husson 1963] [Inger 1991] [Ivanov et al 2011] [Jenke 1979] [Jischke 1968] [Jischke 1970] [Jo et al 2019] [Jo et al 2020] [Judd 1963] [Jumper and Seward 1992] [Kao 1964] [Kashkovsky 2014] [Kaufman 1963] [Kaufman and Louis G. 1963] [Kaufman and Louis G. 1963] [Kaufman and Louis G. 1964] [Kaushikh et al 2018] [Kemp 1960] [Kianvashrad and Knight 2019] [Kim et al 2026] [Kivel 1961] [Koh 1962] [Kozlov 1969] [Kremeyer and Pakhomov 2008] [Krishnamoorthy and Clarke 2016] [Kumar and Jain 1974] [Lee and Pappas 1969] [Lee and Pappas 1970] [Lee et al 1992] [Lee et al 1994] [Lenard 1962] [Li and Geiger 1957] [Li and Zhang 2021] [Libby 1967] [Libby 1967] [Libby and Sepri 1968] [Liechty et al 2011] [Liu 1968] [Liu and Liu 2016] [Liu et al 2019] [Liu et al 2021] [Loehle et al 2021] [Lunev and Khramov 1970] [Haw et al] [Maise 1971] [Martin 1968] [Masters and Cohen 1957] [McAnally and Engel 1979] [McLellan 1955] [Meckler 1964] [Meyer 1959] [Miles and Brown 2002] [Miller 2005] [Morgado et al 2022] [Mori 1965] [Muthanna and Nath 1976] [Muthu et al 2020] [Nelson 1967] [Nerem and Stickford 1964] [Nishida and Sugimoto 1973] [Nishio 1996] [Nomura 1983] [Oguchi 1958] [Olivier 1995] [Olstad 1969] [Olynick 1996] [Otsu et al 2001] [Otsu et al 2004] [Pal 1970] [Pal 1970] [Park 1984] [Parton 2018] [Patrick 2019] [Perini 1972] [Perini 1975] [Pervushin 1982] [Peterson and Frantz 1982] [Plumb 1971] [Pollin 1963] [Pollin 1964] [Pope 1968] [Porter and Cambel 1966] [Radiation and Reentry 1968] [Radiation Properties of Hypersonic 2018] [Radiative Heat Transfer In 2018] [Raju et al 1978] [Ravichandran et al 2023] [Reba 1964] [Reba and Christian 1963] [Reilly 1964] [Reynerson 2006] [Rieken et al 2021] [Rose and Stankevics 1963] [Sasoh and Fujiwara 1990] [Satchell et al 2018] [Scala 1962] [Schmidt 1966] [Schwartzentruber et al 2012] [Sheldon 1967] [Smith et al 1965] [Sockalingam and Tabiei 2009] [Sohn et al 2008] [Sprinks 1963] [Srinivas 2026] [Stewart and Golden 1970] [Strike 1982] [Sun et al 2020] [Sun et al 2023] [Suslov 1969] [Suzuki 1978] [Talbot 1960] [Talbot 1962] [Tashakkor et al 2011] [Test Method for Calculation] [Thompson 1968] [Tokuda and Yang 1966] [Tong 1965] [Tong and Giedt 1963] [Trimmer 1968] [Türkoğlu et al 2026] [Ueno 1963] [Utyuzhnikov and Tirskiy 2013] [Vandrey 1957] [Vasil’kov 1975] [Viviani and Pezzella 2007] [Viviani et al 2008] [Voronkin 1971] [Wang et al 2023] [Warmbrod 1963] [Weeks 1969] [Williams 1968] [Wilson 1970] [Wind-Tunnel Study of Ascent 1981] [Wing 1971] [Winkler 1952] [Winkler 1954] [Winovich 1968] [Wortman 1970] [Zhao et al 2019] [Zhao et al 2022] [Zhou et al 2023] [Zoby et al 1993] [Zuo and Hu 2021]

Capsules and ballistic entry

The unlifted case and the low-lift capsule, being ballistic entry, re-entry vehicle dispersion and tracking, crew return vehicles and capsule aerodynamics, heating and dynamic stability.

232 records. [716. Gemini spacecraft orbital simulation programme 1966] [Abe et al 2000] [Aerodynamics Calculation of Reentry 2013] [Allen 1969] [Arho 1971] [Asad et al 2020] [Aslanov 2016] [Aslanov 2017] [Aslanov and Ledkov 2016] [Bairstow and Barton 2007] [Barbara 1981] [Barth and Bailey 2007] [Bate and Johnson 1962] [Bihari et al 2011] [Bilimoria and Mueller 2010] [Bouyahiaoui et al 2020] [Brunner and Lu 2010] [Bui et al 2006] [Burgio et al 1993] [Burkhardt and Schoettle 1996] [Burns 1974] [Mehta 2019] [Campbell 2025] [Campbell et al 1996] [Chandler 1992] [Chang 1980] [Chang et al 2006] [Chen 1965] [Chen et al 2015] [Cooper et al 2005] [Costa et al 2000] [Cowings et al 2018] [Crenshaw 1983] [Crespo et al 2026] [Crespo et al 2026] [Crowder and Moote 1969] [Culbertson 1970] [Dean et al 2026] [Di Clemente and Ferrarella 2010] [Di Giovanni and Stemmer 2019] [Di Giovanni and Stemmer 2019] [Dingell and Hurlbert 1997] [Dobies 1957] [Driscoll et al 1966] [Duda 2016] [Duda and Nakamura 2017] [e-CRV - Design study 2004] [Endo et al 2024] [Ericsson and Reding 1970] [Experimental Dynamic Stability Investigation on Orion Entry Capsule in Supersonic Flow 2025] [Fan et al 2016] [Fink 1961] [Fitzgerald 1974] [Foster 1960] [Fujimoto et al 2017] [Garland and Hall 1958] [General Dynamics/Astronautics San Diego Ca 1961] [General Dynamics/Astronautics San Diego Ca 1962] [General Dynamics/Astronautics San Diegoca 1961] [Miller 1961] [Mueller et al 1967] [Ghaedamini Harouni and Hashemi Mehneh 2019] [Gillespie and Saha 2003] [Glebova et al 2022] [Glover 1965] [Goldburg et al 1965] [Govindaraj and Ganesan 2024] [Han et al 2024] [Han et al 2025] [Harrison and Aronson 1969] [Hashimoto et al 2016] [Heidrich and Braun 2017] [Hertz 2003] [Hiraki et al 2018] [Hiraki et al 2020] [Hooks and Stone 1992] [Hosaka et al 2026] [Hough 1982] [Hough 1982] [Huang 2022] [Iizuka and Fujii 2006] [Ishihara et al 2015] [Ishii et al 2008] [Jayanthi and Jain 2019] [Johnston 2026] [Kachadourian 1970] [Kadam and Hablani 2014] [Kalil 1966] [Kang et al 2025] [Karthikeyan Kalirajan and Ashok Joshi 2023] [Kashiwagi 1968] [Kazemba et al 2013] [Kennedy and Fields 1962] [Kim et al 2026] [Kim et al 2026] [King 1980] [Koga et al 2014] [Komurasaki and Candler 1998] [Koppa et al 2026] [Kornreich 1963] [Kornuta] [Krupa 1990] [Krysenko 1963] [Kumagai 1964] [Kutkan and Eyi 2018] [Laitone 1959] [Leondes and Volgenau 1967] [Li and Gong 2018] [Liang and Han 2008] [Liang and Ji 2021] [Liang and Liu 2009] [Liang et al 2010] [Licata 1977] [Loh 1962] [Loh 1962] [Lu and Zhou 2016] [Lu et al 2017] [Luo and Liu 2009] [Neal 1963] [Lykoudis 1964] [Ma et al 2024] [Marichalar et al 2012] [Matsuda et al 2013] [Matsumoto et al 2016] [McNamara and Braun 2014] [Mehra 1971] [Mehta 2005] [Mehta 2023] [Mehta 2023] [Miele 1957] [Miki and Fujii 2018] [Montella et al 2025] [Montella et al 2025] [Montella et al 2026] [Moreira et al 2022] [Moseley 1969] [Moss et al 2006] [Mu and liCai 2016] [Murphy and Rubesin 1965] [Nagata et al 2016] [Nakamura et al 2014] [Nebylov and Nebylov 2024] [Neto et al 2021] [Rahaim and Wood] [Niculescu et al 2018] [Nomura et al 2018] [Nomura et al 2019] [Norfleet et al 1975] [O’Hare and Anderson 1993] [Ohmichi et al 2019] [Okano et al 2023] [Okano et al 2024] [Okano et al 2024] [Otsu 2021] [Palharini et al 2019] [Park 2001] [Patil et al 2004] [Pezzella and Votta 2009] [Phillips and Cohen 1959] [Phillips and Kryvoruka 1973] [Plastinin et al 2007] [Platus 1967] [Platus 1967] [Platus 1980] [Platus 1982] [Platus 1998] [Pollak 1962] [Price and Ericsson 1970] [Probst et al 2022] [Putnam and Braun 2015] [Raeisi et al 2019] [Rasmussen 1969] [Rathakrishnan 2024] [Morth 1966] [Rea 2008] [Rea and Putnam 2007] [Reitz 1972] [Rong et al 2015] [Rossman et al 2017] [Ruffner et al 2023] [Rugescu 2013] [Sabin 1975] [Scherberg and Rubin 1953] [Schoettle et al 1997] [Schrijer and Walpot 2010] [Schweppe 1964] [Seeley and Cole 1965] [Sepahban and Williams 1993] [Shetu et al 2026] [Shi et al 2020] [Smith et al 1990] [Sostaric et al 2019] [Soumya et al 2018] [Stiles 1970] [Strand 1959] [Surzhikov 2017] [Suzuki and Sawada 2000] [Takahashi et al 2016] [Takii et al 2014] [Tang and Wright 2007] [Tanno et al 2010] [Tanno et al 2013] [Tauber 1970] [Teramoto and Fujii 2002] [Teramoto et al 1998] [Theiss and Hein 2017] [Tendeland and Pearson 1962] [Tigges et al 2011] [Timofeev 2020] [Valentini et al 2026] [Viviani and Pezzella 2009] [Viviani and Pezzella 2015] [Viviani et al 2006] [Wang et al 2023] [Watkins et al 2008] [Weilmuenster et al 1990] [Williamson 1978] [Willier et al 2026] [Withers 2015] [Wood et al 1996] [Xie et al 2015] [Xu 2022] [Xu et al 2020] [Yang and Radespiel 2017] [Yang et al 2016] [Yang et al 2018] [Yang et al 2019] [Yuntong et al 2025] [Zhang et al 2017] [Zhao 1993] [Zhou et al 2012] [Zimmermann et al 1996]

