On 10 July 2013 an aeroplane with nobody aboard caught the three-wire on a carrier at sea, and then on its next approach caught the two-wire [Unmanned X-47B makes historic landing aboard USS George H.W. Bush, NAVAIR] [Gresham, Details of the X-47B’s first autonomous carrier landing]. Choosing between those two wires is a question of about three feet of height at the ramp. That number is the subject of this article, because everything the X-47B is famous for follows from being able to control a position relative to a moving ship to a precision the deck sets rather than the aeroplane. This is the forty-eighth article in the X-Planes series, following the X-1, the X-2, the X-3, the X-4, the X-5, the X-6, the X-7, the X-8, the X-9, the X-10, the X-11, the X-12, the X-13, the X-14, the X-15, the X-16, the X-17, the X-18, the X-19, the X-20, the X-21, the X-22, the X-23, the X-24, the X-25, the X-26, the X-27, the X-28, the X-29, the X-30, the X-31, the X-32, the X-33, the X-34, the X-35, the X-36, the X-37, the X-38, the X-39, the X-40, the X-41, the X-42, the X-43, the X-44, the X-45, and the X-46.

Two airframes flew from February 2011, and the record of what they did is extensive. They launched from a catapult at sea, landed under arrest at sea, flew at night, operated in the deck cycle alongside manned aircraft, and refuelled from a tanker without a human in the loop [Northrop Grumman X-47B]. After three articles about unmanned combat aircraft that did not do these things, this one did.

It is also the aeroplane that beat the two this series has just described. The X-45 demonstrated that one operator could hold two vehicles, and the X-46 was cancelled before an airframe was built. The previous article sized a requirement without an aeroplane to measure, and named the assumption it was least sure of. This article has the aeroplane, so that prediction can be checked, and a later section checks it.

The Research Question

The binding unknown was whether an unmanned aircraft could be told where it was, relative to a moving deck, accurately enough to land on it.

That is a narrower question than it sounds and a harder one. Automatic landing on a runway had been in airline service for decades [Schoenman and Doniger 1965] [Templeman and Parker 1968]. A runway does not move, its position is surveyed once, and an error of several feet costs nothing. A carrier deck moves in six degrees of freedom and can make way at more than thirty knots [Nimitz-class aircraft carrier], and an arrested aeroplane is stopped within about 350 feet of the wire it catches [Unmanned X-47B makes historic landing aboard USS George H.W. Bush, NAVAIR] [Arresting gear].

The problem is one of relative rather than absolute position. Knowing the aeroplane’s latitude and longitude to a foot is useless if the ship’s position is known only to ten. What matters is the vector between them, a different measurement with different error sources.

The X-47A, which flew once, was flown to test this. Its single flight on 23 February 2003 carried a shipboard relative Global Positioning System and ended with a landing on a pre-designated spot on a runway [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles]. Ten years separate that flight from the carrier landing and the subject is the same one.

Programme Origin

The programme began as the other half of a competition this series has already described. In June 2000 the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency awarded study contracts for a carrier-based unmanned combat aircraft to Northrop Grumman and to Boeing, of two million dollars each [Northrop Grumman X-47B] [previous article]. Boeing’s answer was the X-46A and Northrop Grumman’s the X-47A [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles].

Northrop Grumman built hardware at its own expense and Boeing did not [Northrop Grumman X-47A Pegasus] [previous article]. The X-47A Pegasus was completed in July 2001, received its designation in June 2001, and flew on 23 February 2003 [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles] [Northrop Grumman X-47A Pegasus]. That was its only flight. In April 2003 the naval effort was merged into the joint programme, which was cancelled in early January 2006 according to the specialist directory [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles] and in February 2006, following the Quadrennial Defense Review, according to the encyclopaedia entry [Northrop Grumman X-47B].

The competition was then re-run and Northrop Grumman won it. In August 2007 the X-47B was selected for the Unmanned Combat Air System Demonstration, under a contract of 635.8 million dollars [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles] [Northrop Grumman X-47B]. The aeroplane was unveiled in December 2008 and first flew on 4 February 2011 at Edwards Air Force Base, with the second airframe following on 22 November 2011 [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles] [Northrop Grumman X-47B].

The programme was a demonstration and it was not a procurement. Its stated primary goal was the demonstration of launches and recoveries on an aircraft carrier at sea [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles], and by May 2015 the primary test programme was declared complete [Northrop Grumman X-47B]. Neither airframe entered service, and in November 2011 the Navy affirmed that the demonstrators would never be armed [Northrop Grumman X-47B].

Sizing From First Principles

The deck sets the requirement and the geometry of the deck is public even where the aeroplane’s performance is not.

What Choosing a Wire Costs in Height

Most carriers of the Nimitz class carry four arresting pendants, and a pilot aims for the third. USS George H.W. Bush, the ship of the July 2013 landings, carries three, and on a three-wire deck the target is the second [Arresting gear], so the X-47B’s first trap took the last wire and its second took the target. One published account gives the spacing between pendants as about fifty feet [Tarantola, How to stop a jet dead in its tracks in two seconds]. No source located gives a closer spacing, and forty feet, which no source publishes, is carried beside it as a sensitivity case.

A glide slope converts height into distance along the deck, and the conversion is unfavourable. For a glide slope $\gamma$, a height error $\Delta h$ at the ramp displaces the touchdown point by

\[\Delta x = \frac{\Delta h}{\tan \gamma} \tag{1}\]

At the 3.5 degrees of a normal carrier approach, one foot of height becomes 16.35 feet along the deck. The glide slope is steepened to as much as four degrees in heavy seas and lowered in high winds [The meatball, Air & Space], and at three degrees a foot becomes 19.08 feet. The same relation read the other way yields what a wire is worth in height,

\[\Delta h = \Delta x \tan \gamma \tag{2}\]
pendant spacing, ft glide slope, degrees height per wire, ft height per wire, cm
40 3.0 2.10 64
40 3.5 2.45 75
40 4.0 2.80 85
50 3.0 2.62 80
50 3.5 3.06 93
50 4.0 3.50 107

Choosing between adjacent wires is therefore a question of about three feet of height, 3.06 feet at the published spacing and a normal glide slope, between 2.62 and 3.50 feet across the range of glide slopes, and 2.10 to 2.80 feet in the forty-foot case, or roughly two-thirds of a metre to one metre. That is the precision the deck demands, applied to a measurement whose reference point moves.

Why the Measurement Has to Be Relative

The ship does not wait. A carrier making twenty-five knots covers 12.9 metres every second, and an aeroplane closing at 145 knots against that deck closes at 61.7 metres per second.

\[v_{\text{closure}} = v_{\text{aircraft}} - v_{\text{ship}} = (145 - 25) \times 0.5144 = 61.7 \ \text{m/s} \tag{3}\]

At a hundred updates a second the deck moves 12.9 centimetres between one fix and the next, and the aeroplane closes 61.7 centimetres. A navigation solution referenced to the earth would have to carry the ship’s position error into the aeroplane’s, and those errors do not cancel because they come from different receivers at different times.

A differential measurement between the two removes most of what they share. Write the range each receiver measures to one satellite as the true range plus the errors,

\[\rho_{i} = r_{i} + c \, \delta t_{\text{sat}} + I_{i} + T_{i} + \varepsilon_{i} \tag{4}\]

with a satellite clock offset, an ionospheric and a tropospheric delay and a noise term. Differencing the two receivers cancels every term the two have in common,

\[\rho_{A} - \rho_{B} = (r_{A} - r_{B}) + (I_{A} - I_{B}) + (T_{A} - T_{B}) + (\varepsilon_{A} - \varepsilon_{B}) \tag{5}\]

and the satellite clock error is gone exactly while the atmospheric terms are gone very nearly, because two receivers a few miles apart look through almost the same atmosphere at almost the same satellites. What is left is the vector between them, the quantity the deck problem needs, known far better than either position separately [Misra and Enge, Global Positioning System, signals, measurements and performance]. The same principle underlies the joint precision approach and landing system the services later fielded [Joint Precision Approach and Landing System, Collins Aerospace]. The X-47A carried the Navy’s Shipboard Relative Global Positioning System, which the specialist directory describes as necessary for automatic pin-point landings on a moving deck [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles], and on the X-47B’s final approach on 10 July 2013 a hypersensitive version of the same satellite navigation technology guided the hook to the deck [New age in carrier aviation takes off with X-47B landing]. The programme manager described the X-47B’s guidance as precision relative navigation technology, a Precision Global Positioning System scheme that lets the aeroplane know where it is relative to the ship [Navy’s unmanned carrier aircraft performs first touch and go]. The geometry above demands such a solution.

The open record does not give the accuracy achieved. Figures circulate and none of them is traceable to a programme document, so this article computes what the deck requires and does not assert what the aeroplane delivered.

The Arrestment

The landing is over in about three seconds and is the most violent thing the airframe does. The Navy’s account of the first engagement has it bringing the aeroplane from approximately 145 knots to a stop in less than 350 feet [Unmanned X-47B makes historic landing aboard USS George H.W. Bush, NAVAIR]. Taking constant deceleration,

\[a = \frac{v^{2}}{2s} \tag{6}\]

with the time to rest following from the same assumption,

\[t = \frac{2s}{v} \tag{7}\]
reading of the speed deceleration, m/s² in g time to stop, s
145 kn as airspeed 26.08 2.66 2.86
about 120 kn over the deck, allowing 25 kn of wind 17.86 1.82 3.46

The two readings differ by a factor of one and a half. Working the relations through settles the choice, and the argument is dimensional rather than documentary. A stopping distance measured aboard a ship is measured along the deck, so it must be paired with a speed relative to that deck,

\[v_{\text{deck}} = v_{\text{air}} - v_{\text{wod}} \tag{8}\]

where $v_{\text{wod}}$ is the wind over the deck, which a carrier generates by steaming into wind. Pairing a deck distance with an airspeed mixes two reference frames, and the first row does so.

The aeroplane’s wing then indicates which figure the 145 knots is. Its wing loading follows from the mass and the area given below,

\[\frac{W}{S} = \frac{19{,}000 \times 9.80665}{88.59} = 2{,}103 \ \text{N/m}^{2} = 43.9 \ \text{lb/ft}^{2} \tag{9}\]

and treating the quoted speed as a stalling speed would then require

\[C_{L,\max} = \frac{2 (W/S)}{\rho V^{2}} = \frac{2 \times 2{,}103}{1.225 \times 74.6^{2}} = 0.617 \tag{10}\]

which is too low even for a tailless planform. Treating it instead as an approach airspeed gives a sensible margin over the stall,

$C_{L,\max}$ stall speed, kn 145 kn as a multiple of it
0.8 127.4 1.14
1.0 113.9 1.27
1.2 104.0 1.39
1.6 90.1 1.61

A tailless aeroplane without trailing-edge high-lift devices sits near the top of that table, and at a maximum lift coefficient of 0.8 the quoted 145 knots is 1.14 times the stall, a small but plausible approach margin. So the 145 knots is most probably an airspeed, the engagement was slower than that, and the second row of the deceleration table is the better one. The first is retained because the wind over the deck on the day is not recorded, and the argument fixes which reading applies but cannot supply the number.

The energy the gear absorbs is computed directly,

\[E = \tfrac{1}{2} m v^{2} = \tfrac{1}{2} \times 20{,}185 \times 74.6^{2} = 56.2 \ \text{MJ} \tag{11}\]

Fifty-six megajoules is about eleven times the kinetic energy of a car of 1,250 kilograms at two hundred miles an hour, taken out of the aeroplane in under three seconds by a hook and a wire.

The force that does it is set by the same deceleration, and the structure is built around that number,

\[F = m a \tag{12}\]
reading of the speed deceleration, m/s² hook load, kN as a multiple of the aeroplane’s weight
145 kn 26.08 496 2.66
120 kn 17.86 339 1.82

Between a third and half a meganewton is applied at a single point at the tail, and reacted through the keel on which the hook is mounted [Tailhook].

The deck does not stop while this happens. A ship making twenty-five knots runs

\[d_{\text{ship}} = v_{\text{ship}} \, t = 12.86 \times 2.86 = 36.8 \ \text{m} \tag{13}\]

under the aeroplane during the arrestment, more than a hundred feet of ship passing beneath an aircraft that is itself travelling only 350 feet along it.

The Two Aircraft

The X-47A and the X-47B share a designation, a manufacturer and a subject, and almost nothing else.

  X-47A Pegasus X-47B
span 8.47 m 18.9 m
length 8.50 m 11.6 m
gross mass 2,500 kg 19,000 kg
engine Pratt and Whitney JT15D-5C Pratt and Whitney F100-PW-220U
thrust 14.2 kN 71.2 kN
payload dummy stores only 2,040 kg
flights one many

The X-47A is a proof of concept and the X-47B is an aeroplane, and the two ratios say how far apart,

\[\frac{m_{B}}{m_{A}} = \frac{19{,}000}{2{,}500} = 7.60 \qquad \frac{T_{B}}{T_{A}} = \frac{71.2}{14.2} = 5.01 \tag{14}\]

Mass grew faster than thrust, so the larger aircraft has the lower thrust to weight ratio, and the second was given the joint programme’s payload of 2,040 kilograms [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles] while the weapons bays of the first were sized for dummy stores that simulated flight loads [Northrop Grumman X-47A Pegasus].

The X-47B’s wing is the part to measure. Its span is 62.1 feet, folding to 30.9, over a wing area of 953.6 square feet [Northrop Grumman X-47B], which makes the aspect ratio

\[A\!R = \frac{b^{2}}{S} = \frac{62.1^{2}}{953.6} = 4.04 \tag{15}\]

A folding wing is a structural penalty accepted for a deck-space reason, and halving the span is what reduces the deck space the aeroplane occupies aboard a carrier [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles]. The tailless planform is a signature decision before it is an aerodynamic one [Knott, Shaeffer and Tuley, Radar cross section], with a history far older than the jet age [Wooldridge, Winged wonders, the story of the flying wings], and the stability a fin would supply is replaced by feedback [Etkin and Reid, Dynamics of flight]. The vehicle class has a longer history than this programme [Unmanned combat aerial vehicle].

Dependent Systems

Relative Navigation

Everything above depends on a position known with respect to the ship, and the programme’s relative scheme is the reason the rest of the aeroplane could be built to ordinary tolerances. A landing system accurate to a metre would have made the wire a matter of luck, since a metre of height is between 0.94 and 1.56 wire spacings on the table of height per wire above.

The Structure That Takes the Arrestment

The hook, the keel and the gear must carry loads of the size in the arrestment table, which act along the airframe rather than across it. A deceleration of 1.8 to 2.7 g applied through a hook at the tail puts the whole airframe in tension [Tailhook], and a carrier landing gear is sized for a descent rate several times what a runway aeroplane sees [Raymer, Aircraft design, a conceptual approach] [Torenbeek, Synthesis of subsonic airplane design].

That descent rate is not a free choice, it is the glide slope and the approach speed multiplied together,

\[w = V \sin \gamma \tag{16}\]
glide slope at 145 kn at 120 kn
3.0 degrees 768 ft/min 636 ft/min
3.5 degrees 896 ft/min 742 ft/min
4.0 degrees 1,024 ft/min 848 ft/min

Those are the rates at which the aeroplane descends along the glide slope, and no source located says how much of that rate is removed before the wheels touch, so they are arrival rates on the approach. None is a measured touchdown rate.