The equilibrium glide and analytic entry trajectories

The trajectory the article’s derivation assumes, being the equilibrium glide, approximate and analytic solutions of lifting entry, skip entry, entry corridors and the optimisation of the entry trajectory itself.

227 records. [Allen 1964] [Allen 1966] [Analytical, experimental, and developmental 1967] [Antonova and Skiba 1968] [Approximate analysis of atmosphere re-entry trajectories II 1965] [Arora 2002] [Aslanov 2017] [Atmospheric Entry 2004] [Babineaux et al 1963] [Bao et al 2021] [Bass 1980] [Bayle 1982] [Bell 1965] [Bequaert and Chin 1963] [Betz 1967] [Boylan et al 1976] [Breitner and Pesch 1994] [Broglio 1961] [Brunner] [Bulmer 1974] [Burton 1974] [Busemann et al 1969] [Byczkowski and Rao 2024] [Carlson and Swenson 1966] [Chai et al 2020] [Chao et al 2026] [Cheatham 1959] [Chen et al 2016] [Chen et al 2020] [Chen et al 2020] [Chen et al 2020] [Chen et al 2020] [Chen et al 2021] [Cheng et al 2017] [Chern and Vinh 1978] [Chern and Vinh 1980] [Chern et al 1988] [Craig et al 1994] [Crawford 1971] [Dai et al 2026] [Das et al 2023] [Das et al 2024] [Delpino et al 1967] [Dix et al 1967] [Dong et al 2025] [Duan and Li 2015] [Duncan 1968] [Dunkley 1970] [Eggers and Wong 1961] [Enmi et al 2018] [Giraldo-Grueso et al 2025] [Fine 1967] [Fletcher and Jaquet 1962] [Garcia-Llama 2007] [Geiger 1962] [Giraldo-Grueso et al 2026] [Glover 1966] [Grant 1960] [Greene and Williamson 1982] [Guo et al 2021] [Han and Jia 2023] [Hao et al 2019] [Haoui 2011] [He et al 2017] [Holleman 1966] [Huang et al 2021] [Huang et al 2024] [Igra 2019] [Inatani et al 1992] [Ji et al 2018] [Jinchuan Hu et al 2015] [Jordan and Barrett 1961] [Kao 1964] [Kelley and Sullivan 1972] [Khramov and Chekmarev 1982] [Kluever 2008] [Krupp 1965] [Kumar et al 2018] [Laganelli 1980] [Leavitt and Mease 2007] [Lebedev et al 1969] [Lee and Mason 1960] [Lees et al 1959] [Lennon and Poirter 1974] [Li et al 2016] [Li et al 2025] [Liang and Ren 2018] [Liang et al 2024] [Lin et al 2020] [Liu and He 2017] [Liu et al 2020] [Liu et al 2021] [Liu et al 2022] [Liu et al 2022] [Liu et al 2023] [Logan 1968] [Love 1966] [Lu 2005] [Lu 2008] [Luo and Su 2016] [Luo et al 2015] [Luo et al 2026] [Ma et al 2022] [Mahmoud et al 2017] [Mao et al 2016] [Maorui Zhang et al 2010] [Maorui Zhang et al 2010] [Martin 1966] [Masuda et al 2016] [Matsumoto et al 2015] [Ming-Guang et al 2006] [MingLin 2022] [Moe 1960] [Mooij 2004] [Mori et al 2002] [Morth 1970] [Multi-objective reentry trajectory optimization method via GVD for hypersonic vehicles 2017] [Musen and Squires 1965] [Nachtsheim and Lehman 1980] [Norman and Meier 1963] [Ohya and Kato 1985] [Optimal Glide of Reentry 1981] [Otsu et al 2011] [Parsons 1964] [Pei et al 2021] [Peigin and Désidéri 2001] [Ping Li et al 2010] [Platus 1994] [Project EGRESS Earthbound Guaranteed 1990] [Putnam and Braun 2016] [Qi et al 2025] [Qu et al 2016] [Rahman 1962] [Rahman 1963] [Randall 1970] [Re-Entry Trajectory with Diveline 1993] [Rea and Putnam 2007] [Reding and Svendsen 1988] [Reentry flight predictions around 1994] [Reentry Trajectory Estimation 2024] [Ren et al 2019] [Ruger 1964] [Savage and Tinling 1959] [Scala 1961] [Scala 1962] [Schadt 1968] [Shen 1963] [Shen et al 2002] [Shi et al 2012] [Short 1961] [Spearman 1984] [Speyer and Womble 1971] [Srivastava et al 2022] [Starkey and Lewis 2000] [Steinfeldt and Tsiotras 2010] [Stern 1968] [Sun et al 2025] [Sun et al 2026] [Sun et al 2026] [Sushnigdha 2022] [Sushnigdha and Joshi 2018] [Tang et al 2020] [Tannas 1966] [Tartabini et al 2011] [Teofilatto 2024] [Terasaki 1963] [Thomas et al 2022] [Timchenko et al 2004] [Tong et al 2026] [Townend 1979] [Trella and Vaglio-Laurin 1964] [Tu and Yuan 2006] [V. A. Yaroshevskii Approximate 1965] [Vinh and Johannesen 1985] [Vinh et al 1981] [Vorreiter et al 1973] [Walker 1965] [Wang 1963] [Wang and Dong 2013] [Wang and Ting 1961] [Wang et al 2013] [Wang et al 2015] [Wang et al 2016] [Wang et al 2017] [Wang et al 2019] [Wang et al 2020] [Wang et al 2025] [Wang et al 2026] [Wang et al 2026] [Wang et al 2026] [Wei et al 2018] [Wong et al 1960] [Wu et al 2018] [Wu et al 2021] [Wu et al 2026] [Xiao-tian et al 2022] [Xie et al 2021] [Xie et al 2023] [Xu et al 2011] [Xu et al 2012] [Xu et al 2019] [Xu et al 2022] [Yan et al 2023] [Yang and Meng 2012] [Yang and Sun 2011] [Yang and Wang 2015] [Yang et al 2016] [Yoshino et al 2007] [Yu and Chen 2011] [Yu et al 2026] [Zhang et al 2017] [Zhang et al 2018] [Zhang et al 2019] [Zhang Qingzhen et al 2007] [Zhao and Pan 2025] [Zhao and Zhou 2013] [Zhao et al 2014] [Zhao et al 2019] [Zhengchun 2018] [Zhiqiang Zhao and Zhengdong Hu 2010] [Zhongjie Meng et al 2010] [Zhou 2009] [Zhou et al 2012] [Zhou et al 2019] [Zhu et al 2026] [Zhuo et al 2011] [Zou et al 2013]