Propulsion

One Pratt and Whitney F100-PW-220U of 71.2 kilonewtons [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles], from the engine family of the F-15 and F-16 [Pratt and Whitney F100], modified for this aeroplane as a turbofan without afterburning rated at 16,000 pounds of dry thrust [F100-PW-220U powered X-47B, Pratt and Whitney]. Against the gross mass this gives

\[\frac{T}{W} = \frac{71.2}{19{,}000 \times 9.80665 \times 10^{-3}} = 0.382 \tag{17}\]

The previous article estimated that an aeroplane of this class would need a thrust to weight ratio between 0.30 and 0.40 and computed the thrust that implied. The measured value falls inside that band, so this is one of the few quantitative predictions in that article the record can confirm.

Autonomy and the Operator

The fan-out relation set out in the article on the X-45 governs here too [previous article on the X-45], with $FO$ the fan-out, $NT$ the neglect time a vehicle tolerates unattended and $IT$ the interaction time an operator spends on it,

\[FO = \frac{NT + IT}{IT} = 1 + \frac{NT}{IT} \tag{18}\]

The X-47B’s demonstrations were single-vehicle, so no fan-out above one is claimed for it, and the article does not compute one. It demonstrated instead that the neglect time can include the recovery, the phase a manned aeroplane cannot delegate at all.

The Flight Test Record

After the X-46, of which no airframe was built, this article returns to a flight test record long enough to tabulate, as the article on the X-45 had.

date milestone
23 February 2003 X-47A first and only flight, testing relative navigation
4 February 2011 X-47B first flight, Edwards Air Force Base
22 November 2011 second airframe first flight
26 November 2012 carrier deck evaluation aboard United States Ship, USS, Harry S. Truman
29 November 2012 first land-based catapult launch
14 May 2013 first catapult launch from a carrier at sea
17 May 2013 first touch and go aboard a carrier [Navy’s unmanned carrier aircraft performs first touch and go]
10 July 2013 first arrested landing aboard a carrier at sea
10 April 2014 first night flight
17 August 2014 operations in the deck cycle alongside manned aircraft
April 2015 first fully autonomous aerial refuelling
May 2015 primary test programme declared complete

The dates are those of the encyclopaedia entry [Northrop Grumman X-47B], and the July 2013 landings are as the Navy reported them [Unmanned X-47B makes historic landing aboard USS George H.W. Bush, NAVAIR].

The table omits its most informative entry, the third approach on 10 July 2013. After two arrested landings the aeroplane was launched again, and on the approach one of its three navigation subsystems failed [Cahn, Navy drone fails third aircraft carrier landing attempt] [Sicard, Navy: glitch in X-47B test only proves unmanned aircraft’s reliability]. The accounts agree that the aeroplane detected the fault itself and differ on who waved it off. One has the aeroplane wave itself off and then alert its operator, who sent it ashore to Wallops Island [Cahn, Navy drone fails third aircraft carrier landing attempt], and another describes an automatic abort [Gresham, Details of the X-47B’s first autonomous carrier landing]. A third, quoting the same programme manager, has the system identify the fault and indicate it to the operator, who then followed the test plan’s procedures [Sicard, Navy: glitch in X-47B test only proves unmanned aircraft’s reliability], and the encyclopaedia entry gives the operator’s abort [Northrop Grumman X-47B]. An automatic wave-off on a detected fault is the behaviour a deck requires, and the record establishes the detection beyond dispute and the automatic wave-off in two of four accounts. On that reading, a demonstration that produced two traps and one correct refusal is a better result than three traps would have been.

Comparison With Ground Prediction

The ground prediction this article can set beside the aeroplane is not the manufacturer’s. No test report, no navigation performance analysis and no weight statement for either aircraft has been located in the open literature, so whatever was predicted for the X-47B by wind tunnel, simulation or contractor estimate cannot be compared here with what it returned in flight. That search is recorded under The Source Base.

What can be compared is a prediction made on paper before this aeroplane was measured. The previous article made it in sizing a carrier-based unmanned combat aircraft [previous article], and the X-47B is the airframe that answers it. Four of its numbers meet a published figure for this aircraft.

quantity predicted on paper X-47B as published outcome
payload fraction 0.12293 0.10737 lower, in the predicted direction
gross mass 32,539 lb 41,888 lb 1.287 times the prediction
wing loading 68.7 to 142.4 lb/ft² 43.9 lb/ft² below every predicted value
thrust to weight ratio 0.30 to 0.40 0.382 inside the band

The scoring is argued under What the Data Changed, and only its shape is gathered here. The payload fraction was the assumption the previous article named as its weakest, and it failed in the direction that article foresaw and by more than it foresaw. The approach speed constraint failed differently, because the aeroplane satisfies it with a wide margin and so it did not set the wing. The thrust to weight ratio is one of the few quantitative predictions the published figures confirm.

The comparison is between a requirement and one aeroplane, and Where the Framing Breaks Down states what that limits. The two published gross masses also differ by about six percent, less than the differences being scored.

The deck’s own prediction has no flight figure to meet. The sizing earlier finds from the geometry of the deck that choosing between adjacent wires is a matter of two to three and a half feet of height. Flight returned the wires caught and not the accuracy achieved. On 10 July 2013 the aeroplane caught the three-wire and then the two-wire [Unmanned X-47B makes historic landing aboard USS George H.W. Bush, NAVAIR] [Gresham, Details of the X-47B’s first autonomous carrier landing], which records two recoveries and does not record how close to the intended point either one touched down. No programme document located gives the navigation accuracy achieved.

The arrestment is a comparison the record leaves half made. The reported engagement from about 145 knots in less than 350 feet is a flight figure, and the arrestment analysis above reads it two ways. The ground side of the comparison, a design arresting load for this airframe, is not published, so the hook loads of 339 and 496 kilonewtons this article computes stand against nothing the manufacturer stated.

The X-47A’s single flight is the earliest flight evidence on the question the programme existed to settle. It carried a shipboard relative Global Positioning System and ended on a pre-designated spot on a runway in February 2003 [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles], and ten years later the X-47B landed at sea under precision satellite guidance [New age in carrier aviation takes off with X-47B landing]. Neither flight’s achieved precision is in the open record, so the comparison both invite, between what relative navigation was expected to deliver and what it delivered, cannot be made here.

What the Data Changed

With the aeroplane in hand, the previous article’s predictions can now be scored.

It predicted the wrong gross mass and it named the reason in advance. That article inherited a payload fraction of 0.12293, measured across two Boeing aircraft, and computed a gross mass of 32,539 pounds for a four thousand pound payload [previous article]. The X-47B carries 2,040 kilograms, which is the payload set for both of the joint programme’s aircraft, the X-45C among them, at a gross mass of 19,000 kilograms [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles], so

\[\frac{m_{\text{payload}}}{m_{\text{gross}}} = \frac{2{,}040}{19{,}000} = 0.10737 \tag{19}\]

against the 0.12293 that was assumed. The mass follows,

\[\frac{m_{\text{actual}}}{m_{\text{predicted}}} = \frac{41{,}888}{32{,}539} = 1.287 \tag{20}\]

The previous article said this would happen and said why. It recorded that the inherited payload fraction was its weakest load-bearing assumption, and that a naval variant might not hold it because carrier equipment is charged to empty weight and a designer under that pressure may trade payload fraction rather than accept a larger aeroplane [previous article]. The X-47B did both. It has a lower payload fraction and is a larger aeroplane. The failure is the predicted one, in the predicted direction, and larger than predicted in magnitude.

A second prediction failed differently, and more revealingly. That article argued that the carrier approach speed limit caps wing loading and therefore sizes the wing, and it computed wing loadings between 68.7 and 142.4 pounds per square foot [previous article]. The X-47B’s wing loading is 43.9 pounds per square foot at the directory’s gross mass, below every row in that table.

\[\frac{W}{S} = \frac{41{,}888}{953.6} = 43.9 \ \text{lb/ft}^{2} \tag{21}\]

So the approach constraint is real and it did not size this wing. Something else did, and the candidate that can be tested is fuel volume. The Breguet range relation gives the fuel the published range costs. The encyclopaedia entry gives a range of 2,100 nautical miles [Northrop Grumman X-47B] and the specialist directory 3,500 [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles], and both are carried,

\[\zeta_{\text{fuel}} = 1 - \exp \left( - \frac{R \, c}{V (L/D)} \right) \tag{22}\]
lift to drag ratio fuel fraction for 2,100 nm fuel, kg fuel fraction for 3,500 nm fuel, kg
14 0.2434 4,625 0.3718 7,065
16 0.2166 4,115 0.3342 6,350
18 0.1950 3,706 0.3034 5,765

Between three and a half and seven tonnes of fuel, depending on which published range is taken. No cruise condition is published, so the one behind that table is assumed, being Mach 0.75 at 40,000 feet and a specific fuel consumption of 0.80 per hour. The encyclopaedia gives a cruise speed above Mach 0.9 and a ceiling of 42,000 feet [Northrop Grumman X-47B], and at Mach 0.9 the fuel for 2,100 nautical miles falls to between 3,143 and 3,941 kilograms, about fifteen percent less, so the assumption moves the figure without changing its size. Turning a Mach number at altitude into the speed the range relation wants takes the standard atmosphere,

\[T = 216.65 \ \text{K} \qquad a = \sqrt{\gamma R T} = 295.07 \ \text{m/s} \qquad V = 0.75 a = 430.2 \ \text{kn} \tag{23}\]

with the temperature and the constants taken from the standard atmosphere [U.S. Standard Atmosphere 1976 1976] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1962].

Forty thousand feet is above the tropopause, so the temperature is the constant stratospheric value rather than one falling with height. Such a volume is a great deal to carry in a wing 953.6 square feet in area and a fuselage this aeroplane barely has, so fuel volume is the most plausible thing to have set the area. The test is not conclusive, because a published range figure may be a radius, in which case the distance doubles, the fuel rises by three-quarters to four-fifths, and the argument strengthens. A constraint that is satisfied with a wide margin is not the constraint that set the design, and this corrects how the previous article used it.

A third prediction held. The thrust to weight ratio of 0.382 falls inside the 0.30 to 0.40 band that article assumed.

Outside this series, the programme ended carrier aviation as a thing only people could do. The demonstrations of 2013 to 2015 established launch, recovery, deck operations alongside manned aircraft and autonomous refuelling, which together complete the cycle [Northrop Grumman X-47B].

The Contemporary Literature

Cluster Records
Relative navigation, precision approach and the automatic landing 958
Aircraft sizing, mission analysis and the weight estimate 795
Automatic takeoff, landing and carrier recovery 665
Autonomy, mission management and onboard decision making 348
Flight control law design and handling qualities 300
Tailless configurations and their control effectors 235
Aerodynamics of the configuration 192
Fault detection, health monitoring and fault tolerance 144
Multi-vehicle coordination and cooperative control 139
Unmanned aircraft systems, their classes and their military use 131
Ship motion, the flight deck and shipboard operations 124
Airframe structure, composites and affordability 117
Propulsion, inlet integration and installed performance 110
Human supervisory control and the span of control 99
Unmanned combat aircraft and the strike mission 93
Programme, acquisition and the cost of a demonstrator 84
Aeroelasticity, flutter and structural loads 63
The atmosphere and the flight condition 60
Landing gear, tyres, brakes and landing loads 58
Verification, validation and the certification of autonomous software 41
Internal weapons carriage and store separation 39
Datalink, latency and beyond-line-of-sight command 32
Low observable design and signature 22
Suppression of enemy air defences and time-critical targeting 10
Total 4,859

Relative navigation, precision approach and the automatic landing

This is the cluster this article’s keystone lives in, and it is a satellite navigation literature before it is an aeronautical one. Differential and carrier-phase positioning, integer ambiguity resolution, integrity monitoring, inertial navigation and its integration with satellite navigation, precision approach systems, the automatic carrier landing system and glide slope tracking. Relative positioning between two moving receivers is a recurring title subject here, including shipboard relative navigation for landing and the relative navigation of spacecraft formations, whose measurement is the one the deck problem needs.

958 records. 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Aircraft sizing, mission analysis and the weight estimate

This is the cluster the scoring of the previous article draws on. Conceptual and preliminary design, weight estimation, the Breguet range and endurance relations, cruise performance, mission analysis, constraint analysis, fuel tank design and multidisciplinary optimisation. The Breguet relation is the one this article uses itself, to test whether fuel volume set the area of the wing.