The Space Shuttle orbiter and its requirement

The vehicle that PRIME’s crossrange fed, being the orbiter’s entry, guidance, aerothermodynamics, thermal protection, flight control and landing. 162 of the 218 records date from before 1990, which is the shape of a literature about a vehicle that was designed in the 1970s and flew its entries from 1981.

218 records. [Adams 1971] [Alber 2012] [Albright and Wichmann 1994] [Alred 1983] [An et al 1996] [Andrews 1977] [Anthony et al 1972] [Approximate Method of Predicting 1983] [Assessment of Alternate Thermal 1983] [Audley and Hodge 1982] [Balakrishnan 1984] [Barton and Culp 1985] [Bayle 1984] [Blanchard et al 2001] [Blazek and Carrier 1974] [Blevins and Hohmann 1975] [Bradley et al 1983] [Brauckmann and Scallion 2004] [Brauckmann et al 1994] [Brauckmann et al 1995] [Brice and Sugano 1978] [Campbell 2007] [Campbell et al 1989] [Caram et al 1993] [Carter and Kaul 1975] [Cassanto et al 1988] [Causey and Sohoni 1973] [Champion 1993] [Chi et al 1996] [Christiansen and Ortega 1990] [Cohen and Silveira 2003] [Compton et al 1982] [Cooper 1982] [Cowling 2011] [Cunningham 1972] [Curry et al 1982] [Curry et al 1983] [Curry et al 1986] [Curry et al 2002] [Daforno et al 1973] [Danesi 1982] [Daniels and Brooks 1991] [Daugherty and Stubbs 1987] [Daugherty and Stubbs 1988] [Debevoise and McGinnis 1972] [Dejarnette and Jones 1971] [Deriugin et al 1973] [Diffusion bonded columbium panels 1973] [Doggett 2008] [Dotts et al 1982] [Dotts et al 1982] [Doyle 1981] [Doyle et al 1986] [Duggan 1977] [Dziubala et al 1973] [Elder 1975] [Elias 1974] [Emero 1980] [Ericsson and Reding 1978] [Fester et al 1975] [Forsberg and Anderson 1972] [Fraser 1983] [Gallegos 1978] [Gatto 1983] [Gilmore et al 2011] [Gong et al 1984] [Green et al 1983] [Grooms et al 1984] [Haeuser et al 1992] [Harpold and Gavert 1983] [Harpold and Graves 1978] [Harpold and Hill 1980] [Harpold and Hill 1980] [Helms 1981] [Henderson and Nguyen 2011] [Hiltz 1972] [Hoopes and Takahashi 2024] [Horvath et al 2013] [Ikawa 1977] [Ikawa 1977] [Iliff and Shafer 1993] [Iliff et al 1981] [Iliff et al 1983] [Jeffs 1979] [Johnson et al 1986] [Jones 1973] [Joosten 1985] [Kafer 1982] [Kafer et al 1976] [Kanipe 1983] [Ko et al 1981] [Krek] [Kremer and Mease 1994] [Kriegsman and Tao 1975] [Kyle 1975] [Lee and Harthun 1982] [Letts and Castle 1981] [Lewis 1983] [Li 1981] [Logsdon 1986] [Longo and Radespiel 1991] [Lorincz 1980] [Lowry 2013] [Lutes and Hodge 1984] [Ma 1992] [Maglieri et al 2011] [Maglieri et al 2011] [Marichalar et al 2006] [Martin 1985] [Martindale and Carter 1975] [Matienzo et al 1985] [Maus et al 1984] [McCluskey 2004] [McDonnell Douglas 1972] [McGlathery 1973] [McNamara 1971] [Mease and Kremer 1992] [Mease and Kremer 1994] [Merlin 2006] [Minott and O’Hern 1974] [Minott et al 1976] [Monopropellant engine investigation for 1975] [Montez and Madden 1982] [Moser and Schneider 1981] [Murad 1985] [Nagle and Sinclair 1989] [NDE nondestructive evaluation of 1994] [North 1978] [Nutt et al 1979] [O’Brien 1972] [Papadopoulos et al 2001] [Park and Rakich 1980] [Pejsa 1972] [Pesch 1980] [Peterson and Uney 1978] [Pielke 1993] [Pielke 1994] [Powell 1977] [Powell and Freeman 1984] [Powell et al 1976] [Prabhu and Tannehill 1984] [Prabhu et al 2003] [Pruett et al 1981] [Pulsonetti and Wood 2005] [Ragsdale and Bown 1977] [Rajagopal and Ortiz 1998] [Ramnath and Sinha 1975] [Rault 1993] [Rausch and Roberts 1974] [Rehder and Holloway 1972] [Restrepo and Valasek 2006] [Reuther et al 2004] [Richie and Rish 1982] [Rizk and Ben-Shmuel 1985] [Rochelle et al 1972] [Romere and Young 1983] [Romere et al 1978] [Romere et al 1983] [Ronquillo and Williams 1984] [Rosello 1995] [Rowell et al 1980] [Sawko and Goldstein 1992] [Scallion 2005] [Scott 1978] [Shuttle Orbiter Reusable Surface 1983] [Siemers and Larson 1978] [Siemers and Larson 1979] [Siemers et al 1983] [Smith 1973] [Sohoni 1973] [Sohoni 1976] [Space shuttle flight rates 1987, Space shuttle flight rates and ut] [Space shuttle guidance, navigation 1973] [Space shuttle log 1986] [Space Shuttle maiden 1979] [Space Shuttle Orbiter Leading 1983] [Space shuttle setback 1987, Space shuttle setback] [Stallings 1981] [Stengel 1972] [Stolarski et al 1973] [Stolarski et al 1974] [Stone and Powell 1976] [Straube et al 2002] [Strauss 1975] [Streb 1972] [Stuckey 2001] [Sund and Hill 1979] [Suppanz and Schroeder 1978] [Surber and Olsen 1974] [Tartaglione and Mazzola 1982] [Tewell et al 1983] [Thompson 1985] [Thompson et al 1972] [Throckmorton 1981] [Throckmorton 1982] [Throckmorton 1993] [Tile-Gap Flow in the 1983] [Ting 1982] [Ting et al 1986] [Tow et al 1989] [Townend 1972] [Treybig 1975] [Trujillo 1986] [Venkatapathy et al 1982] [Vinh and Laitone 1972] [Wada and Kubota 1992] [Waldrop 1980] [Wang and Caram 1994] [Ware and Spencer 1986] [Weilmuenster and Hamilton 1982] [Weiss 1971] [Wells 1983] [Whitesides et al 1990] [Williams and Curry 1983] [Wittliff 1984] [Wood and Alter 2008] [Wood and Oliver 2011] [Young and Underwood 1982]

Reusable launch vehicles, spaceplanes and booster return

Winged and reusable successors and the return of boosters, being reusable launch vehicle entry and landing, spaceplanes, and the recovery of launch vehicle stages.