795 records. [Abdelrahman et al. 2009] [Acerra Gil and Guimaraes 2019] [Adler and Martins 2023] [Adu-Gyamfi et al. 2025] [Ahuja et al. 2022] [Aircraft Anatomy 1985] [Aircraft Case Studies 2026] [Aircraft Characteristics 2022] [Aircraft Classification Statistics 2010] [Aircraft Conceptual Design 2012] [Aircraft Cruise in Steady 2011b] [Aircraft Cruise in Steady 2011] [Aircraft Design 2024] [Aircraft Design 1993] [Aircraft Design Fundamentals 2012] [Aircraft Design Optimization 2013] [Aircraft Fuel System Design] [Aircraft Operating Envelope 2010] [Aircraft Performance 2010] [Aircraft Performance 2026] [Aircraft Performance Methods 2010] [Aircraft Range and Endurance 2011] [Aircraft et al. 2011] [Aircraft Sizing Engine Matching 2010] [Aircraft Weight and Center 2010] [Aircraft Weight Distribution 2012] [Aircraft Weights Data 2010] [Aircraft Basic Forces 1995] [Aircraft/Engine System Constraint Analysis 2018] [Aircraft/Engine System Mission Analysis 2018] [Ajaj et al. 2013] [Al-Ahmed and Fielding 1999] [Al-Habahbeh 2022] [Al-Shamma et al. 2017] [Al-Zubaidi and Stol 2022] [Albuquerque et al. 2014] [Alder et al. 2023] [Alexandrov et al. 2023] [Ali and Al-Shamma 2026] [Allison and Myklebust 2015] [Altman 2015] [Amadori et al. 2019] [Ames 1975] [Anderson 1986] [Andrews and Perez 2015] [Andrews et al. 1988] [Anipko et al. 2020] [Antcliff et al. 2016] [Appendix C 1997] [Ardema 2003] [Ardema et al. 1991] [Argrow 2016] [Aronstein and Schueler 2005] [Aruvelli and Dolgov 2020] [Ascani 1974] [Aubeelack] [Autry and Victorazzo 2019] [Avanzini and Giulietti 2013] [Ayar and Karakoc 2023] [Aydın et al. 2025] [Babetto and Stumpf 2021] [Bach et al. 2016] [Badyagin et al. 1979] [Bagdatli et al. 2019] [Bahamonde Jacome and Elham 2017] [Bai et al. 2014] [Ball and Atkinson 1998] [Bangert et al. 1983] [Bardell 2000] [Barlow 1929] [Barlow 1999] [Barnert et al. 2026] [Barth et al. 2002] [Barton] [Bashkirov et al. 1997] [Bateman 1986] [Bateman et al. 2007] [Batill et al. 1999] [Batra et al. 2023] [Batra et al. 2024] [Batra et al. 2026] [Belart 1938] [Belhafnaoui and Diouane 2026] [Benaouali and Kachel 2019] [Bendarkar et al. 2013] [Bendavid et al. 1977] [Benders and Koch 2019] [Berman 1997] [Bert 1981] [Beyne and Castro 2022] [Bhardwaj et al. 1987] [Bianchi et al. 2020] [Bil 1989] [Bilimoria 1989] [Bindolino et al. 2010] [Blakey et al. 2011] [Blankson 1992] [Blasi and Core 2007] [Blasi et al. 2000] [Boggero et al. 2017] [Borgia et al. 2026] [Boughton et al. 2004] [Braafladt et al. 2020] [Brelje and Martins 2021] [Brown 1965] [Brown and Fisher 1968] [Brown and Jagger 1966] [Buda et al. 2026] [Buddhamatya et al. 2026] [Burton and Hoburg 2018] [Butler et al. 1999] [Bye 1993] [Byrne et al. 2014] [Bérard and Isikveren 2009] [Cai et al. 2022] [Camatti et al. 1998] [Camilleri et al. 2012] [Campbell et al. 2026] [Carreyette 1950] [Carrier et al. 2022] [Carson 1980] [Casarosa et al. 2004] [Cavagna et al. 2009] [Cavagna et al. 2010] [Cavagna et al. 2011] [Cavalcanti et al. 2006] [Cavcar 2006b] [Cavcar 2006a] [Centracchio et al. 2018] [Cestino 2006] [Cestino et al. 2023] [Chacksfield 1998] [Chai et al. 1995] [Chakraborty and Mishra 2021] [Chakraborty et al. 2014a] [Chakraborty et al. 2014b] [Chakraborty et al. 2019] [Chakraborty et al. 2023] [Chambers et al. 1996] [Chaput 1987] [Chaput 1992] [Characteristics of Aircraft Types 2010] [Chaussee and Dervault 2013] [Chen 2021a] [Cheng et al. 2026] [Choi et al. 2026] [Chowdhary and Pant 2010] [Chudoba and Cook 2003b] [Chuprun 1984] [Cinar et al. 2022] [Cinar et al. 2023] [Cipolla et al. 2018] [Cleveland 1970] [Coales 1931] [Coen and Foss 1986] [Coen and Foss 1985] [Coiro and Nicolosi 2001] [Colas et al. 2018] [Computer-Aided System of Aircraft 2018] [Conceptual Design Examples 2024] [Configuring Aircraft 2010] [Conlon and Bowles 1978] [Control Authority Assessment 1993] [Coogan 2016] [Cousin and Metcalfe 1990] [Craig et al. 1991] [Crossley 2004] [Crossley and Rutherford 1995] [Crossley et al. 2011] [Cruise Performance 2012] [Cruise Performance 2022] [Cruise Performance and Flight 2021] [Cuerno-Rejado and Sanchez-Carmona 2016] [Curpanaru et al. 2026] [Cyrus 1986] [Cyrus 1995] [Dannenhoffer 1981] [Daoud 2017] [Bertoli et al. 2016] [De Laurentis et al. 1997] [de Vries et al. 2020] [Dean et al. 2009] [Delavenne] [Delgado Regis et al. 2004] [Design and Development 2014] [Kim 2005] [Design Constraints 1993] [Design of the Well-Tempered 2013] [Design of Unique Aircraft 2024] [Desilets] [Deuschle 2025] [Di Stasio et al. 2025] [Diaconu 2024] [Domogalla et al. 2021] [Donateo and Çinar 2022] [Dong et al. 2013] [Wells 2014] [Dovi and Wrenn 1989] [Dovi and Wrenn 1990] [Driver 1974] [Du Cray et al. 2025] [Dudar and Timoshenko 2025] [Early Conceptual Design 2013] [Eckels 1983] [Edwards 1950] [Effing et al. 2023] [Eisenhut et al. 2025] [Eisler] [Ekvall et al. 1974] [Elham and Bahamonde Jacome 2016] [Ergan et al. 2026] [Erturk and Dogan 2017] [Erzberger et al. 1975] [Essari 2018a] [Essari 2018b] [Essari and Ghatus 2023] [Estimating the Takeoff Wing 2010] [Ewing and Downs 1996] [Fairey 1929] [Fawcett and Martin 1986] [Fazeli et al. 2016] [Fellers and Patierno 1970] [Fidkowski et al. 2008] [Finger et al. 2018] [Finger et al. 2020] [Finger et al. 2022] [Fioriti 2014] [Fladeland et al. 2019] [Flittie and Curtin 1998] [Fornasier 1996] [Foss 1981] [Foss 1984] [Franco et al. 2019] [Frommer and Crossley 2005] [Frulla 2021] [Fröhler et al. 2024] [Fuchte et al. 2013] [Fuel Consumption Range 1992] [Fuel System Functions 2009a] [Fuel System Functions 2009b] [Fuselages and Tails Empennage 2017] [Führer et al. 2016] [Chandana et al. 2024] [Gabriele 1991] [Gallard] [Galloway 1989] [Garmendia et al. 2016] [Gates 1949] [Gavel et al. 2006] [Geiger 2002] [Generic Aircraft Design Flowchart 2017] [Geng 2025] [Gern 2015] [Gern et al. 2001b] [Ghaemi et al. 2019] [Ghazi and Botez 2022] [Ghosh et al. 2014] [Gilbert and Lyons 1981] [Gilbert and Parsons 1976] [Giles 1995] [Giles et al. 1972] [Glazebrook and McDonald 2013] [Golombek et al. 2025] [Golombek et al. 2026] [Gomez-Vega et al. 2025] [Gomez-Vega et al. 2026] [González et al. 2004b] [González et al. 2004a] [Goulos et al. 2010] [Gouveia et al. 2025] [Govindarajan and Sridharan 2020] [Goyal 2026] [Gregory and Wilcox 1970] [Gu et al. 2023] [Gudmundsson 2014g] [Gudmundsson 2014a] [Gudmundsson 2014e] [Gudmundsson 2014c] [Gudmundsson 2022g] [Gudmundsson 2022e] [Gudmundsson 2022c] [Gudmundsson 2022h] [Gudmundsson 2022a] [Gupta et al. 2017] [Gur et al. 2009] [Guzman Nieto] [Gómez Rodríguez] [Hacker 1999] [Hajela and Bach 1989] [Hajela and Chen 1986] [Hajela and Chen 1988] [Hale and Steiger 1978] [Hale and Steiger 1979] [Hale 1976] [Hall 2026] [Hall and Rogan 1988] [Hammond 1986] [Hannon et al. 2008] [Harding] [Harish et al. 2022] [Harloff and Berkowitz 1990] [Harloff and Berkowitz 1988] [Hartney] [Hassan et al. 2020] [Hawkins 1982] [Hayase 1974a] [Hayase 1974b] [Hays 1989] [Heidary and Kosari 2024] [Hein et al. 2023] [Heiser and Mattingly 2010] [Helios Solar/fuel Cell Aircraft 2003] [Hendrickson et al. 1978] [Henne 1989] [High Altitude Reconnaissance Aircraft 1989] [High-Altitude Long-Endurance HALE Sensor 2026] [Hill and Olson 2004] [Hill and Waters 1974] [Hill and Waters 1975] [Hiyama 1974b] [Hiyama 1974a] [Holmes 1982] [Holzapfel et al. 2006] [Hon et al. 2022] [Hoogreef 2026] [Hooker 2014] [Horvath and Wells 2018] [Hosseini and Vaziry-Zanjany 2024] [Howe 2000b] [Howe 2000a] [Huang et al. 1996] [Huston 1989] [Hwang and Nam 2012] [Ibrahim 2011] [Iemma and Diez 2006] [Information Model of Aircraft 2021] [Ingram et al. 2015] [Initial Sizing 2024] [Initial Tail Sizing 2013] [Initial Unmanned Aircraft Sizing 2014] [Initial Unmanned-Aircraft Sizing 2012] [Intravartolo et al. 2023] [Irvin and Swan 1956] [Isikveren et al. 2014] [Vankan et al. 2021] [Jackson 2010] [Jacobson and Tsubaki 1986] [Jaeger et al. 2013] [Jagtap et al. 2024] [Jagtap et al. 2025b] [Jagtap et al. 2025a] [Joseph et al] [Joseph et al] [Jameson 2009] [Jang and Ahn 2019] [Jansen and Perez 2010] [Jenkinson 1991] [Johnson 1972] [Johnson 1985] [Jones 1948] [Jouannet et al. 2017] [Jun et al. 2003] [Kai et al. 2026] [Kalinowski 2017] [Kamal and Ramirez-Serrano 2019] [Kang and Lee 2024] [Kang and Tang 2013] [Kao et al. 2018] [Kapania and Chun 2004] [Karabacak and Turan 2020] [Karagoz 2025] [Karagoz et al. 2019] [Karahan and Cadirci 2023] [Karahan and Cadirci 2024] [Karahan and Özdemir 2023] [Karpuk 2024] [Karpuk 2026] [Karpuk and Elham 2021] [Kaymal 2016] [Keane et al. 2017] [Kei̇yi̇nci̇ and Aydin 2021] [Kelley 1971] [Khurana et al. 2019] [Kiely and Agarwal 2024] [Kim and Lee 2018] [Kim et al. 2018] [Kimberlin 2001] [King] [Kirk 1992] [Kirkham and Driver 1973] [Kolb 1988] [Kolden 1989] [Komarov and Weisshaar 1998] [Kottapalli and Harris 2012] [Kowalski et al. 2021] [Krengel et al. 2019] [Kretov 2020] [Kretov 2021] [Kroo 1983] [Kumuk and Ilbas 2023] [Kutney 1964] [Laine 1982] [Lammen et al. 2014] [Lammering et al. 2010] [Landauer 1992] [Lange 1984] [Larsson et al. 2014] [Layton and Kee 1983] [Lazzara et al. 2009] [Lehmann 1980] [Lenz and Crossley 2009] [Level Flight Performance Jet 2003] [Li and Rodrigues 2025] [Li et al. 2013h] [Li et al. 2019] [Li et al. 2025b] [Lin 1982] [Linnell 1963] [Liscouët-Hanke and Huynh 2013] [Liseitsev 2025] [Liu 2026] [Liu and Anemaat 2013] [Liu and Elham 2019] [Liu and Wu 2003] [Liu et al. 2006] [Liu et al. 1983] [Locatelli et al. 2011] [Logan 1989] [Long 2026] [Love 2020] [Love and Argrow 2021] [Lovell and Schmidt 1995] [Lowry 1995] [Lu et al. 2004] [Luca et al. 2024] [Luo Xiuchun and Huang Ning 2005] [Lutz et al. 2025] [Luu 2025] [Ma and Elham 2021] [Ma et al. 2022c] [Mainini et al. 2010] [Major Changes 1993] [Majoros 1989] [Malaek and Soltan-Mohammed 2001] [Malone and Mason 1992] [Malone and Woyak 1995] [Manley and von Klein 2002] [March et al. 2011] [Margason 2002] [Marshall et al. 2005] [Martindale et al. 1974] [Martinez-Val et al. 1994] [Martínek et al. 2026] [Mason 1990] [Mason and Iglesias 2001] [Maximum Range and Endurance 2000] [Mazur et al. 2024] [Mazzoni et al. 2024] [McDonald 2011] [McDonald 2012] [McDonald 2013] [McDonald and Gloudemans 2022] [McDonnell and Ning 2020] [McKinnis et al. 2020] [Meadows et al. 2012] [Meier and Olson 1988] [Menon 1986] [Menon et al. 2007] [Mieloszyk and Tarnowski 2019] [Miller 1993] [Mills et al. 2012] [Tint 2018] [Mishra et al. 2025] [Mission Analysis 2002] [Mission Analysis 2012] [Mission Analysis 2022] [Mistree 1987] [Mistree et al. 1994] [Mokotoff et al. 2025] [Mokotoff et al. 2026] [Molent and Agius 2008] [Moorhouse and Jenkins 1975] [Morris 1954] [Morris 1983] [Morris 1984] [Moruzzi and Bagassi 2020] [Mosca et al. 2021] [Musselwhite 1978] [Myklebust and Gelhausen 1993] [Nam and Mavris 2018] [Nam et al. 2005] [Nam et al. 2014] [Nangia et al. 2004b] [Nangia et al. 2004a] [Narcizo et al. 2020] [Nascimento et al. 2017] [Nelson 1937] [Neufeld 2021] [Neufeld et al. 2011] [Newberry 1998] [Ng and Willcox 2014] [Ng and Willcox 2016] [Nguyen et al. 2025] [Nguyen et al. 2026] [Nickol et al. 2007] [Nicolai 1978] [Nigam et al. 2015] [Nikbay et al. 2010] [Nunez and Guenov 2013] [O’Sullivan 2002] [Ohme 2009] [Ohme and Raab 2008] [Olson and Henricks 2018] [Olson and Mavris 2006] [Omiya and Rinoie 2017b] [Omiya and Rinoie 2017a] [Onat and Tolle 1979] [Oole 1993] [Oosterom and Vos 2022] [Oyama et al. 2024] [Ozcan and Alemdaroglu 2015] [Chiozzotto 2017] [Paiva et al. 2008] [Paiva et al. 2010] [Palaia 2026] [Palaia and Abu Salem 2023] [Palaia et al. 2025] [Palusamy and Sivier 1993] [Pan et al. 2026a] [Pant and Fielding 1999] [Pant and Kalker-Kalkman 1998] [Papadales and Basil S. 1979] [Papageorgiou et al. 2021] [Park 2021] [Park 2025] [Park and Yee 2025] [Park et al. 2015] [Park et al. 2022] [Park et al. 2025] [Parker 1986] [Patterson 1989] [Perez and Jansen 2014] [Perez et al. 2000] [Perez et al. 2004a] [Perez et al. 2004b] [Performance and Flight Mechanics 2024] [Petnga 2018] [Phillips et al. 2025] [Pornet et al. 2015] [Posada and Vargas 2020] [Preliminary Estimate of Takeoff 2010] [Preliminary Fuselage Sizing 2010] [Preliminary Sizing 2010] [Price 1964] [Putra and Chakraborty 2023] [Putting It All Together 2004] [Putting It All Together 2015] [Abhishek et al. 2020] [Raghunath et al. 2014] [Rajaram et al. 2018] [Rajnarayan and Sturdza 2011] [Rajnarayan and Sturdza 2013] [Rajpal and Pant 2011] [Randle et al. 2011] [Range and Endurance 2006] [Ravishankar and Chakravarthy 2018] [Raymer 1988] [Raymer 1992] [Raymer 1998] [Raymer 2004] [Raymer 2012b] [Raymer 2012a] [Raymer 2018] [Raymer 2019] [Raymer 2024] [Raymer and Crossley 2002] [Resulkulyeva and Serebryansky 2022] [Retana and Rodriguez-Cortes 2007] [Reuel et al. 2026] [Riggins et al. 2010] [Rinoie and Tsumuraya 2003] [Robertson and turnbow 1966] [Rocha et al. 2006] [Rodriguez and Liscouët-Hanke 2025] [Roelofs et al. 2021] [Roland and Rumpfkeil 2017] [Romli 2013] [Rose et al. 2022] [Rosenstein 1989] [Rosenthal et al. 1988] [Roskam 1985] [Roskam 1986] [Roth and Crossley 1998] [Roth et al. 2002] [Roy Salam and Bil 2016] [Sabeti and Winter 2024] [Sabeti et al. 2024] [Sachs 2012] [Sachs 2013] [Sachs and Christodoulou 1987] [Sadraey 2010] [Sadraey 2014] [Sadraey 2016b] [Saeedipour and Neil Stevenson 1998] [Saelman 1964] [Sagdeo 1990] [Sahai and Stumpf 2014] [Samareh et al. 2006] [Samuels 1982] [Sanchez et al. 2021] [Sanchez-Carmona and Cuerno-Rejado 2018] [Sanders 1957] [Sandy and Judt 2024] [Sanghi 2003] [Sarojini et al. 2017] [Schairer 1946] [Schieck and Schmitt 2001] [Schieck et al. 2002] [Schmidt and Vos 2014] [Schnackel and Dovenmuehle 1990] [Schneider and Strohmayer 2023] [Schneider and Strohmayer 2025] [Schrage et al. 2001] [Schultz 1946] [Schwartz 1988] [Schweiger et al. 1998] [Scott et al. 2019] [Sensmeier and Samareh 2005] [Serebryansky and Bekirov 2023] [Serghides and Fielding 1988] [Shankar and Cliff 1988b] [Shankar and Cliff 1988a] [Shankar et al. 1989] [Sharpe and Hansman 2024] [Shelton 1932] [Shoemaker 1958] [Shubham et al. 2025] [Shushnar] [Shustrov 1998] [Siegers and Smith 1995] [Whiteside and Pollard] [Silva] [Simmons 1983] [Simos and Jenkinson 1986] [Sirigireddy and Ahner 2026] [Sizing from a Conceptual 2024] [Sizing Inboard Profile Mass 2022] [Sizing Trade Studies 2024] [Skillen and Crossley 2005] [Skillen and Crossley 2008] [Slingerland and Volders 2003] [Smart and Alonso 2019] [Smith and Lee 1989] [Solvey 1951] [Sorensen et al. 1979] [Souza] [Spark et al. 2026] [Spearman and Spearman 1997] [Spinelli and Kipouros 2025] [Staack] [Staack et al. 2021] [Staats et al. 2025] [Stack 1982] [Stamm and Woods 2024] [Stanford 2021] [Stepniewski and Kalmbach 1970] [Stepniewski and Schneider 1964] [Stratford 1948] [Stringer et al] [Stroub 1989] [Suewatanakul et al. 2022] [Sun 2014] [Sun 2026b] [Suwal and Cliff 1990] [Svoboda 1999] [Szodruch 2001] [Tai et al. 2016] [Takahashi 2022] [Takahashi and Donovan 2010] [Takahashi and Lemonds 2015] [Tan et al. 2015a] [Templalexis et al. 2016] [Thauvin] [The Wing Structure 2013] [Tiwari et al. 2024] [Todorov et al. 2023] [Toffol and Ricci 2023] [Tomasella et al. 2019] [Tong and Naylor 2008] [Torenbeek 1971] [Torenbeek 1972] [Torenbeek 1997] [Torenbeek 2013] [Torenbeek 2020] [Torenbeek and Wittenberg 1983] [Trade Studies and Sizing 2010] [Trancossi et al. 2016] [Traub 2011] [Traub 2016] [Tsushima and Rinoie 2011] [Turner 1969] [Turriziani et al. 1979] [Tzong et al. 1992] [Ugwueze et al. 2022] [Ugwueze et al. 2023] [Unified Cruise Performance 2013] [Karakoc and Özbek 2024] [Unmanned Aircraft Geometry 2014] [Unmanned-Aircraft Geometry and Configurations 2012] [Useful Aircraft Design Data] [Useful Aircraft Design Data 1999] [Valenzuela and Rivas 2014] [Vallone] [Van Haver and Vos 2015] [van Tooren et al. 2005] [Variyar et al. 2014] [Vegh and Alonso 2016] [Velden 1997] [Veresnikov 2025] [Veresnikov et al. 2026] [Verstraete et al. 2018] [Vessey 1938] [von Ehrenfried 2013] [Vos 2019b] [Wadia et al. 2022] [Wahler et al. 2023] [Walker and Chudoba] [Wampler et al. 1988] [Wang] [Wang and Shi 2023] [Wang et al. 2024c] [Wang et al. 2025f] [Wang et al. 2025g] [Ward 1983] [Wauters 2022] [Wei and Masood 2017] [Weight Prediction Optimization 2020] [Wells et al. 1999] [Werner-Westphal et al. 2008b] [Whitener 1978] [Whitener 1979] [Whitford 1988] [Whitford 1990] [Whitford 1991] [Whitford 1992] [Whitford 1993] [Whitford 1994] [Why Should We Design] [Why Should We Design 1999] [Wickenheiser and Garcia 2009] [Wildermuth et al. 1974b] [Wildermuth et al. 1974a] [Wilson and Wilson 1997] [Winter et al. 2021] [Wittenberg 2001] [Woelk 1989] [Wolz and Shira 1995] [Worked Manned Aircraft Detail 2017] [Wortmann et al. 2015] [Wrenn and Dovi 1987] [Wrenn and Dovi 1988] [Wroblewski and Ansell 2018b] [Wroblewski and Ansell 2018a] [Wroblewski and Ansell 2019] [Wroblewski and Ansell 2020] [Wujek et al. 1996] [Xiao et al. 2025] [Xie and Haberland 1999] [Xie et al. 2019a] [Xing and Zuo 2025] [Xue and Atkins 2005] [Xun et al. 1993] [Yang et al. 2011a] [Yang et al. 2016a] [Yang et al. 2021] [Yang et al. 2025a] [Yarygina and Popov 2012] [Yates 1964] [Yazdi 1991] [Yechout 1986] [Yildiz et al. 2022] [Yokell and Baker 1994] [Young 2010] [Yu and Du 2006] [Zafi and Chakraborty 2023] [Zakrzewski] [Zammit-Mangion and Eshelby 2008] [Zaprianov et al. 1987] [Zhai et al. 2023] [Zhao et al. 2026] [Zhou et al. 2023b] [Zhu et al. 2019b] [Ziemer et al. 2011] [Çakıcı and Leblebicioğlu 2016] [Ünal et al. 2023]