153 records. [2018, ISRO Releases the Special Issue o] [Agarwalla 2025] [AL-Bakri and Kluever 2017] [Allard 2024] [Aprovitola et al 2019] [Aprovitola et al 2021] [Ashikhmina et al 2021] [Aslanov and Ledkov 2018] [Bae et al 2022] [Bagal 2026] [Bojun et al 2019] [Bollino et al 2006] [Botelho et al 2022] [Brandenburg et al 2022] [Brociek et al 2023] [Calhoun 2000] [Carman et al 2026] [Carradori et al 2026] [Chang et al 2026] [Chapter 12 Methodology of 2013] [Chaudhary et al 2001] [Chavagnac 2003] [Chen et al 2005] [Chen et al 2025] [Chen et al 2026] [Chowdhry et al 2001] [Cinquegrana et al 2015] [Das et al 2008] [De Oliveira and Lavagna 2023] [De Oliveira and Lavagna 2024] [De Stefano Fumo et al 2013] [Desikan and Srinivasan 2018] [Dong et al 2023] [Dufour et al 2015] [Ernst and Leidinger 1988] [European Space Agency launches mini-spaceplane 2015] [Fang et al 2017] [Foster 1959] [Gang et al 2005] [Gibney 2015] [Gray et al 2009] [Guadagnini et al 2023] [Gulli et al 2015] [Gupta and Ramkumar 2015] [Gupta et al 2018] [Halbe et al 2010] [Hwang et al 2026] [Ishijima et al 1998] [Ivanov et al 2007] [Jayan et al 2024] [Jee et al 2022] [Jianguo et al 2016] [Junaid R and Beebi M 2015] [Kaufman 1970] [Khamlak 2026] [Kharchenko and Kryukov 2018] [Kiehn 2020] [Kim et al 2021] [Kluever and Neal 2015] [Koch et al 2025] [Kolga and Rundau 2024] [Kumar and Mahulikar 2016] [Kumar and Mahulikar 2017] [Le and Goo 2021] [Lee et al 2026] [Li and Gong 2022] [Li and Hu 2018] [Li et al 2026] [Liaoni Wu et al 2008] [Liu 2019] [Liu et al 2017] [Lu 1993] [Lu 1996] [Lu 1997] [Lu 1999] [Mahmoud and Maaruf 2021] [Marchetti et al 2024] [Mathavaraj and Padhi 2020] [Mathavaraj et al 2010] [Meckler 1965] [Moreira et al 2022] [Mukundan et al 2022] [Nag et al 2023] [Nelson 2003] [Nugroho et al 2024] [Numerical Optimization on Approach and Landing for Reusable Launch Vehicle 2016] [Oakes 2021] [Paletta et al 2015] [Parhi et al 2018] [Parmenter et al 2002] [Pei et al 2025] [Qu et al 2023] [Rasky 1998] [Reusable Reentry Satellite RRS 1990, Reusable Reentry Satellite RRS Co] [Reusable Reentry Satellite RRS 1990, Reusable Reentry Satellite RRS Re] [Reusable Reentry Satellite RRS 1991, Reusable Reentry Satellite RRS sy] [Reusable Reentry Satellite RRS 1991, Reusable Reentry Satellite RRS sy] [Ricciardi et al 2019] [Roche and Kosareo 2001] [Roche et al 2000] [S. Hameed and G. R 2021] [Sarkar et al 2021] [Simplício et al 2019] [Singh et al 2022] [Singh et al 2023] [Sivan and Pandian 2018] [Strauss and Boensch 1973] [Su and Liu 2025] [Su and Wang 2015] [Su et al 2021] [Supersonic and Hypersonic Flight Dynamics Realization for the Spaceliner Real-Time Human-In-the-Loop Space Flight Simulator 2019] [Tariq et al 2026] [Tejtel et al 2011] [Tewell 1984] [Thies 2022] [Tian et al 2025] [Tillier 1998] [Trefny 1999] [Vinh and Lin 1982] [Wang et al 2015] [Wang et al 2018] [Wang et al 2020] [Wang et al 2020] [Wang et al 2022] [Wang et al 2024] [Wen et al 2021] [Wu et al 2020] [Xiong et al 2022] [Xu and Lan 2018] [Xu and Tang 2010] [Xu et al 2016] [Xu et al 2024] [Yang 2025] [Yang 2025] [Yue et al 2018] [Yue et al 2019] [Yue et al 2022] [Yue et al 2022] [Zang and Tang 2012] [Zaragoza Prous et al 2025] [Zhang and Liu 2011] [Zhang et al 2014] [Zhang et al 2021] [Zhang et al 2021] [Zhang et al 2024] [Zhang et al 2025] [Zhao et al 2020] [Zhi et al 2015] [Zhou et al 2025] [Zou et al 2015] [Zuo et al 2026] [Zuppardi and Mongelluzzo 2023] [Çelik and Demirezen 2024]

Entry flight experiments, measurements and programmes

Entry flight tests and the measurements taken on them, together with the period programmes and the launch vehicles that flew them, the Atlas among them.

120 records. [Abe et al 2001] [Adams] [Armstrong 1977] [Asl and Farahani 2013] [Bakulin et al 2016] [Bettis and Hosder 2011] [Bifurcation Analysis for the 2004] [Bityurin and Bocharov 2014] [Blanchard 1961] [Blodgett et al 1986] [Borrelli et al 2009] [Cain and Snelling 2022] [Chang et al 2018] [Chaw-Bing Chang et al 1977] [Christoph 1985] [Compilation of Papers Presented 1962] [Cooper 1968] [Costa and Sachs 2002] [da Costa and Sachs 2002] [da Costa and Sachs 2003] [Daniels and Dryden 1974] [Daw 1966] [de Góes Maciel 2015] [Derbidge and Dahm 1976] [Donahue and Farrell 1979] [Dubois-Matra and Bishop 2003] [Ehmsen 1971] [Ehret 1993] [Finson et al 1978] [Frankenthal 1964] [Franze and Basov 2026] [Gaitonde and Shang 1993] [Gallais] [Gallais] [Gallais] [Golenko and Sychev 2020] [Grabowsky et al 1981] [Gravlee et al 2008] [Herbert A Wilson and Robert L Wright 1965] [Hollars 1982] [Hongbo Chen and Di Yang] [Hunt et al 2015] [Ingber 1965] [Jian et al 2006] [Johnis 2023] [Johnson 2008] [Joshi et al 2015] [Joshi et al 2023] [Jung et al 2024] [Kameda et al] [Kamimura et al 2012] [Keith Soo Hoo et al 1972] [Knott 1969] [Kovtunenko et al 1986] [Le Maout et al 2023] [Leveugle and Reinhard 1999] [Li 1989] [Li et al 2018] [Li Ruikang et al 2006] [Lin et al 2003] [Lyons 1977] [Maciel and Andrade 2017] [Maciel and Andrade 2017] [Macret and Leveugle 1999] [Martin Co Denver Co 1966] [McAlees 1968] [Minisci and Vasile 2013] [Moshman and Proulx 2014] [Naigang Cui et al 2009] [NASA to launch 5th 1966] [Naughton 2002] [Ogasawara and Nishioka 2001] [Ostrom] [Otsu et al 2006] [Paletta et al 2014] [Park 1976] [Peicheng et al 2018] [Persen 1969] [Platus 1975] [Platus 1980] [Potter 1985] [Potts 1981] [Precise Reentry Estimation Using 2024] [Priceman and Sama 1966] [Pritchard 1963] [Reed et al 2016] [Reentry Acceleration Characterization 2024] [Rigali et al 1980] [Coate et al 1962] [Burns et al] [Setterfield et al 2021] [Shahzad and Weiduo 2019] [Shang and Gaitonde 1994] [Sharenson 1966] [Sheeley et al 2006] [Skaggs et al 1967] [Skalandunas 1963] [Starkey et al 2003] [Sun et al 2024] [Sunken Reentry Vehicle 2013] [Szu 2023] [Thomas and Perlbachs 1967] [Thompson 1967] [Thompson and Horton 1981] [Thompson et al 1982] [Touryan and Sluyter 1966] [Vibration of a Reentry 1975] [Vijay and Jayashree 2024] [Wallace 1999] [Wang et al 2014] [Watson 1970] [Watts 2005] [Watts 2005] [Whittenberger 1977] [Wolfe 1966] [Wortman 1969] [Wuxing et al 2015] [Zheng et al 2004] [Zheng et al 2025] [Zhou et al 2012]