Automatic takeoff, landing and carrier recovery

Where an unmanned aeroplane earns or loses its case. Automatic and carrier landing control, arresting gear and arrestment dynamics, catapults, the wave-off, landing gear dynamics and aerial refuelling. The X-47B was catapulted from a carrier at sea in May 2013, made arrested landings aboard one in July 2013 and refuelled from a tanker autonomously in April 2015, which together are the cycle this cluster covers.

665 records. [Rajesh and Bt 2015] [A Psychological Evaluation 1972] [A Testing Platform Which 1950] [Ibrahim et al. 2023] [Abu-Akeel 1968] [Abu-Akeel 1969] [Adamowicz et al. 2021] [Aerospace Landing Gear] [Aerospace Landing GEAR Systems] [Agarwala] [Ahmad et al. 2022] [Ahmad et al. 2023] [Airborne Landing Guidance System] [Aircraft Alighting and Arresting 1927] [Aircraft Landing GEAR] [Aircraft Landing Measurement System 1971] [Aircraft Landing Procedure 1998] [Aircraft Tires 2022] [Aircraft Wheels Brakes 2022] [Ajith et al. 2019] [Alexandrov et al. 1980] [Ali et al. 2024] [Ali et al. 2025] [Altinses et al. 2025] [Altmann 2013] [Anderson 1996] [Apeng et al. 2018] [Approach to Landing Guidance] [K.А. 2025] [Arresting HOOK Installation, LAND] [Arresting Hook Installation, Land-Based] [Arık and Bilgiç 2022] [Asthana and Bhat 2012] [Aubert et al. 2016] [Ayre and Abrams 1958] [Azimov and Bishop 2025] [Baker 1963] [Baker 1965] [Baker 1966] [Bardera et al. 2019] [Barter and Clerk 1993] [Barter et al. 1993] [Bastiaens et al. 2021] [Batill and Bacarro 1988] [Beaulieu et al. 2007] [Beklemishchev and Tikhonov 2021] [Berbaum et al. 1991] [Berman 1974] [Berry 2000] [Bertola et al. 2015] [Bertola et al. 2016a] [Bertola et al. 2016b] [Bertola et al. 2017] [Bertoncelli et al] [Bhandari et al. 2013] [Bhatia and Aljadiri 2017] [Bian et al. 2018] [Biertümpfel and Pfifer 2021] [Bihrle 1969] [Billec 1967] [Blacha et al. 2024] [Black 1968] [Black 1983] [Blinkhorn 1948] [Bly 2020] [Bodson and Athans 1985] [Bogos et al. 2018] [Bohao et al. 2026] [Bolonkin 2005a] [Boothe 1971] [Boudria et al. 2024] [Boullianne 1997] [Brictson and Prince 1989] [Brictson et al. 1969] [Brictson et al. 1980] [Brodersen and Sauer 1992] [Brodzinsky 1959] [Brown 2009] [Brukarczyk et al. 2021] [Brusov et al. 2019] [Buell 1970] [Bulirsch et al. 1989] [Bunnell 2001] [Bushway 2001] [Butler 1970] [Cai et al. 2018a] [Cao et al. 2026] [Carvalho 2016] [Castagno et al. 2018] [Cetinkaya and Ozkol 2017] [Chai and Mason 1996] [Chaloff et al. 1974] [Chang and Ai 2026] [Chang et al. 2018] [Chen 2018] [Chen and Wu 2014] [Chen and Yong 2023] [Chen et al. 2012] [Chen et al. 2013] [Chen et al. 2015] [Chen et al. 2018c] [Chen et al. 2021a] [Chen et al. 2024a] [Chen et al. 2026a] [Cheng et al. 2021] [Chernenko and Burnashev 2022] [Chester 1995] [Chi et al. 2009] [Chitrakaran et al. 2005] [Chiu Hung Luk et al] [Chu et al. 2016] [Chuzha 2016] [Clark 1965] [Clark 1984] [Cockburn 1965] [Collins et al. 2025] [Collyer et al. 1980] [Colwell 1966] [Comandur et al. 2019] [Computer Vision-Based Approach 2025] [Connelly 1982] [Connelly 1983] [Coombes et al. 2017] [Cotrumbă et al. 2019] [Coutard et al. 2011] [Crashworthy Landing Gear 1998] [Cui and Li 2022] [Currey 1988] [Dagal and Erol 2024] [Dai et al. 2016] [Darmawan et al. 2025] [Dart 1961] [Dart 1962] [Daughetee 1974] [De Lellis et al. 2013] [Deja et al. 2022a] [Deja et al. 2022b] [Delprete et al. 2023] [Han 2008] [CHjen 2022] [Dewispelare and Stager 1981] [DeWispelare and Stager 1983] [Dhote et al. 2025] [Di Donato and Atkins 2016] [Dickard 1978] [Diltemiz 2021] [Dinc et al. 2025] [胡 et al. 2022] [Di̇nç 2021] [Dobos et al. 2024] [Dong et al. 2021] [Dongdong et al. 2025] [Donley 1980] [Douglas Aircraft Co Long Beach Ca 1962b] [Douglas Aircraft Co Long Beach Ca 1963] [Douglas et al. 2021] [Doyle et al. 1995] [Drinkwater et al. 1958] [Duan et al. 2022b] [Duda et al. 2022] [Durand and Teper 1964] [Durand and Wasicko 1965] [Dynnikov 2020] [Eitner et al. 2013] [Eldred 1953] [Elliott and Dogan 2009] [Englebry 1980] [Englebry 1981] [Enright 1985] [Epp 2024] [Evaluation of the Navigation 1979] [Fathurrahman and Jenie 2022] [Feng et al. 2014] [Feng et al. 2024] [Ferrier et al. 2000] [Ferrier et al. 2006] [Ferrier et al. 2015] [Fezans and Jann 2017] [Field 1999] [Field and Rossitto 1999] [Finch and Matranga 1959] [Fisch et al. 2012] [Fish and Sitzman 2008] [Flight Test Data Analysis 2016] [Fracture of an Aluminum 2019] [Frost et al. 2021] [Fry 1957] [Fu et al. 2012] 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Lucas 1963] [Kling and Hornung 2019] [Klochan et al. 2015] [Knowles et al. 2012] [Kolwey 1977] [Koo et al. 2015] [Kowal] [Kownacki et al. 2023] [Krabacher 1993] [Krammer et al. 2021] [Kroll 1956] [Kroll 1957] [KrÜGer et al. 1997] [А.А. 2026] [Kumar et al. 2007] [Kumar et al. 2024] [Cechinel et al. 2023] [Kurdel et al. 2024] [Lamper and Mazutskaj] [Lampton et al. 2018] [Landing GEAR - Aircraft] [Landing Gear Fatigue Spectrum] [Landing Gear Shock Absorption] [Larionov 2017] [Le et al. 2019] [Lee and Chiou 1994] [Lee and Munson 1996] [Lee et al. 1998] [Lee et al. 2011] [Lehman 1964] [Lehman 1965] [Lehman 1966] [Leo et al. 2014] [Lernbeiss and Plöchl 2007] [Li 2020] [Li et al. 2012c] [Li et al. 2014b] [Li et al. 2017c] [Li et al. 2021c] [Li et al. 2022c] [Li et al. 2024a] [Li et al. 2026c] [Liang et al. 2023a] [Liang et al. 2023b] [Liang Lihua et al. 2011] [Lighthill 1963] [Lin et al. 2015a] [Lin et al. 2017] [Lin et al. 2020] [Ling 1970] [Linn and Langlois 2006] [Lintern 1984] [Lisauskas et al. 2014] [Liu and Fan 2025] [Liu et al. 2014a] [Liu et al. 2023d] [Liu et al. 2023b] [Liu et al. 2025c] [Liu et al. 2026a] [Loegering and Harris 2002] [Lorenzetti et al. 2020] [Lowrance and Smith 1996] [Lu et al. 2014a] [Lu et al. 2014b] [Lu et al. 2020a] [Lu et al. 2020b] [Lu et al. 2022] [Lu et al. 2025] [Lungu 2017] [Lungu and Lungu 2016b] [Luo and Duan 2014] [Luong et al. 2025] [Lv et al. 2011] [Lykken and Shah 1972] [Lynch 2012] [Yuan et al. 2013] [Maemori et al. 2003] [Maier and Kondak 2015] [Makarenko et al. 2017] [Martorella et al. 1981] [McDonald 1980] [McDonald et al. 2020] [McGee 1977] [McGehee and Carden 1976] [McGehee and Dreher 1982] [McGehee et al. 1978] [McMuldroch et al. 1979] [McMuldroch 1979] [McRoberts et al. 2015] [Menon et al. 2012] [Michini and How 2011] [Micklos 1991] [Miele et al. 2010] [Miller 1969] [Miller 1970] [Mirzaei and Abdollahi 2009] [Mirzaei et al. 2008a] [Mirzaei et al. 2008b] [Misra and Bai 2018] [Mohan Raju et al. 2019] [Moorhouse 1991] [Morris and McGehee 1983] [Morrison et al] [Mosby 1965] [Moskowitz and Soltis 1976] [Mu Shujun et al. 2015] [Muehter 1974] [Widanto et al. 2025] [Murray-Smith 1995] [Musolino et al. 2012] [Musolino et al. 2013] [Nagaraj Goud et al. 2024] [Naghash and Enns 1998] [Nastasi et al. 1983] [Naval Air Operations 2006] [Nave 1973] [Negre 1975] [Nengjian Wang et al. 2016] [Ngo and Sultan 2024] [Nguyen et al. 2020] [Ni 2022] [Nian et al. 2025] [Novakovic et al. 2016] [Nowak et al. 2022] [O’Bryan et al. 1974] [Oh 2014] [Ossa 2006] [Overview of Aircraft Landing] [Oza et al. 2015] [Pan and Pi 2024] [Panday and Pedro 2018] [Papa 2018] [Patel et al. 2017] [Patterson and Arena 2015] [Payne 1968] [Peer 2000] [Peng et al. 2020b] [Peng et al. 2020a] [Peng et al. 2023] [Peng et al. 2025a] [Peristy et al. 2018] [Perkasa et al. 2024] [Perry and Schneider 1984] [Peterson 1961] [National Bureau of Standards 1968] [Picard 2002] [Pierson 1985] [Pina and Martins 2013] [Podruzhin et al. 2021] [Prabha and Raghavendra 2021] 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et al. 2008] [Tian and Zhao 2012] [Tian Jing and Ding Li 2010] [Tonhauser and Hecker 2016] [Trimble 2011] [Trobaugh and Obrimski 1980] [Tugolukov 2020] [Udayakumar and Ibrahim 2019] [van Slagmaat 1992] [van Slagmaat 2004] [van Slagmaat 2026] [Vassberg et al. 2005] [Vidimlic et al. 2021] [Vidmar 2006] [Vought Corp Dallas Tx Systems Div 1974] [Wagdi 1984] [Walker 1960] [Walker 1961] [Wang 2016] [Wang 2022] [Wang and Carl 1999] [Wang and Chen 2019] [Wang and Holzapfel 2018] [Wang et al. 2007a] [Wang et al. 2016b] [Wang et al. 2016d] [Wang et al. 2017c] [Wang et al. 2017b] [Wang et al. 2019a] [Wang et al. 2021b] [Wang et al. 2021f] [Wang et al. 2023a] [Wang et al. 2023b] [Wang et al. 2024a] [Wang et al. 2026d] [Ward et al. 1999] [Webbing, Nylon, Aircraft Arresting] [Webbing, Nylon, Aircraft Arresting] [Webbing, Nylon, Aircraft Arresting] [Webbing, Nylon, Aircraft Arresting] [Webbing, Nylon, Aircraft Arresting] [Webbing, Nylon/Polyester, Aircraft Arresting] [Webbing, Nylon/Polyester, 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[Zhang and Guo 2024] [Zhang and Zhang 2022] [Zhang et al. 2014] [Zhang et al. 2015] [Zhang et al. 2022b] [Zhang et al. 2022c] [Zhang et al. 2023b] [Zhang et al. 2023d] [Zhang et al. 2025a] [Zhang et al. 2025b] [Zhang et al. 2025c] [Zhang et al. 2025d] [Zhang et al. 2025f] [Zhang et al. 2026b] [Zhang et al. 2026c] [Zhang et al. 2026d] [Zhao and Tsiotras 2013] [Zhao et al. 2012] [Zhao et al. 2018a] [Zhao et al. 2018b] [Zhao et al. 2019] [Zhen et al. 2018] [Zheng et al. 2013] [Luo and Voronko 2023] [Zhimin and Guanxin 2013a] [Zhimin and Guanxin 2014] [Zhong et al. 2013] [Zhou and Huang 2020] [Zhou and Wang 2023] [Zhou et al. 2017a] [Zhou et al. 2024b] [Zhu 2006] [Zhu 2024] [Zhu and Qiu 2013] [Zhu Bin et al. 2018] [Zhu et al. 2012b] [Zhu et al. 2012a] [Zhu et al. 2017a] [Zhu et al. 2018] [Zhu et al. 2019a] [Zhu et al. 2022b] [Zia and Ullah Butt 2019] [Ziyang 2024] [Zonars 1961]