Debris, casualty risk and range safety

The footprint as a hazard, being the re-entry of debris and spent stages, casualty risk, breakup and survivability, and range safety for launch and entry.

97 records. [Adams and Kao 2001] [Ailor et al 2006] [Al-Zaidi et al 2020] [Al-Zaidi et al 2020] [Annaloro et al 2020] [Anz-Meador and Potter 1991] [Aoping et al 2026] [Aslanov and Sizov 2020] [Bacon and Matney 2016] [Baeker et al 2005] [Basar and Ghosh 2023] [Bigham and Puri 2025] [Bohman et al 2024] [Braun et al 2020] [Capristan and Alonso 2014] [Chen et al 2025] [Chen et al 2025] [Chen et al 2025] [Chen et al 2026] [Cho et al 2021] [Chris Ostrom et al] [Collins et al 2005] [Da Costa 2003] [De Vita et al 2015] [Dreher et al 1980] [Dunker and Hill 2025] [Edrington 1966] [Falsone and Prandini 2017] [Falsone et al 2014] [Fernando and Charalambous 2026] [Ferreira et al 2023] [Ferreira Santos 2022] [Findley 1961] [Gao et al 2023] [Glaese and Kennel 1979] [Glaese and Kennel 1981] [Gruber et al 2023] [Haber 2017] [Hakima and Bazzocchi 2021] [Koehler et al 2025] [Hong and Kim 2024] [Jain and Hastings 2025] [Jain et al 2023] [Jenkin et al 2024] [Jie Liang, Zhihui Li, Xuguo Li & Weibo Shi 2020] [Holladay et al 2026] [Jorgensen and Sharf 2021] [Kaplan and Alexander 1979] [Kessler 1981] [Kezirian and Lloyd 2024] [Kim et al 2018] [Kim et al 2019] [Kim et al 2025] [Kurtz et al 1965] [Ledermann] [Lee et al 2018] [Leiser et al 2022] [Longlune et al 2026] [Matney 2008] [Megner 2025] [Millard and Acon-Chen 2010] [Mueller 1985] [Murcia P et al 2019] [Navaz and Ntantis 2026] [Omar and Bevilacqua 2017] [Park and Park 2017] [Park et al 2018] [Park et al 2026] [Patera 2005] [Patera 2006] [Perini 1975] [Prevereaud et al 2012] [Rao 2000] [Rao and Woeste 1979] [Reyhanoglu and Alvarado 2013] [Reynerson 2005] [Rochelle et al 1997] [Ross and Madden 1994] [Sampaio and Dos Santos 2020] [Sampaio and Santos 2021] [Sanson et al 2019] [Santos and Sampaio 2021] [Sawal et al 2024] [Smith et al 1989] [Spahr 1969] [Standard Classification for Space] [Stern 2008] [Suwantong et al 2012] [Suwantong et al 2013] [Twiss 1965] [Wang et al 2026] [Wei 2024] [Westerman 1963] [Wu et al 2011] [Yoon and Ahn 2016] [Yuricich 2026] [Öztürk et al 2026]

Reaction control, attitude control and control surfaces

Holding the bank angle, being reaction jets, flaps and control surfaces at hypersonic speed, and the attitude control of spacecraft and entry vehicles.

90 records. [Agustin et al 1998] [Amaratunga et al 1996] [Andrew et al 1966] [Autenrieb and Fezans 2024] [Bailey et al 2008] [Bedrossian et al 1990] [Bernussou 1973] [Besco 1965] [Bevacqoa et al 2004] [Bittner et al 1983] [Buerger and Glanzmann 1970] [Cai et al 2014] [Cannon and Eppler 1965] [Cavallo et al 1996] [Childs 1970] [Colburn and White 1977] [Compton et al 1983] [De Angelis and Tang 1969] [de Rosa et al 2016] [Di Clemente et al 2006] [Du et al 2016] [Dunavant and Edwards 1966] [Etheridge and Boudreaux 1970] [Flight Sciences Lab Inc Buffalo Ny 1964] [Flora et al 2019] [Garg 1979] [Gevarter 1967] [Ghori et al 2023] [Greer and Griep 1967] [Guo et al 2025] [Guo Jianguo et al 2016] [Gutman 1967] [Hill Jr. and Smith 1969] [Hong et al 2014] [Hooker et al 1970] [Hughes 1964] [Hui and East 1971] [Huston 1966] [Ito et al 2002] [Jiang et al 2020] [Jianguo et al 2017] [Jiayuan et al 2018] [Jordan and Buffington 1987] [Kanning 1966] [Kind and Orlik-Rueckemann 1966] [Kirsten and Ash 1974] [Kontis and Stollery 1996] [Kumar and Stollery 1995] [Kumar and Stollery 1996] [Kuntz et al 1987] [Lappas 2008] [Lecompte and Bland 1964] [Likins 1977] [Likins and Fleischer 1971] [Lopez and Ratcliff 1964] [Moran and Dishman 1970] [Musser and Ebert 1989] [Neumeyer 1968] [Orlik-Rueckemann 1966] [Pande 1976] [Patapoff 1961] [Paulson and Shanks 1961] [Psiaki and D’Andrea 2000] [Ren et al 2017] [Roberson 1979] [Roenneke and Well 1995] [Scarboro 1982] [Scott and Rubbo 1975] [Seltzer 1968] [Seltzer 1969] [Seltzer 1970] [Shenming et al 2018] [Sorensen 1971] [Stickler and Alfriend 1976] [Sun et al 2026] [Tinling 1962] [Todosiev 1973] [Tsiotras 2002] [Tsiotras 2004] [Turner 1977] [Walchner and Clay 1965] [Walker and Wolowicz 1960] [Wallner and Well 2002] [Wu] [Wu] [Weil 1981] [Wheeler 1967] [Yu and Liu 2017] [Zhang et al 2019] [Zhao et al 2023]

The atmosphere that entry is computed against

The model atmosphere and its density, being the standard atmospheres, upper-atmosphere density models and the measurements behind them.