Autonomy, mission management and onboard decision making

What let the X-47B delegate the recovery. Mission management, onboard planning and replanning, contingency management, obstacle avoidance, autonomous landing and the autonomy of aerial refuelling. The third approach of 10 July 2013, abandoned after the aeroplane detected its own navigation fault, is contingency handling of exactly this kind.

348 records. [Aburime] [Adhikari 2021b] [Adhikari 2021a] [Ainvestigation of Computer Vision 2024] [Alam et al. 2026] [Alijani and Osman 2020] [Alijani and Osman 2021] [da Silva 2019] [Alsayed et al. 2022] [Ambroziak and Ciężkowski 2021] [Ambroziak and Gosiewski 2015] [An et al. 2023] [Arora et al. 2022] [Ashokkumar 2023] [Automation and Autonomy 2016] [Autonomous Control of Unmanned 2012] [Autonomous Control of Unmanned 2019] [Autonomous unmanned aircraft RandD 1994] [Baralli et al. 2002] [Barbier and Chanthery 2004] [Bardhan et al. 2017] [Barlow 2004] [Barnhart 2012] [Benders 2018] [Benders et al. 2018] [Bestaoui 2012] [Bestaoui and Lakhlef 2013] [Bestaoui Sebbane 2015] [Bhatia et al. 2021] [Boskovic and Redding 2009] [Boskovic et al. 2002] [Brinker 2004] [Brockett et al. 2002] [Bryant et al. 2015] [Bulka and Nahon 2017] [Bulka and Nahon 2019] [Bulusu et al. 2025] [Bürkle et al. 2010] [Cao and Yu 2022] [Cappuzzo et al. 2022] [Carrio Fernández] [Castanon and Cassandras 2010] [Castillo-Effen and Visnevski 2009] [Cetin and Yilmaz 2013] [Cetin et al. 2010] [Cetin et al. 2011] [Chapter 3 2021] [Chen 2021b] [Chen 2022] [Chen and Duan 2016] [Chen et al. 2002a] [Chen et al. 2025] [Chichka 2008] [Chitrakaran et al] [Chitrakaran et al. 2006b] [Chitrakaran et al. 2006a] [Chuzha et al. 2017] [Hartmann et al. 2024] [Clare et al. 2012c] [Clough] [Clough 2003] [Cooper and Ravela 2024] [Costello and Adams 2023] [Cruz and Encarnação 2011] [Dai et al. 2018] [Dai et al. 2020] [Daibing et al. 2012] [Dalang et al. 2023] [David 2023] [David 2024] [de Paula et al. 2025] [Deal and Mazumdar 2026] [Development of conflict avoidance] [Di et al. 2022] [Doherty et al. 2013] [Doherty et al. 2023] [Dong and Ai 2012] [Dong et al. 2015] [Douma et al. 2021] [Drusinsky et al. 2022] [Duan and Luo 2016] [Duan et al. 2021] [Dudek and Schulte 2022] [Dufrene] [Duncan et al. 2006] [Durst and Gray 2014] [Effland et al. 2008] [Ernest et al. 2015] [Eubank and Atkins 2011] [Fan 2017] [Forsmo et al. 2013] [Frau 2022] [Fravolini et al. 2008] [Frew and Lawrence 2005] [Fu et al. 2014] [Fukuda and Takimoto 2014] [Fürst and Dickmanns 1999] [Gao and Duan Zhen 2013] [Garcia et al. 2017] [Gardi et al. 2015] [Gautam et al. 2014] [George and Ghose 2009] [Goudarzi and Richards 2020] [Graham et al. 2023] [Gu and Enoiu 2023] [Gunetti et al. 2013] [Gutierrez et al. 2016] [Hagele and Soffker 2017] [Hang and Guo 2026] [Hang et al. 2025] [Herbst and Klöckner 2014] [Hewgley et al. 2011] [Hewgley et al. 2014] [Hinchey et al] [Hirsch and Schroeder 2014] [Hlas and Straub 2016] [Hopchak et al. 2022] [Horn et al. 2014] [Horn et al. 2015] [Horowitz et al. 2014] [Hou 2026] [Hu et al. 2018] [Huang and Liu 2018] [Huang et al. 2019b] [Huang et al. 2019c] [Ibrahim et al. 2020] [Insarov et al. 2019] [Jabbal 2015] [Jiang et al. 2016b] [Jiaxin et al. 2017] [Jizhu Liu et al. 2009] [Jonathan Edwards 2025] [Jones and Dye 2016] [Senthil Kumar and Shanmugam 2023] [Kahya and Konar 2026] [Kaidan 2026] [Karabag 2026] [Kartal and Yüksek 2025] [Karthik Krishnamurthy et al. 2003] [Karásek et al. 2026] [Kawamura and Azimov 2022] [Ke et al. 2009] [Keke et al. 2014a] [Kendoul et al. 2013] [Keong et al. 2019] [Keviczky and Balas 2006] [Khanafseh and Pervan 2007] [Koh and Paranjape 2020] [Koo and Sastry 2003] [Kopeikin et al. 2013] [Kotsinis et al. 2026] [Krozel and Andrisani 1990] [Kurnaz et al] [Küçükerdem et al. 2025] [Manikandan and Ghosh 2020] [Lan and Jianmei 2016] [Lee and Kim 2025] [Lee et al. 2018] [Lee et al. 2026] [Leonard et al. 2012] [Li and Chen 2003] [Li et al. 2012d] [Li et al. 2025d] [Lin and Saripalli 2014] [Linne 2022] [Liu and Valavanis 2026] [Liu et al. 2023a] [Liu et al. 2026d] [Londner 2016] [Lowe et al. 2026] [Lugo and Zell 2013] [Lungu et al. 2022a] [Maitland and McPhee 2018] [Mammadov and Gueaieb 2014] [Mangonneaux] [Marinov and Penev 2025] [Marshall et al. 2021] [Marshall et al. 2023] [Martinez et al. 2013] [Marwaha et al. 2009] [McCafferty et al. 2014] [McGee and Hedrick 2006] [McKinnis et al. 2021] [McManus and Walker 2006] [Mejias 2014] [Meng et al. 2020] [Mengying et al. 2017] [Michael et al. 2013] [Miller et al. 2023] [Shoukun et al. 2024] [Montazeri et al. 2021] [Morris et al. 2005] [Murillo et al. 2025] [Müller and Bauer 2024] [Niendorf et al. 2012] [Nieuwenhuisen et al. 2014] [Nikolaidis et al. 2025] [North et al] [Nygard 1995] [O’Rourke et al. 1999] [Ogorzalek et al. 2019] [Opening up Civil Airspace 2007] [Ordoukhanian and Madni 2019] [Orhan et al. 2026] [Owlia] [Padhi and Chawla 2016] [Papa 2023] [Papa et al. 2026] [Park and Bang 2022] [Patel et al. 2011] [Patel et al. 2021] [Pedrozo 2022] [Peng 2021] [Peng et al. 2016] [Peng et al. 2022] [Pieniążek 2003] [Powell 2001] [Prasanth et al] [Primatesta 2025] [Primatesta et al. 2018] [Primatesta et al. 2021] [Qi et al. 2021] [Qu et al. 2011] [Qu et al. 2013] [Querry] [Ramasamy and Ghose 2016] [Ramasamy et al. 2015] [Ramesh and Subbarao 2016] [Rao et al. 2020] [Ren and Quan 2024] [Ren et al. 2026] [Roberto Mati 2006] [Rodriguez-Ramos et al. 2017] [Roemer et al. 2008] [Ross et al. 2005] [Rutherford and Wells 1999] [Rysdyk et al. 2005] [Sadraey 2016a] [Safeer and Costello 2026] [Saghafi and Esmailifar 2009] [Santamaría Barnadas] [Saska et al. 2014] [Savuran and Karakaya 2015b] [Savuran and Karakaya 2015a] [Scheidt 2014] [Scherer et al. 2015] [Schopferer and Benders 2020] [Schopferer and Pfeifer 2015] [Schumann et al. 2019] [Schumann et al. 2021] [Sebestyén and Szénási 2026] [See et al. 2017] [Seitzer 2003] [Sevostyanov and Devitt 2021] [Sevostyanov et al. 2022] [Shah 2025] [Shanshan et al. 2020] [Sharma et al. 2009] [Sharma et al. 2024] [Shaw and Bevly 2018] [Shi and Ng 2018] [Shim et al. 2005] [Shin et al. 2013a] [Shin et al. 2013b] [Sibruk et al. 2015] [Silva] [Silverberg and Levedahl 2005] [Skjong et al. 2015] [Smith] [Smith et al. 2026] [Sobers et al. 2010] [Sorton and Hammaker 2005] [Stephan et al. 2020] [Sudevan et al. 2017] [Sun and Pack 2016] [Sun et al. 2019] [Surono et al. 2021] [Survivability of Unmanned Autonomous 2016] [Sánchez López] [Tad McGeer 1999] [Tanaka and Matsumoto 2019] [Tandale et al. 2005] [Tandale et al. 2006] [Tang et al. 2008] [Tang et al. 2010] [Tang et al. 2011] [ten Have 1993] [The Algorithm 2020] [Tinoco] [Tiwari et al. 2020] [Torno et al. 2014] [Tsoukalas et al. 2026] [Tsourveloudis and Doitsidis 2025] [Achicanoy et al. 2012] [Tynor 1989] [Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Path 2014] [Unmanned Autonomous Vehicle 2016] [Usach et al. 2017] [Usach Molina] [Vachon et al. 2002] [Vanualailai et al. 2013] [Venugopalan et al. 2012] [Vepa 2026a] [Petrescu 2019] [Gonçalves et al. 2009] [Visnevski and Castillo-Effen 2010] [Wang and Wang 2018] [Wang and Wang 2020] [Wang et al. 2005] [Wang et al. 2017a] [Wang et al. 2022b] [Wang et al. 2023d] [Wang et al. 2025b] [Wang et al. 2026b] [Wang et al. 2026a] [Webster et al. 2012] [Weiskopf et al. 2002] [Wilson et al. 2015] [Woen et al. 2016] [Wu and Mu 2026] [Wu et al. 2022] [Wu et al. 2023] [Wynn and McLain 2019] [Xi and Liu 2020] [Xie et al. 2019b] [Xin et al. 2018] [Xiong et al. 2022] [Xiong et al. 2025] [Xu 2018] [Xu et al. 2012b] [Yadav and Bhargava 2026] [Yan and Tan 2013] [Yan et al. 2018] [Yanushevsky 2026b] [Yavnai 2003] [Yavrucuk et al. 2009] [Yomchinda 2015] [You and Shim 2010] [Yu et al. 2020] [Yuan] [Yuan et al. 2024] [Zhang et al. 2020b] [Zhang et al. 2021c] [Zhao and Zhu 2016] [Zhao et al. 2021] [Zhou et al. 2012] [Zhu et al. 2016] [Çoban 2020]

Flight control law design and handling qualities

What replaces the pilot’s hands. Control law design, stability augmentation, adaptive and robust control, flight dynamics modelling and simulation, and the handling qualities framework that an unmanned aeroplane inherits without inheriting the pilot who defined it. A handling quality is a statement about a human being, and this cluster holds the work on what the term means when there is nobody aboard.