63 records. [133. Air density in the upper atmosphere from satellite orbit observations 1960] [58. Hïgh-altitude atmospheric density 1960] [59. Comparison of high-altitude rocket and satellite density measurements 1960] [Aerodynamic stability of a coasting vehicle rapidly ascending through the atmosphere 1966] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1962] [Allegre et al 1991] [B-34. U. S. Standard Atmosphere, 1962 1963] [Blish 1980] [Bobylev et al 2008] [Brown and Bergles 1963] [Brunt 1955] [Carroll and Brandis 2023] [Chapter 10 Numerical Modeling 2013] [Chen et al 2016] [Chow 1963] [Comparison of high-altitude rocket and satellite density measurements 1960] [Dean 1982] [Detra and Hidalgo 1961] [Dubin et al 1962] [Dubin et al 1966] [Fischbach et al 1965] [Forbes 1981] [Gardner and Whitaker 1967] [Grantham 1970] [Grimminger 1959] [Groves 1956] [Harris and Priester 1965] [High-altitude atmospheric density 1960] [Justh] [Jacchia 1965, Static diffusion models of the up] [Jacchia 1965, Static diffusion models of the up] [Jacchia and Kopal 1952] [Johnson et al 2002] [Kennedy and Niemann 1966] [King-Hele 1964] [Krueger and Minzner 1976] [La Glow 1963] [Lemal et al 2018] [Lien and Eckerman 1966] [Lunev 1971] [Minzner 1966, Atmospheric density models and ob] [Minzner 1966, Studies of atmospheric structure] [Minzner 1967] [Minzner et al 1967] [Minzner et al 1976] [Moss et al 2006] [Newton and Pelz 1973] [Other publications Reference/standard atmosphere 1987] [Ouseph and Link 1984] [Parks 1982] [Peters 1977] [Pisharoty 1959] [Pressly et al 1954] [Ru-ren Chow 1963] [Singer 1956] [Stein and Walker 1965] [Sterne 1958] [Stone 1966] [U.S. Standard Atmosphere Supplements 1966, U.S. Standard Atmosphere Suppleme] [U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1962] [U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976] [Wahl 1963] [Wittliff and Wilson 1961]

Crossrange, lateral range and the entry footprint

The keystone’s own literature, being lateral range, crossrange, the landing footprint and the reachable set of a lifting entry vehicle. The vocabulary changed and the subject did not. The 7 titles in this cluster that say lateral range date from 1961 to 1970, and the 9 that say crossrange date from 1979 to 2023, so no title in it says lateral range after 1970 or crossrange before 1979.

61 records. [Bao et al 2026] [Baradell 1962] [Bryant 2002] [Bump 1977] [Chang et al 2012] [Chao et al 2010] [Cheng et al 2025] [Chern et al 1985] [Clark 2012] [Deyst et al 1971] [Deyst et al 1971] [Deyst et al 1972] [Baradell and McLellan 1963] [Evdokimov et al 2012] [Fenghua et al 2021] [Florence 1979] [Gonzalez-Puerta et al 2018] [Handler 1989] [Holloway 1968] [Hsu et al 1990] [Huang and Li 2018] [Huo et al 2014] [Jackson 1961] [Kozynchenko 2009] [Lau 1967] [Li and Cui 2009] [Li et al 2012] [Li et al 2019] [Li et al 2022] [Liang et al 2017] [Liang et al 2023] [Liu et al 2015] [Long et al 2026] [Moote 1970] [Ning Zhang et al 2016] [Pandie et al 2026] [Patel and Subbarao 2024] [Patel and Subbarao 2025] [Ploen et al 2003] [Ploen et al 2009] [Pritchard and Holloway 1967] [Rataczak et al 2023] [Saraf et al 2004] [Shen and Lu 2004] [Stern and Chu 1963] [Stern and Chu 1964] [Wagner 1965] [Wang and Skulsky 1963] [Wang et al 2020] [Wang et al 2023] [Wang et al 2023] [Webb et al 2026] [Xi et al 2021] [Xu et al 2022] [Xue and Lu 2009] [Yang et al 2025] [Yu and Chen 2021] [Yu Li and Nai-gang Cui 2008] [Zhang et al 2025] [Zhou et al 2020] [Zou et al 2024]

Entry vehicles in general

The residual, reported and not hidden. Entry vehicle titles that name no subsystem the clusters above describe, such as general design, landing and dispersion studies of re-entry vehicles. No further subject in it is large enough to name.

60 records. [A Look at the 1964] [Allison and Newman 1966] [Atmospheric Re-Entry Vehicle Mechanics 2007] [Barte 1968] [Brown 1975] [Cavallo and Ferrara 1996] [Configuration design for high-lift 1972] [Coward and Nelson 1968] [Crenshaw 1971] [Crenshaw 1972] [Kummer and Siegel 1962] [DiFranco 1971] [Dohner 1968] [Fasola et al 1955] [Ferraiuolo et al 2006] [Fisher 1970] [Freeman et al 1985] [Gardner 1966] [Grodsky and Mandour 1967] [Highley and Stone 1968] [Hough 1982] [Houwink and Richards 1973] [Huot et al 1992] [Johannessen 1964] [Kellas 2017] [Kirsch 1973] [Koryanov 2020] [Krenz 1965] [Kulleseid and Haas 1963] [Larson 1970] [Levin and Smith 1969] [Li et al 2018] [Martin 1989] [Montella et al 2024] [Nelson 1985] [Nelson and Coward 1968] [Nikolaev et al 1976] [Ohara et al 2001] [Okolo et al 2022] [Pavlov and Simakova 2021] [Pettus 1970] [Pfitzer 2018] [Platus 1979] [Platus 1980] [Powell et al 1986] [Rasky et al 1993] [Re-Entry and Vehicle Design 1960] [Re-Entry Vehicle Particle Mechanics 1993] [Re-entry Vehicle Soft-Recovery Techniques 1981] [Riedelbauch 1992] [Deshmukh and Manwell 2024] [Schermerhorn and Demeritte 1960] [Seiff 1964] [Soumya et al 2022] [Tausche et al 2009] [Universal Deceleration New Method 1970] [Vetter et al 1992] [Waibel 1977] [Weiss 1969] [Луковкин 2018, Energy-absorbing characteristics]

Weight estimation and vehicle sizing

What the vehicle weighs and why, being structural weight estimation, mass properties and vehicle sizing for aircraft, launch vehicles and spacecraft.

57 records. [A Rapid Technique for 1969] [Abensur 1994] [Adams 1974] [Ascani 1974] [Best 1964] [Bootle 1973] [Carreyette 1950] [Cerro et al 2002] [Chaloff et al 1974] [Chen et al 2022] [de Jong and Mulder 1987] [DeBilzan 1975] [Ding et al 2023] [Figueiredo 2003] [Forrette 1964] [Fusaro et al 2019] [Hajela and Chen 1988] [Handbook for Weight Estimating 1970] [Hayase 1974] [Hayase 1974] [Hayase 1974] [Hayase 1974] [Hayase 1974] [Hayase 1974] [Hayase 1974] [Heineman 1969] [Hiyama 1974] [Hiyama 1974] [Holt and Monk 2009] [Holt and Monk 2009] [Hunter et al 2002] [Cerro and Shore 1990] [Jex 1958] [Kibbey 2019] [Kihara et al 2012] [Klein and Viswanathan 1975] [Martindale et al 1974] [Miura et al 1988] [Petts 1964] [Richie et al 2006] [RlDHA 1969] [Saelman 1964] [Samuels 1982] [Sexstone 1998] [Simodynes 1974] [Solvey 1951] [Spunt 1970] [Swann 1960] [Switzky 1965] [Torenbeek 1972] [Waters 2013] [Wildermuth et al 1974] [Wildermuth et al 1974] [Wilkinson et al 1976] [Williams 1989, Weight and cost forecasting for a] [Wu et al 2012] [Zihao et al 2014]

Orbits, ground tracks and astrodynamics

Where the ground track goes, being orbital mechanics, ground-track geometry and the satellite orbit theory that sets where a returning vehicle starts from.

43 records. [Alderson 1967] [Allan 1961] [Ambrosio et al 1961] [Benedict 1963] [Bettner 1995] [Blitzer 1971] [Bosanquet 1958] [Bruce 1961] [Cohen and Spielberg 1965] [Diehl et al 1992] [Endres 1967] [Enriquez 2025] [Etkin 1961] [Flight performance of the 1969, Flight performance of the Atlas-A] [Garfinkel 1959] [Guan and Li 2025] [Holloway 1966] [I. V. Ioslovich Maximum 1965] [Jacchia and Slowey 1963] [Jacchia and Slowey 1964] [Kelley et al 2010] [Kozak and Sharipov 2012] [Kraft and Townsend 1963] [Lavine 1963] [Moreira et al 2020] [Mullins 1981] [Nelson 1965] [Preliminary launch vehicle flight 1967] [Schooley 1962] [Sconzo 1966] [Shapiro 1994] [Shapiro and Bhat 1993] [Shapiro et al 1993] [Space systems. Re-entry risk] [Space systems. Re-entry risk] [Stern 2004] [Surzhikov 2018] [Teles 1989] [Teles and Samii 1993] [The orbit of an equatorial earth satellite 1963] [The Orbit of Sputnik 3 (Satellite 1958 δ) 1958] [Vinh and Dobrzelecki 1971] [Yamamoto et al 1996]

Where the Framing Breaks Down

Treating PRIME through crossrange alone gets the programme wrong in at least three ways.