300 records. [Adams and Hatch 1970] [Adamski 2021] [Advanced Aircraft Control 2026] [Aerospace - Vehicle Management] [Aircraft Control 2011] [Aircraft Dynamics and Classical 2015] [Aircraft Flight Control 2014] [Aircraft Lateral-Directional Handling Qualities 2011] [Aircraft Longitudinal Handling Qualities 2011] [Aircraft Mechanics 2026] [Aircraft Models 2012] [Aircraft Non-Linear Dynamics 2014] [Aircraft Response Transfer Functions 1997] [Aircraft Response Transfer Functions 2013] [Aircraft Simulation Model 2022] [Aircraft Stability and Control 2026] [Aircraft Stability Derivatives 1998] [Al-Hiddabi and McClamroch 2002] [Al-Malki and Gu 2007] [Andrews and Perez 2014] [Anton and Botez 2012] [Army Aviation School Fort Rucker Al 1961] [Ashkenas 1965b] [Ashkenas 1965c] [Ashkenas 1965a] [Ashkenas 1982] [Autopilot Integration into Micro 2007] [Autopilot, Flight Director, and] [Azam et al. 2005] [Azimov and Allen 2017] [Bachelder and Aponso 2020a] [Bachelder and Aponso 2020b] [Bachelder et al. 2023] [Balague and Hajiyev 2016] [Bare-Airframe Identification from Data 2006] [Bare-Airframe Identification from Data 2012] [Baughman and Longeauay 2015] [Beainy et al. 2009] [Bechelder et al. 2025] [Becker et al. 1987] [Berger et al. 2025] [Bernstein 2000] [Berry 1986] [Beyers 1983] [Bischoff 1981] [Bishop and Antoulas 1991] [Bishop and Antoulas 1994] [Bodson 2001] [Booz 1988] [Bouadi and Mora-Camino 2012] [Bouadi et al. 2013] [Boudreau 1977] [Branch and Meyering 1995] [Brown and Szalai 1977] [Buck and Newman 2006] [Buell and Tinling 1959] [Burnashev and Zbrutsky 2019] [Callaghan and Kunz 2019] [Carlin and Blair 1983] [Carryer] [Cazaurang et al. 2003] [Ceren and Altuğ 2011] [Chalk 1963] [Chalk 1964] [Chance Vought Corp Dallas Tx 1979] [Chapter 3. Dynamics 2005] [Cook 1997] [Cook 2007] [Cook 2013] [Crespo et al. 2010] [Cromwell and Koven 1965] [Cunis] [Curtiss 1965] [Curtiss and Howard C. 1961] [Dabney and Miele 2000] [Dahleh and Tsitsiklis 2002] [Dakhno et al. 2021] [Dantsker et al. 2019] [Design Objectives for Flying] [Design Objectives For Handling] [Didomenico and Biezad 1985] [Dobos-Bubno and Hartsook 1977] [Dorobantu et al. 2013] [Duggan and Bhandari 2021] [Dynamics of Aircraft Motion 2015] [Dynamics of Rigid Aircraft 2023] [Ericsson 1997] [Evangelou 1998] [Fan et al. 2021] [Farajollahi and Markazi 2010] [Figueiredo Prudencio] [Flight Control 2015] [Flight Envelope Awareness/Protection] [Flying Qualities 2003] [Fukushima and Tsubone 2019] [General Electric Co Schenectady Ny 1952] [Ghidella and Mosterman 2005] [Ghosh Roy and Peyada 2017] [Girish et al. 2014] [Go and Ramnath 2001] [Golan et al. 2000] [Goodner and Rao 1988] [Goupil and Puyou 2013] [Govindaraj et al. 1979] [Gregory and Tierno 1996] [Griffin] [Grimm 1986] [Ha 1995] [Hajiyev and Caliskan 2003] [Hall 1971] [Handling Qualities 2000] [Handling Qualities Analysis 2008] [Lee 2017] [Hann-Shing Ju et al] [Harris et al. 2000] [Hart 1956] [He et al. 2024] [Henry et al. 2011] [Hess 1981] [Hess 1984] [Hess 1990] [Hess 2010] [Hess and Hess 1997] [Hill 1987] [Himich and Kineyko 1981] [Hoffer et al. 2013] [Hoh 1988] [Hoh et al. 1981] [How et al. 2014] [Hu et al. 2026] [Huang and Zhang 2020] [I.yu. makushev 2020] [Introduction to Aircraft Flight 1998] [Ito et al. 2016] [Jafari and Xu 2018] [Jafari et al. 2017] [Jianhong and Yanxiang 2026] [Johnson et al. 2005] [Jones et al. 2023] [Junfeng et al. 2020] [Kim and Kunz 2017] [Kineyko 1982] [Kirk et al. 2022] [Kisslinger and Wendl 1971] [Klipp et al. 2021] [Klishin and Kolesnikova 2022] [Klyde et al. 1999] [Klyde et al. 2021] [Kobayashi and Takahashi 2011] [Kubbat and Sensburg 1979] [Kumar and Kumar 2022] [Lampton et al. 2024] [Lanteigne and O’Reilly 2020] [Lateral-Directional Dynamics 1998] [Levison and Rickard 1981] [Li 2008] [Li et al. 2016a] [Li et al. 2021a] [Liu and Singh 1995] [Liu et al. 2007a] [Longitudinal Aircraft Dynamics 2011] [Lu and Pierson 1995] [Lukacs 2014] [Lungu and Lungu 2016a] [Ma] [MacKunis et al. 2008] [Malpica and Lusardi 2013] [Maria-Agneta and Stef 2011] [Marino 2001] [Martinez 1961] [Masud et al. 2016] [Mayhew and Gleason 1988] [Mehmood et al. 2018] [Mehta et al. 2006] [Mengali and Pieracci 2000] [Merkel and Whitmoyer 1976] [Miller 1968] [Minto et al. 1989] [Mirchandani 2020] [Mitikiri and Mohseni 2018] [Miyazawa 1990] [Modeling the Aircraft 2015] [Montalvo and Costello 2015] [Mooij 1985d] [Mooij 1985a] [Mooij 1985c] [Mooij 1985b] [Morelli 2006] [Morelli 2021] [Murray and Doyle 2001] [Mystkowski 2014] [Natesan and Bhat 2005] [Natesan et al. 2008] [Neal and Smith 1970] [Noble 1981] [Noble 1983] [Noble and Bhandari 2017] [Nominal aircraft dynamics] [Northrop Aircraft INC Hawthorne CA 1952a] [Northrop Aircraft INC Hawthorne CA 1953a] [Olivares Méndez] [Oosterom and Babuska] [Oosterom and Babuska 2001] [Ossmann et al. 2019] [Owashi et al. 2017] [Ozimina et al] [Paine 1950] [Pan et al. 2013] [Patel and Smith 1996] [Peters et al. 1997] [Pham] [Place et al. 1974] [Planeaux and Barth 1988] [Porter and Manganas 1986] [Potes et al. 2026] [Pradeep 1998] [Quantitative Design Requirements 2017] [Rabenberg and Palarz 1983] [Reinhardt and Johansen 2021] [Ren et al. 2018] [Rhoads 1967] [Rickard 1976] [Riedel 1979] [Rodchenko et al. 1994] [Rogalski 2018] [Rohlf et al. 2012] [Rosario-Gabriel and Cortes 2018] [Rosić and Diekmann 2015] [Roy and Peyada 2017] [Saetti and Rogers 2020] [Salahudden et al. 2020] [Sarrafian and Powers 1988] [Schmidt 1983] [Schmidt 1985] [Schmidt 2016] [Schreadley 1977] [Segawa and Gopalarathnam 2008] [Seiferth et al. 2017] [Shao et al. 2024] [Shull 1952] [Shull 1953] [Shweyk and Hyde 2013] [Siddarth and Valasek 2011] [Simms 2023] [Simplício et al. 2018] [Simulation Requirements for Flight 2017] [Smith and Geddes 1979] [Sobel and Joshi 2002] [Sri-Jayantha and Stengel 1988] [Srinathkumar 2011] [Stability Considerations Affecting Aircraft 2010] [Stability Control and Handling 2024] [Stalford 1979] [Steeb et al. 1979] [Stern 1984] [Stifel 1979] [Subbarao et al. 2001] [Summerlin and Sullivan 1958] [Sun et al. 2025c] [Szabolcsi 2018b] [Szabolcsi 2018c] [Szabolcsi 2018a] [Tang] [Tekinalp and Prach 2013] [Tekinalp and Prach 2014] [Teofilatto 2001] [Teper and Stapleford 1965] [Teper and Stapleford 1966] [The Kinematics and Dynamics 2015] [Thelander 1965] [Thukral and Innocenti 1992] [Torelli et al. 2023] [Townsend and Blatt 1976] [Trevino 1981] [Trotti et al. 2025] [Tuzlukov 2026] [Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Dynamics 2016] [Van Gool and Mooij 1979] [Van Gool and Weingarten 1981] [Vepa 2016] [Vepa 2023a] [Vepa 2023b] [Vepa 2026b] [Wasserman and Mitchell 1973] [Wei and Wang 2025] [Wilhelm and Schafranek 1986] [Wu and Mora-Camino 2012] [Xie et al. 2026g] [Xiong and Zhang 2012] [Yang 2025] [Yanushevsky 2026a] [Ying et al. 2020] [Yu and Liu 2019] [Zhang and Bradley 2022] [Zhang et al. 2011] [Zhang et al. 2021a] [Zhou 2025] [Zou and Devasia 2000] [Zou et al. 2017] [Żugaj 2017]

Tailless configurations and their control effectors

The configuration, and the stability it gives up. Tailless and flying wing aerodynamics, elevons, split drag rudders, control allocation among redundant effectors, and yaw by thrust vectoring. The X-47B has no fin, so the stability a fin would supply is replaced by feedback, and the reading of the arrestment speed rests on the maximum lift coefficient a tailless planform without trailing-edge high-lift devices plausibly reaches.

235 records. [Agenbag et al. 2009] [Agte et al. 1997] [Alipour et al. 2022] [Alyanak and Pendleton 2014] [Amanuddin and Dey 1980] [Ammar and Trépanier 2014] [Ashkenas and Klyde 1989] [Atmaca et al. 2026] [Banerjee 1984] [Banerjee 1988] [Bateman et al. 2008] [Begin 1983] [Bergman 1979] [Bishop 1961] [Boskovic and Mehra 1999] [Boskovic and Mehra 2000] [Boskovic et al] [Bourdin et al. 2007] [Bradley et al. 2012] [Bramsiepe et al. 2020] [Brodsky and Luby 2013] [Bronz 2019] [Bronz and Hattenberger 2015] [Buch and George M. 2010] [Buffington 1997] [Buffington 1999a] [Buffington 1999b] [Carlson 2014] [Chudoba and Cook 2003a] [Colgren and Loschke 2008] [Collins 2005] [Control Surface Sizing Criteria 2010] [Cook and Hauser 2018] [Cox et al. 1949] [Cusher and Gopalarathnam 2006] [Cusher and Gopalarathnam 2012] [Dakka and Johnson 2019] [Davis and Hines 1976] [DeLaurier 2022] [Denieul et al. 2015] [Deslich et al. 2021] [Ebrahimi Fakhari et al. 2024] [Ericsson and Beyers 2002] [Erwin et al. 1964] [Experimental Investigation of Synthetic 2023] [Finger et al. 2023] [Лемко 2008] [Friehmelt 1996] [From Tube and Wing 2013] [Gaulocher et al. 2007] [Gauvrit-Ledogar et al. 2018] [Gillard 1998] [Gillard et al. 1997] [Gopejenko et al. 2026] [Guiler] [Guiler and Huebsch 2005a] [Guiler and Huebsch 2005b] [Guo et al] [Haider et al. 2023] [Hansen and Blanke 2013] [Hansen et al. 2022] [Harley et al. 2009] [Harris and Harris 1997] [Hassairi and Abid 2021] [Hauser 1999] [Hefazi et al. 2013] [Hirano et al. 2019] [Hoffler et al. 1986] [Hou et al. 2022] [Huang and Wei 2025] [Huber 2022] [Huber et al. 2012] [Islam et al. 2024] [Jiang et al. 2019] [Jiang et al. 2024a] [Jiguang Li et al. 2016] [Jo et al. 2016] [Johnson 1949] [Jun 2023] [Karimi Kelayeh and Djavareshkian 2024] [Karpuk et al. 2020] [Karpuk et al. 2023] [Keidel et al. 2019] [Klafin 1988] [Kumar et al. 2020a] [Kumar et al. 2020b] [Kutschera and Render 1999] [Kwiek 2019] [Kwiek and Figat 2016] [Li and Guo 2013] [Li et al. 1996] [Li et al. 2017e] [Li et al. 2018] [Li et al. 2023] [Lin et al. 2021] [Lin et al. 2026] [Lingyu et al. 2006] [Liu and Zhang 2022] [Liu et al. 2021a] [Liu et al. 2026c] [Loechert et al. 2018] [Lyu et al. 2024] [Löchert et al. 2019] [Ma and Wang 2009] [Mader and Martins 2010] [Mahantesh Katagi et al. 2015] [Maimako et al. 2026] [Mansor et al. 2019] [Mardanpour and Hodges 2013] [Mardanpour and Hodges 2014] [Marques 2013] [Matamoros and de Visser 2018] [McKeehen 1998] [Metin et al. 2023] [Miller 1983] [Miller 1986] [Mitcham et al. 1956] [Miwa 2021] [Morris 1992] [Morris and Tigner 1995] [Mulin et al. 2016] [Mullins et al. 1996] [Murray 1949] [Neto et al. 2020] [Nieto-Wire and Sobel 2007] [Nieto-Wire and Sobel 2009] [Okonkwo and Jemitola 2022] [Okonkwo and Jemitola 2023] [Orhan and Subbarao 2021] [Oshin Mittal et al. 2024] [Oyama 2021] [Pan and Huang 2019] [Pan et al. 2025] [Paranjape and Chung 2010] [Park et al. 2017] [Paul et al. 1997] [Paulus et al. 2012] [Paulus et al. 2013] [Peng et al. 2014] [Postma 1970] [Qi et al. 2017] [Qi et al. 2018b] [Rajamurugu et al. 2026] [Rajput et al. 2014] [Rajput et al. 2015] [Ramprasadh and Devanandh 2015] [Rawdon and Rawdon 1997] [Reist et al. 2022] [Richter et al. 2021] [Richter et al. 2022] [Riethausen 2026] [Rodzewicz et al. 2018] [Rojas Carvajal and Amitay 2023] [Rojas Carvajal and Amitay 2025] [Rojas Carvajal et al. 2022] [Roy 2009] [Roy and Ghosh 2010] [Rui et al. 2007] [Saephan and van Dam 2006] [Saheby et al. 2026] [Saucez] [Saucez and Boiffier 2012] [Schuette et al. 2018] [Scotzniovsky et al. 2026] [Sears 1980] [Shams et al. 2023] [Shayan and Van Kampen 2021] [Shekar et al. 2026] [Shen 2026] [Shen et al. 2023] [Shi and Wu 2022] [Shuang et al. 2016] [Shuang et al. 2017] [Song et al. 2014] [Sparks and Sparks 1997] [Staelens et al. 2007a] [Stenfelt and Ringertz 2009] [Stenfelt and Ringertz 2010] [Stenfelt and Ringertz 2013] [Su et al. 2017] [Sun et al. 2005] [Sun et al. 2024] [Suresh et al. 2013] [Swain and Manickavasagar 2010] [Tal and Karaman 2021] [Tan et al. 2014] [Tao et al. 2018] [Teel 1999a] [Teel 1999b] [Tingting and Aijun 2014] [Tomac and Stenfelt 2014] [Torenbeek 1991] [Torvik 1990] [Tournes and Johnson 1999] [Traas et al. 2026] [Verstraete et al. 2012] [Voss 2018] [Voss et al. 2026] [Voß 2019] [Wang and Wang 2012] [Wang and Zhou 2022] [Wang et al. 2020e] [Wang et al. 2024b] [Wang et al. 2025a] [Weil Brenner et al. 2012] [Weyl 1944] [Weyl 1945e] [Weyl 1945d] [Weyl 1945a] [Weyl 1945b] [Weyl 1945c] [White and Innis 1959] [Williams et al. 2025] [Windsor 1962] [Xi and Zhao 2017] [Xie et al. 2011] [Yang et al. 2025b] [Yao et al. 2017] [Yu et al. 2023] [Yu et al. 2024] [Yue et al. 2009] [Yue et al. 2013b] [Yue et al. 2013a] [Zeng et al. 2022] [Zhang and He 2026a] [Zhang and He 2026b] [Zhang and Zhao 2023] [Zhang et al. 2017b] [Zhang et al. 2018] [Zhang et al. 2023e] [Zhang et al. 2025e] [Zhao et al. 2023c] [Zheng et al. 2025] [Zhou et al. 2022b] [Zhou et al. 2023a]

Aerodynamics of the configuration

The flow the vehicle lives in, read for the quantities the argument uses. Maximum lift and stall, low-speed lift for the approach, drag and the lift to drag ratio of complete aircraft, wing and planform design, and the aerodynamics of the delta, lambda, flying wing and blended wing body family to which the X-47B belongs. The X-47B’s aerodynamics enter this article through its maximum lift coefficient, on which the reading of the arrestment speed rests, and through the lift to drag ratio the Breguet table assumes.