The vehicle was not only a manoeuvring experiment. It carried a heat shield the programme wanted measured, and ASSET had already been devoted to structures and heating. The sources disagree on how far PRIME was a heating experiment. The official history lists the acquisition of heat shield and aerodynamic data first among the five flight objectives, in Vitelli and Hallion, while Heppenheimer says that PRIME did not attempt to produce heating data because ASSET had covered it. Heating and manoeuvring were both objectives and the article’s keystone selects one. The wider class of entry vehicles, most of which never manoeuvred at all, fills the survey’s cluster on capsules and ballistic entry, and the field it sits inside is the survey as a whole.

The equilibrium glide is not what it flew. The model assumes a smooth glide that begins below circular speed. PRIME entered at 2.03 degrees from 400,000 feet, faster than the circular speed the model uses, and the programme’s computed trajectory dips and oscillates rather than gliding in equilibrium, so it reached the crossrange it did under conditions the model describes only approximately, in Vitelli and Hallion. That the numbers agree to one percent at the lower disputed lift-to-drag ratio is encouraging and is not proof.

The reference area is derived, not published. Everything in the thermal section inherits that. The crossrange result does not, and for that reason the crossrange is the keystone and the heating is not.

A fourth concerns the article’s framing. A vehicle whose recovery system failed twice in three flights is a programme about recovery at least as much as about entry, and it gets one short section here.

The Source Base

The research survey holds 4,642 research records drawn from the Technical Reports Server of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA, from the Defense Technical Information Center and from the Crossref index, of which 585 link to the NASA Technical Reports Server, 281 are Defense Technical Information Center reports by host or by that center’s identifier prefix, and the remaining 3,776 are other records reached through Crossref. The report servers therefore hold 866 records, being 18.7 percent of the survey, and its median publication year is 2009.

The subject has a deep period record. Of the 4,554 research records that carry a year, 1,056, or 23.2 percent, predate 1976, which reflects that lifting entry was worked out in a concentrated burst between about 1958 and 1972 and then largely left alone until the current revival. The period record names the subject in its own vocabulary. Where the modern literature says crossrange, the period reports say lateral range, roll modulation and maneuvering range, and the period work is found under those words.

The Definition of Primary

Primacy is a property of the document, and this survey derives it from the identifier. A record is a report primary when its address is on the NASA Technical Reports Server or on the Defense Technical Information Center’s own host, or when it carries a digital object identifier under the 10.21236 prefix, which Crossref registers for Defense Technical Information Center reports. The records this article’s own argument rests on are report primaries under that rule, among them the project’s official history in Vitelli and Hallion, Reed’s history of the lifting bodies, the X-24A data in Cochrane and Graham and McTigue, and the planform figures in Saltzman, Wang and Iliff. The rule does not reach the journal papers of the period, such as the lateral range analyses published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, so 18.7 percent is a lower bound on how much of the survey is first-hand.

Thin Subjects

Five subjects that this article’s derivations depend on have thin literatures. Each count below is the number of research records in this survey whose title carries at least one of the listed terms, with a hyphen read as a space. Where a row joins two groups of terms with the word together, a title must carry a term from each group.

Subject	Title terms counted	Records
the vehicle itself, by its own names	SV-5D, SV-5, X-23, X-23A, Project PRIME, PRIME vehicle, program, programme, reentry or re-entry	3
the bank angle that maximises crossrange	crossrange, cross range, lateral range together with bank, banking, roll, rolling	2
mid-air retrieval of a returning payload	mid air, midair, aerial recovery, aerial retrieval, in air capturing, in air capture, air snatch	20
the once-around recall requirement	once around, abort once, landing site access, recall, return to launch site, global landing	2
the effective heat of ablation	heat of ablation, heats of ablation, ablation heat	0

The vehicle itself is almost absent from the titles. Three titles name it by SV-5, X-23 or PRIME. One is the project’s official history in Vitelli and Hallion, one defines the entry environment of an assured crew return vehicle derived from the X-23 and X-24A in Campbell et al 1996, and the third, of 2023, gives the designation X-23 to a hypersonic glide vehicle in its title, in Butler et al 2023. The flight record this article reconstructs therefore rests on the official history and on Reed rather than on a technical literature of the vehicle.

The bank angle that maximises crossrange has two titles, both of the period, lateral range control by banking in Baradell 1962 and roll modulation for maximum lateral range in Wagner 1965. The optimum of 45 degrees derived above is standard and is rarely the subject of a title.

Mid-air retrieval has a small literature of its own. Of the 20 titles, 5 concern returning boosters or reusable launch vehicles, and Catch a Falling Star 1993 records the parachute lessons of the Air Force space capsule mid-air recovery programme from 1959 to 1985, the technique this article records as already in service for returning film capsules when PRIME flew.

The recall requirement that motivated the vehicle has two titles, abort-once-around dispersion in Kyle 1975 and global landing site access by skip trajectories in Bryant 2002. The requirement’s history is in Heppenheimer rather than in a research literature.

No title names the effective heat of ablation, so the cross-check above that recovers 27.8 megajoules per kilogram from a published thickness stands on the relation shown rather than on a measured value in the survey.

What the Survey Admits

A record is admitted only when a person reading its title finds it on this article’s subject. The programme acronyms do not identify its literature. PRIME collides with prime numbers and prime movers, and START with the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty and with the ordinary English verb, so neither word admits a record to the survey. Beyond the acronyms, footprint belongs to carbon, water and ecological accounting and to tyre contact, recovery to economics and to waste heat, ablation to medicine, to laser materials processing and to the ablators of inertial fusion targets, charring to fire science, and entry to almost everything. Re-entry is also the return of prisoners to the community, the subject of a large criminal justice literature, and a term of cardiac electrophysiology and of software, and parachute also names a golden parachute in finance, a heart valve malformation, a mine ventilation stopping and a game for schoolchildren.

Several further families share this subject’s words and nothing else. Lateral motion of a vehicle is a term of art in railway dynamics and in road-vehicle lane keeping. Maneuvering range names an instrumented air combat facility off the East Coast, so the phrase also titles a construction quality assurance plan. Lateral range is also a term in search and detection theory. Glider, maneuvering and hovering all belong to underwater vehicles as well as to aircraft. Guidance, landing and control are shared with tactical missiles, small unmanned aircraft, rotorcraft and spacecraft operating in orbit, and a reading of this subject’s titles removes records of all four. Impact-angle and homing guidance of tactical missiles, the landing and flight control of drones and multirotors, helicopter flight test, and rendezvous, formation flight and debris impact on orbit are excluded, because none of them concerns a vehicle returning through the atmosphere.

Records that share a word with the subject and nothing else are excluded. Beyond the families above, the excluded classes include road, rail and ground transport, clinical medicine and biology, ion, surface and plasma physics, robotics and manufacturing, building heating and energy systems, combustion, fire science, boiling, critical heat flux and industrial heat exchange, thermal analysis as a laboratory chemistry discipline, atmospheric remote sensing and radio propagation, boundary-layer meteorology, airline operations, generic fluid mechanics and numerical mathematics, satellite communications, and electronics and materials. Records that are not works are excluded as well, meaning figures, tables, supplementary files, peer-review reports, notices of erratum, correction, retraction or withdrawal, and journal front matter such as reviewer lists and indexes, because a survey counts research works and those are parts of works or editorial events rather than works. A review of a book, a reference or definition entry, a notice such as a news item, a press release or an editorial preface, and a second deposit of a document the survey already holds, such as a report server copy or a reprint of a journal article, are not admitted either, because none of them is a further research work.

Some records of doubtful relevance are kept, because they bear on entry, flight or the design of a vehicle like this one without being about it. They are spacecraft attitude control by reaction jets, wheels and gyroscopes, crew physiology during entry and landing, the entry heating of meteoroids and micrometeorites, lunar and planetary landing and the erosion a landing rocket causes, aircraft structural weight estimation, rocket engine components, the propulsive landing of returning boosters, and the air-breathing hypersonic vehicle control literature, whose vehicles fly the same speed range without returning from orbit. Every research title has been read for relevance, so the off-topic share that remains is a matter of reading judgement. A reading of titles cannot show that a work is relevant in substance, so this is a statement about titles only.

Epistemic State

Historical fact, as reported by the accessible record. The SV-5D PRIME was built by Martin Marietta for the United States Air Force under the START programme. Four were built, three were launched on SLV-3 Atlas boosters from Vandenberg on 21 December 1966, 5 March 1967 and 19 April 1967, and the fourth flight was cancelled on 12 May 1967. The first two were lost to recovery-system failures and the third was recovered in mid-air by a JC-130B at 12,000 feet. The crossranges flown were zero, 654 miles and more than 710 miles in the official history’s narrative, taken here as 1,053 and 1,143 kilometres, while its summary table gives 499 and more than 710 nautical miles. The second flight held a constant bank of 46 degrees until terminal guidance. The third re-entered at 400,000 feet, 26,808 feet per second and 2.03 degrees, 1,360 nautical miles from launch. Martin’s design figure for the hypersonic lift-to-drag ratio was 1.2 or better. All of this is in Vitelli and Hallion. The vehicle was 6 feet 8 inches long, and its recorded weights run from about 800 to 895 pounds, with 894 used here. The surviving vehicle is at the National Museum of the United States Air Force.

Historical fact, on the designation. The nomenclature record shows a request for X-23A submitted on 16 November 1965 for the SV-5P, disapproved on 15 December 1965 on the stated ground that the aircraft was unmanned, and a late-1966 decision to seek X-23A for the SV-5D and X-24A for the SV-5P, of which only the second was ever submitted, in the standard reference on designations. This article reports that record and does not adjudicate between it and universal usage.

Engineering analysis, performed here and checkable. The equilibrium-glide crossrange relation, its closed form, the optimal bank angle of 45 degrees, the required crossrange of half the ground-track spacing, and the resulting lift-to-drag requirement of 0.978 by the closed form and 1.018 by exact integration, are all derived in this article from stated assumptions. The simultaneous solution of downrange and crossrange for the bank angle and lift-to-drag ratio, and the inversion of crossrange alone at a documented bank angle, are likewise derived here. The heating figures follow from the Sutton and Graves correlation applied to the equilibrium-glide density.

Inference, and flagged as such. That the vehicle’s effective lift-to-drag ratio through the manoeuvring phase was about 1.01 on the second flight and 1.05 on the third is an inference from the documented crossranges at the documented bank angles under the equilibrium-glide model. It rises to about 1.14 if the summary table’s nautical miles are right, and it lies between the programme’s trim curve at the flown angle of attack and that curve’s maximum, below Martin’s design figure of 1.2. The simultaneous solution of downrange and crossrange is not used as a measurement, because at the documented boost range it demands a bank angle the record contradicts. That nobody submitted the X-23A request because the 1965 refusal had said unmanned vehicles need none is a reading offered by the designation reference and is not documented.

Assumptions that everything downstream inherits. The reference area of 1.386 square metres is scaled from the X-24A and is not published for this vehicle. The entry speed of 25,200 feet per second, the nose radius of 0.1 metres, the hypersonic drag coefficient of unity, the ablator density of 550 kilograms per cubic metre, the parachute drag coefficient of 0.75, and the nominal lift-to-drag ratios of the capsules and the Space Shuttle orbiter in the comparison table are all assumed. The record’s own speeds run from 21,853 to 26,808 feet per second.

What the record does not settle. The vehicle’s lift-to-drag ratio in flight, beyond what the programme’s trim curve shows. Its actual reference area. Whether the crossranges are statute or nautical miles. The bank angle flown on the third flight. The stagnation heat load, which the programme’s stated figure and its computed heating curve give very differently. The peak deceleration and heating as measured, which were certainly telemetered and are not in the accessible literature. And the reason the X-23A request was never sent.

Out of Scope

The ASSET phase of the START programme, which deserves its own treatment. The Atlas SLV-3 as a launch vehicle. The X-24A and X-24B, which follow in this series. The mid-air retrieval technique and its origins in satellite film return. The detailed chemistry of charring ablators. The Space Shuttle crossrange requirement’s full political history, of which only the arithmetic is treated here.

Conclusion

PRIME asked whether a spacecraft could steer on the way home, and the answer was yes, by about a thousand kilometres.

The number matters more than it looks. A returning vehicle needs roughly half a ground-track spacing of crossrange to reach a chosen site without waiting, and at the equator that requires a lift-to-drag ratio of 0.978 by the relation the period used and 1.018 when the approximation in that relation is removed. A lifting body near unity is therefore not a modest capability but the threshold one, and the difference between it and a ballistic capsule is not a matter of degree. One can come home when it chooses and the other cannot.

One more measure shows how steeply that capability is bought. The reachable ground area scales as the crossrange half-width times the downrange depth, and those go as the square and the first power of the lift-to-drag ratio respectively, so

\[A_\text{footprint} \propto \left(\frac{L}{D}\right)^3\]

The footprint goes as the cube. Raising the ratio from 1.0 to 1.2 enlarges the region a vehicle can reach by a factor of 1.73. Twenty percent of lift-to-drag ratio was therefore worth arguing about, and the disagreement in the sources matters.

The vehicle that demonstrated this weighed 894 pounds, flew three times, was lost twice on the way back, and carries a designation that was never requested for it. All four of those facts deserve to be kept.

References

Books

• Regan and Anandakrishnan on re-entry dynamics
• Vinh’s treatment of atmospheric flight trajectories

Reference

• ASSET
• Falarski and Mort, Full-Scale Wind-Tunnel Investigation of the Aerodynamic Characteristics of the X-24A Lifting Body Aircraft, NASA TN D-5932, 1970
• Hallion, On the Frontier, Flight Research at Dryden 1946-1981, NASA SP-4303, 1984
• Heppenheimer, The Space Shuttle Decision, NASA’s Search for a Reusable Space Vehicle, NASA SP-4221, 1999
• Jenkins, Landis and Miller, American X-Vehicles, An Inventory X-1 to X-50, SP-2003-4531, 2003
• Lift-to-drag ratio
• Martin Marietta X-23A PRIME
• Mid-air retrieval
• National Museum of the United States Air Force
• returning film capsules
• Space capsule
• Space Shuttle
• standard reference on United States military aircraft designations
• Vandenberg Space Launch Complex 6
• X-24A

Related Post

• X-1
• X-10
• X-11
• X-12
• X-13
• X-14
• X-15
• X-16
• X-17
• X-18
• X-19
• X-2
• X-20
• X-21
• X-22
• X-3
• X-4
• X-5
• X-6
• X-7
• X-8
• X-9
• X-Planes series

Research

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• 2018, ISRO Releases the Special Issue o
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• Adams and Martindale 1973
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• Adams and Stoll 1969
• Adams et al 1973
• Adarkar and Hartsook 1966
• Adimurthy 1976
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• Aebischer and Suters 1970
• Aerodynamic stability of a coasting vehicle rapidly ascending through the atmosphere 1966
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• Barr et al 2026
• Barret 1998
• Barret 1999
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• Barz 2026
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