192 records. [Aerodynamic Data of Real 2010] [Aerodynamic Design 1969] [Aerodynamic Drag and Its 2013] [Aerodynamic Drag in Cruising 2020] [Syed Abdullah Al Mamun 2024] [Aerodynamics 2024] [Aircraft Drag 2010] [Airfoil and Wing/Tail Geometry 2024] [Airplane wing design] [Alexander 1971] [Alley et al. 2007] [Anto 2026] [Appa et al. 1996] [Appendix G Aerodynamic Data 2010] [Attinello 1956] [Badaro and Ortega 2007] [Bajaj 2019] [Banerjee and Taneja 2025] [Banerjee and Taneja 2026] [Berens 2003] [Bier et al. 2013] [Canpolat et al. 2009] [Cipolla et al. 2022] [Coles and Wadcock 1978] [Coles and Wadcock 1979] [Computational fluid dynamics of] [Concepts and Computational Models 2021] [Conner et al. 1965] [Cook et al. 2005] [Cruise and Drag Performance 2021] [Dantsker and Vahora 2018] [Deese and Agarwal 1989] [Design and Fluid Flow 2015] [Development of High-Lift Wing 1990] [Dikbas and Atik 2018] [Drinkwater and Rolls 1965] [Durmus 2021] [Elements of Aerodynamic Wing 2013] [Elkhoury 2016] [Elkhoury and Nakad 2009] [Ellis and Maris 1977] [Ericsson 1998] [Experience Gained during Development 2010] [Romli et al. 2023] [Figliola 2004] [Figliola 2005] [Frhr von Geyr et al. 2007] [Furlong and Fitzpatrick 1947] [Gern 2012] [Ghee and Taylor 2000] [Ghee and Taylor 2004] [Gopalarathnam and Segawa 2008] [Graham and Luskin 1946] [Gratzer and O’Donnell 1965] [Gratzer and Odonnell 1964] [Gray and Zingg 2024] [Gudmundsson 2014f] [Gudmundsson 2014d] [Gudmundsson 2022f] [Gudmundsson 2022d] [Gupta 2026] [Gülsaçan et al. 2018] [Ham 1981] [Harris 1978] [Hayostek and Amitay 2018] [Henderson 1978] [Hermanutz and Hornung 2020] [Hicks and Henne 1977] [Holzhauser and Bray 1956] [Hosangadi et al. 2015] [Howe 2000d] [Howe 2000c] [Hwang and Pi 1978] [Hwang and Pi 1979] [Introduction to Aircraft Aerodynamic 2021] [Ismeal et al. 2024] [Jamwal et al. 2018] [Kamal and Ramirez-Serrano 2020] [Keye and Rohlmann 2014] [Klausmeyer 2004] [Krengel 2024] [Kulfan and Vachal 1978] [Kuo and Hsu 1997] [Kwiek et al. 2026] [Larco et al. 2018] [Lee and Batina 1991] [Lee and Kim 2024] [Leoviriyakit and Jameson 2004b] [Leoviriyakit and Jameson 2004a] [Leoviriyakit and Jameson 2005] [Leoviriyakit et al. 2003] [Li and Qin 2020] [Li et al. 2013j] [Li et al. 2014a] [Lindblad and de Cock 1999] [Lundry 1967] [López et al. 2022] [Magrini et al. 2023] [Marchman et al. 1983] [Martinez-Val and Perez 1992] [Mello et al. 2004] [Meyn et al. 1993] [Millikan 1934] [Miyaji and Arasawa 2001] [Miyaji and Arasawa 2003] [Moeller and Rediniotis 2000] [Moeller and Rediniotis 2002] [Navaratna and Pontillo 2022] [Niedling 1980] [Niewoehner and Filbey 2005] [Nonweiler 1955] [Northrop Aircraft INC Hawthorne CA 1952b] [Northrop Aircraft INC Hawthorne CA 1953b] [Nugroho 2026] [Obayashi et al. 1997] [Oggioni et al. 2026] [Oktay et al. 2018] [Ordaz et al. 2014] [Ormsbee and Chen 1972] [Pasandideh Fard and Sahaf 2016] [Patterson and German 2014] [Pfnür and Breitsamter 2019] [Phillips and Alley 2007] [Planform Parameterization 2014] [Pogosyan 2025] [Polhamus 1983] [Prakash et al. 2009] [Prediction and Verification 1985] [Preliminary Aerodynamic and Stability 2017] [Preliminary Aerodynamic Design 2000] [Rajamurthy 2002] [Ransom 1983] [Ratcliff et al. 2016] [Rosin et al. 2004] [Ruben 1966] [Elangovan et al and Tjprc 2019] [Selecting the Planform 2010] [Seraj and Martins 2022] [Sforza 2014] [Sforza 2020] [Shirley et al. 2014] [Shumsky 2010] [Smith 1974] [Smith 1975] [Snyder 1990] [Somers 2005] [Soule and Hootman 1937] [Staelens et al. 2007b] [Stalker 1935] [Stewart 1985] [Stieger 1929] [Sullivan 1979] [Tao et al. 2021] [Tewes et al. 2010] [The Design of Classical 2012] [Thein 2018] [Thomas and Lan 1991] [Thompson 2012] [Three-Dimensional Wing Synthesis 2014] [Tiniakov and Limtrakul 2026] [Traub 1995] [Traub 1997] [Trobaugh et al. 1980] [Valarezo and Chin 1994] [Valarezo et al. 1991] [van Dam et al. 2001] [van Es 2002] [Velazquez Salazar et al. 2021] [Vidal et al. 1961] [von Kármán and Millikan 1935] [Waggoner and Allison 1987] [Wakayama and Kroo 1995] [Walker and Berggren 1948] [Wang and Zhan 2005] [Wendorff et al. 2016] [Werner-Spatz et al. 2009] [Werner-Westphal et al. 2008a] [West 1945] [Wild 2021c] [Wild 2021b] [Wing Design 2012] [Wing Design 2025] [Wing Design Considerations 2021] [Wings 2017] [Winkelmann 1989] [Wootton 1967] [Xie et al. 2021b] [Yahyaoui 2023] [Yaniktepe et al. 2016] [Yildirim and Tuncer 2021] [Zhang 2024] [Zhang et al. 2020c]

Fault detection, health monitoring and fault tolerance

The literature behind the correct refusal. Fault detection and isolation in flight control actuators, sensors and air data systems, fault-tolerant and reconfigurable control, engine and structural health monitoring, and prognostics. An aeroplane that waves itself off a deck must first know that something has failed, and the third approach of 10 July 2013 began with exactly that, one of three navigation subsystems disagreeing with the other two.

144 records. [Actuator Fault Detection 2021] [Adam and Kraemer 2022] [Agresta et al. 2026] [Kusic 2004] [Aircraft Engine Controls 2012] [Aircraft Flight Control Actuation] [Allel et al. 2023] [Anand] [Aojia et al. 2017] [Applicable Aircraft Integrated Vehicle] [Ban Wang and Youmin Zhang 2020] [Belcastro and Weinstein 2002] [Berdjag et al. 2010] [Boller and Staszewski 2003] [Bond et al. 2014] [Boskovic and Jackson 2016] [Bošković and Mehra] [Buderath et al. 2014] [Büchter et al. 2021] [BÜChter and Koops 2022] [Kuşhan and Diltemiz 2025] [Chaojiang Hu 2012] [Chen and Cheng 2023] [Chen et al. 2018b] [Chiang and Youssef 1995] [Chinag and Youssef 1994] [Chiu 2010] [Choi et al. 2015] [Choi et al. 2017] [Clark 2005] [Cristofaro et al. 2020] [Cui et al. 2019] [Dani] [Dasgupta et al. 2004] [Dengjiang Wang et al. 2015] [Devytkovsky and Trefilov 2023] [Diget et al. 2022] [Dimitrios G. Dimogianopoulos 2006] [Drozeski et al. 2005] [Ducard 2013] [Ducard 2015] [Ducard and Geering 2008] [Elia and Theocharides 2024] [Ewald et al. 2017] [Fault detection and isolation 1993] [Fekri et al. 2010] [Feng et al. 2025] [Fiak et al. 2025] [Furst 1966] [Giurgiutiu et al. 2002] [Glavaski et al. 2002] [Grehan et al. 2023] [Gu and Zhang 2018] [Guidelines for Implementation of] [Guo et al. 2018] [Guzmán-Rabasa et al. 2019] [Hafez and Kamel 2016] [Hajiyev et al. 2015a] [Han et al. 2024] [Henry et al. 2010] [Herdjunanto 2016] [Hu et al. 2025] [Ignatyev et al. 2019] [Ignatyev et al. 2020] [Ihn and Chang 2008] [Ismail et al. 2016] [Jayakumar and Das 2006] [Jihui 2019] [Khan and Khorasani 2010] [Kilic and Unal 2019] [Kosut et al. 1983] [Kozlov and Yurchenko 2017] [Kumar 2026] [Larsen] [Lechevin et al. 2008] [Lee and Choi 2019] [Lee et al. 2016] [Lindgren 2025] [Liu et al. 2016] [Lu et al. 2011] [Ma and Hu 2023] [Ma et al. 2022a] [Ma et al. 2023] [Mamizu et al. 2017] [Maqsood et al. 2021] [Mazzoleni et al. 2021] [McLaughlin and Perhinschi 2023] [Meskin and Khorasani 2009] [Meskin and Khorasani 2011] [Meskin et al. 2009] [Meskin et al. 2010] [Miller and Larsen] [Mora-Camino et al. 2011] [Opportunities and Challenges 2015] [Ossmann 2013] [Ossmann and van der Linden 2015] [Palocz-Andresen 2012] [Pan et al. 2019] [Pei et al. 2025] [Perspectives on Integrating Structural] [Puchalski et al. 2022] [Qing et al. 2015] [Qiu and Li 2024] [Reliability of Aircraft as 1969] [Schutte 1989] [Schutte and Abbott 1986] [Shuo Chang et al. 2018] [Sirat 2008] [Smaili et al. 2013] [Sofrony et al. 2013] [Song 2008] [Souanef 2024] [Starr 2018] [Status Monitoring and Fault 2020] [Steinweg and Hornung 2020] [Stenfelt et al. 2024] [Su et al. 2019a] [Sun and Gebre-Egziabher 2021] [Tousi and Khorasani 2014] [Valenti et al. 2006] [Van Eykeren and Chu 2014] [Varga 2010] [Venkataraman et al. 2019] [Wang 2023] [Wang and Chen 2022] [Wang and Ma 2009] [Wang et al. 2019e] [Wang et al. 2021g] [Wang et al. 2021a] [Wells 1977] [Wild et al. 2021] [Witczak et al. 2016] [Wong et al. 2005] [Xiaoyun Wang and Tingdi Zhao 2010] [Yang et al. 2019] [Ye et al. 2025] [Yu and Jiang 2025b] [Yu and Jiang 2026] [Zagdanski 2020] [Zhang 2023b] [Zhang et al. 2017a] [Zhang et al. 2021b] [Zhu et al. 2022a] [Zogopoulos-Papaliakos et al. 2020]

Multi-vehicle coordination and cooperative control

The other half of the fan-out problem, approached from the machine’s side. Cooperative control, task allocation, formation flight, swarms and cooperative target tracking. Autonomy raises the fan-out by raising neglect time, and this cluster holds the algorithms that do so.

139 records. [Abas et al. 2013] [Alexopoulos et al. 2017] [Ali Dehghani and Bagher Menhaj 2016] [An and Kim 2025] [Antony et al. 2024] [Anum et al. 2022] [Azizi and Khorasani 2011] [Azizi and Khorasani 2012] [Baek and York 2020] [Bayraktar et al. 2004] [Belta 2012b] [Belta 2012a] [Birkenhead 2024] [Borrelli et al. 2006] [Brown and Sun 2017] [Cai et al. 2018b] [Calnoor Rajashekar et al. 2020] [Cetin and Yilmaz 2014] [Chamseddine et al. 2012] [Chao et al. 2017] [Chen et al. 2024c] [Coleman and Hamilton 2026] [Control of cooperative unmanned] [Cui et al. 2022] [D’Andrea 2008] [Dai and Cochran 2009] [Dehghani and Menhaj 2016] [Doan] [Duan 2013] [El-Ferik 2020] [Fahimi 2005] [Farmani et al. 2015] [Fidan and Mostafa 2024] [Fierro et al] [Frederick et al. 2001c] [Frederick et al. 2001a] [Frederick et al. 2001b] [Frederick et al. 2001d] [Fu et al. 2019] [Galloway and Dey 2015] [Glazunov 2017] [Gong et al. 2022] [Guerrero 2012] [Guijarro Reyes et al. 2018] [Gürsoy] [Han et al. 2019b] [Han et al. 2019c] [Hemati et al. 2012] [Hino and Tsuchiya 2013] [Huang et al. 2018] [Jain et al. 2017] [Jianan Wang and Ming Xin 2013] [Kim and Bang 2016] [Kim et al. 2015] [Kniffin et al. 2016] [Krizek et al. 2022] [Larrabee] [Leonard et al. 2013] [Li et al. 2017a] [Liang et al. 2014] [Lin 2002] [Lindsay and Sun 2020] [Liu and Bucknall 2018] [Liu et al. 2020a] [Liu et al. 2022c] [Lukacovic] [Lv et al. 2026] [Matsuno and Andreeva-Mori 2023] [McIngvale and Dudley 1990] [Meyer and Schulte 2020] [Miller 2006] [Mingfeng Zhang and Liu 2012] [Mingfeng Zhang and Liu 2013] [Mohamed et al. 2013] [Nangia and Palmer 2007] [Nguyen 2019] [Nigam and Kroo 2008] [Oh et al. 2017] [Okolo et al. 2011] [Orozco et al. 2026] [Osteroos et al. 2004] [Pack and York 2008] [Pack et al] [Pack et al] [Peristy et al. 2019] [Ragi and Chong 2013] [Ransquin et al. 2021] [Rasmussen et al. 2006] [Saif et al. 2014] [Sakamaki et al. 2017] [Saska 2015] [Sauter et al. 2005] [Sease et al. 2023] [Sequeira and Aguiar 2017] [Sherstjuk 2015] [Shima et al. 2014] [Sperling et al. 2008] [Spry et al] [Tancredi et al. 2013a] [Teague et al. 2008] [Tekinalp and Ariyibi 2015] [The Control of Multiple 2026] [Tierney and Rodenbeck 2019] [Wang and McDonald 2019] [Wang and Wang 2017] [Wang and Xin 2012] [Wang et al. 2020b] [Wang et al. 2020a] [Waslander 2013] [Wen et al. 2023] [Wu and Lin 2026] [Xiao 2008] [Xiao et al. 2026] [Xie et al. 2026a] [Xie et al. 2026f] [Xie et al. 2026b] [Xie et al. 2026c] [Xie et al. 2026e] [Xie et al. 2026d] [Xu and Carrillo 2015] [Xu and Shi 2013] [Xu et al. 2013a] [Xue et al. 2024] [Yang et al. 2024b] [Yao et al. 2018] [Yin et al. 2023] [Yoo et al. 2021] [Yoon and Kim 2010] [York and Pack 2011] [Yu and Jiang 2025a] [Yu et al. 2018] [Zhang and Mehrjerdi 2013] [Zhang et al. 2016b] [Zhang et al. 2020a] [Zheng et al. 2014] [Zhiqiang and Wu 2017] [Zhou et al. 2014] [Zhou et al. 2020] [Zhu et al. 2025]

Unmanned aircraft systems, their classes and their military use

The vehicle class at large. Overviews and histories of unmanned aircraft, their classes, elements and configurations, and their military roles, doctrine and programmes. The X-47B belongs to a class with a history far longer than its own programme, and these records are where that history and the class’s military employment are written.

131 records. [Aerospace series. Unmanned Aircraft] [Ahern et al. 1993] [Angell 2009] [Aviation History and UAS] [Bahrami and Jafarnejadsani 2022] [Banks 2000] [Bartsch 2018] [Харченко and Прусов 2012] [Baxter 2013] [Booz-allen and Hamilton INC Mclean VA 2000] [Brungardt 2011] [Buchanan 2010] [Budd 2002] [Burke 2015] [Bushey] [Cameron et al. 2022] [Carr et al. 2003] [Categorization and classification of] [Cookerly 1988] [Cote 2015] [Coyle and Herr 2026] [Dalamagkidis 2014] [Dalamagkidis et al. 2012] [DeJarnette-Crumsey et al. 2022] [Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 1994] [FY2009-2034 Unmanned Systems Integrated 2009] [The U.S. Air Force 2005] [Digman 2009] [Dodge 2015] [Edwards and Lennie O. 1990] [El-Sayed and ElHelw 2012] [Erdman and Mitchum 2013] [Fant 2001] [Farrell 2011] [Foch 1992] [Foch and Toot 1989] [Frey 2011] [Frontera Sánchez] [General requirements for the] [Hajiyev et al. 2015b] [Hammack and Mullen 1995] [Haritos and Barnhart 2021] [Hatch et al. 2007] [Heyns and Borden 2017] [Hobbs 2010] [Hobe et al. 2026] [Hodgkinson and Johnston 2018b] [Holland et al. 2009] [Howard 1995] [Howard 1996] [Hůlek 2015] [Scott and Huttunen 2023] [Introduction to Unmanned Aircraft 2010] [Ironhill et al. 2013] [Jenkins et al. 2005] [John 2014] [Johnson and O’Neill 2003] [Kharchenko et al. 2015] [Krings et al. 2013] [Kumar 1997] [Lachaona 2023] [Larm 2004] [Longino 1994] [Mei 2025] [Moser 2011] [Muniraj and Farhood 2017] [Neal 2010] [Neto et al. 2024] [Neuenswander 2013] [Karakoc et al. 2023] [Newcome 2004] [Nugent and Girard 2003] [Milenin 2019] [Okcu 2016] [Oncu and Yildiz 2014] [Overholt 2007] [Overview of Unmanned Aircraft 2012] [Overview of Unmanned Aircraft 2014] [Ozartan et al. 2013] [Parasuraman and Miller 2006] [Pauls 2012] [Payton 2011] [Perry 2000] [Perry 2011] [Peterson and Staley 2011] [Petnga and Xu 2016] [Petrock and Huizenga 2006] [Pyzynski 2020] [Reorganization for the Era 2008] [” et al. 2017] [Sager 2009] [Sastry 2001] [Scarpa 2001] [Scott and Trimarchi 2024] [Semke 2016] [Semke 2021] [Sevcik and Oh] [Snyder 2000] [Sosa 1997] [Special Topics in Unmanned 2014] [Standard Terminology for Unmanned] [Stewart et al. 2012] [Summey et al. 2001] [Takita and Kashitani 2016] [Takita and Kashitani 2017] [Terminology for Unmanned Aircraft] [The Future of Unmanned 2016] [Thome 2003] [Thompson and Robertson 1990] [Tran] [Tran et al. 2020] [Tweddale et al. 2011] [Lozano 2013] [Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 2016] [Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 2020] [Unmanned Air Vehicles 2017] [Unmanned Aircraft Categories 2012] [Unmanned Aircraft Categories 2014] [Unmanned Aircraft System Elements 2016] [Unmanned Aircraft System Operations 2016] [Unmanned aircraft systems] [Valavanis et al. 2009] [Unmanned Aircraft Vehicles 2013] [Vachtsevanos and Valavanis 2014] [Valavanis and Kontitsis] [Valavanis and Vachtsevanos 2014] [Vashishth et al. 2024] [Weaponised Unmanned Air Systems 2013] [Wise 2004] [Yuma Proving Ground Az 2013] [Yuma Test Center Yuma Proving Ground AZ 2008]

Ship motion, the flight deck and shipboard operations

The deck as a moving and crowded place. Prediction of carrier deck motion, the heave and pitch of ships and other craft, carrier airwake, flight deck operations and their scheduling, and carrier landing as a piloting task. The deck moves in six degrees of freedom, and this cluster is where the sea that moves it and the operations that crowd it are studied.

124 records. [A Prediction Method 2017] [Baker et al. 2000] [Bardera-Mora et al. 2018] [Bardera-Mora et al. 2019] [Beukelman 1970] [Capuozzo et al. 2025] [Chen 2025] [Chesser et al. 1999] [Chessman 2022] [Cook 1964] [Cortesi et al. 2012] [Coutard and Chaumette 2011] [Cui et al. 2020a] [Cui et al. 2026] [Dai et al. 2019] [Dostal et al. 2013] [Falzarano et al. 2002] [Falzarano et al. 2004] [Ferrier and Duncan 2012] [Ferrier et al. 2024] [Ferrier et al. 2025] [Frost 1968] [Ghadimi et al. 2016] [Guo et al. 2025] [Guo et al. 2026a] [Guo et al. 2026b] [Guoqing et al. 2016] [Hadd 1995] [Haitao and Yan 2021] [Han 2022] [Han et al. 2026b] [Helliwell 1952] [Hicks et al. 2002] [Hoy 1963] [Hui 2016b] [Hui and Ruihang 2009] [Jiang et al. 2015] [Jiang et al. 2017] [Johnston and Swenson 2009] [Johnston and Swenson 2010] [Jolliff 1976] [Kamman and Hall 1978] [Kaplan 1965] [Kaplan 1969] [Kaplan and sargent 1965] [Kistyarev and Wang 2025] [Korzatkowski et al. 2015] [Kovtun and Tkachenko 2018] [Kovtun and Tkachenko 2019] [Krawczyk et al. 2019] [La Porte et al. 1988] [Latorre and Vasconsellos 2001] [Lee and Incecik 2007] [Lehman and Kaplan 1965] [Li and Zhang 2025] [Li et al. 2013c] [Li et al. 2013a] [Li et al. 2020a] [Li et al. 2024e] [Li et al. 2026a] [Liang et al. 2020] [Liu and Wang 2025b] [Liu et al. 2020b] [Liu et al. 2022a] [Liu et al. 2025b] [Lu and Xu 2024] [Lu et al. 2024] [Luan and Sun 2020] [Luo and Ren 2016] [Mann 1963] [Nan et al. 2024] [Nguyen et al. 2024] [Norris 1998] [On the Coupled Heave 1991] [Pan et al. 2026b] [Pavlov 2016] [Payne 1974] [Plotkin 1977] [Qi and Wang 2016] [Qiao et al. 2008] [Yiming et al. 2022] [Ritter] [Rosenthal and Walsh 1996] [Ryan and Cummings 2016] [Daruis et al. 2022] [Shen et al. 2026] [Shipman et al. 2008] [Si et al. 2024] [Sidar and Doolin 1975] [Stewart 1980] [Su et al. 2018c] [Su et al. 2018d] [Su et al. 2018b] [Su et al. 2019b] [Sun et al. 2015] [Tang et al. 2024] [Tavakoli et al. 2018] [Thakur and Kumar 2021] [Thompson 1965] [K.А. 2023] [Vugts 1967] [Wadley et al. 2003] [Wang et al. 2011] [Wang et al. 2016c] [Wang et al. 2020f] [Watson et al. 2020] [Watson et al. 2025] [Wei 2013] [Wilson 1992] [Xia et al. 2016] [Xie and Xu 2024] [Xu et al. 2025a] [Yang 2013] [Yang et al. 2025c] [Yongtao et al. 2021] [Yu et al. 2017] [Yuan et al. 2014] [Zhang and Wang 2023a] [Zhao et al. 2023b] [Zheng et al. 2022] [Zhou et al. 2019] [Zhou et al. 2022a] [Zhu et al. 2020] [Zhu et al. 2023]

Airframe structure, composites and affordability

The structure this article argues about is the one the deck loads. Composite and metallic airframe structure, structural sizing, fatigue and damage tolerance, folding wing mechanisms and producibility. The X-47B’s hook, keel and gear are sized by the arrestment rather than by flight loads, and its folding wing is a structural penalty accepted so that the aeroplane fits the spots and lifts of a carrier.

117 records. [Abelkis 1967] [Aircraft Manufacturing Considerations 2010] [Allyn and Takahashi 2016] [Analysis and Design 2020] [Ardema 1996] [Ariotti et al. 1993] [Arrieta and Striz 2000] [Austin 1965] [Bakshi and Dattaguru 2021] [Balabanov and Haftka 1996] [Baldomir et al. 2018] [Barton 1954] [Benaouali and Kachel 2017] [Blair and Takahashi 2022] [Brausch and Butkus 2007] [Brigham et al. 1973] [Brooks and Smith 2020] [Horvath and Wrenn] [Buderath 2008] [Burrows and Allaire 2019] [Choi et al. 2007] [Cruise 1995] [Curran et al. 2009] [Das and Jones 2008] [Davis 1973] [Dehua and Changyou 1993] [Design of Locking Mechanism 2024] [Donaldson 1967] [Dotseth et al. 1977] [Ekvall et al. 1972] [Figge 1973] [Figge and Bernhardt 1975] [Gaddy et al. 2006] [Gao et al. 2021a] [Gerhards et al. 2000] [Ghadge and Prakash 2021] [Giles 1986] [Grover 1966] [Gurdal 2002] [Gurdal et al. 1999] [Harter and Litvinov 2001] [Hewitt et al. 2005] [Horton and Mayers 1965] [Horvath 2019] [Ikonen and Sobester 2016] [Jin et al. 2011] [Jones 2013] [Kapidžić et al. 2014] [Katrňák and Juračka 2017] [Kessler et al. 2000] [Kim et al. 2024a] [Kozel 1985] [Krishnan et al. 1995] [Lawrence et al. 2009] [Li 2025] [Li et al. 2022a] [Li et al. 2024b] [Lindsey 1977] [Liu and Wang 2025a] [Logan 1985] [Manning et al. 1984] [Martin 1964] [McCarty 1973] [McCombs et al. 1968] [McCulloch 1960] [Mert and Kayran 2016] [Miravete 1996b] [Miravete 1996a] [Miskin and Takahashi 2018] [Moon 1996] [Morse 1952] [Guangqing et al. 2024] [Negaard 1980] [Neunaber 2008] [Newell and Harrington 1939] [Ni and Zhang 2026] [Norwood 1992] [Oakley et al. 1997] [Ogburn 1998] [Pham et al. 2024] [Poovalingam et al. 2025] [Pugazhenthi et al. 2018] [Ragon et al. 2003] [Ranson 1993] [Rao and Kiran 2010] [Raper 1991] [Rayhan and Pu 2021] [Ridgard 2008] [Rogers] [Rondeau et al. 1996] [Rothwell 2001] [Sarangkum et al. 2019] [Schmidt 2003] [Shiao 2008] [Singh et al. 2016] [Stamm and Woods 2025] [Sui 2022] [Sun et al. 2025b] [Switzky 1962] [Taig and Kerr 1973] [Tuegel et al. 2013] [Vale and Albuquerque 2025] [Wasmi and Rahim 2016] [Weckner et al. 2021] [Wei et al. 2026a] [Wellen and Bartholomew 1987] [Wilhem 1970] [Yan et al. 2025] [Yang 1979] [Yang 1980] [Yang 2022] [Yang and Trapp 1974] [Zadniprovsky and Konotop 2025] [Zhang and Qin 2026] [Zhao and Kapania 2019] [Zink et al. 2003] [Zink et al. 2004]

Propulsion, inlet integration and installed performance

The engine and what the airframe does to it. Turbofan cycle and installed performance, inlet and nozzle integration, thrust augmentation, specific fuel consumption and engine and airframe matching. The article uses this literature for one purpose, being to set the published thrust of 71.2 kilonewtons against the gross mass and compare the resulting thrust to weight ratio of 0.382 with the band the previous article assumed.

110 records. [Agrawal 1984] [Ahuja and Mavris 2022] [Aircraft Engine Efficiency 2018] [Aircraft engine performance] [Andersen and Bagby 1965] [Appendix E 2002] [Bagby and Andersen 1966] [Bartel and Young 2008] [Bauer et al. 2018] [Berenschot 2001] [Berndt and Kuchar 1977] [Bert 1999] [Bhandari et al. 2024] [Bolonkin 2005b] [Bridges 2009] [Bruening et al. 2000] [Bruening et al. 2001] [Byerley et al. 2013] [Catchpole 1990] [Cavcar and Cavcar 2003a] [Cavcar and Cavcar 2003b] [Chakraborty and Mishra 2022] [Chakraborty and Mishra 2023a] [Chakraborty and Mishra 2023b] [Chakraborty et al. 2022] [Compton and Burgess 2021] [Cullom and Johnsen 1977] [Cullom and Johnson 1977] [Cunis et al. 2018] [Dannier et al. 2019] [de Vries et al. 2019a] [de Vries et al. 2019b] [Design and Development 1989] [Dik et al. 2017] [Engine/Airframe Performance Matching 1989] [Eschweiler et al. 1977] [Gas-turbine diagnostics using artificial 2005] [Gravelle 1975] [Gudmundsson 2022i] [Guo et al. 2024b] [Gurevich and Arav 2020] [Harris 1984] [Harrison et al. 2026] [Havey and Kline 1989] [Hemsworth and Neitzel 1965] [Hines and Gaffin 1976] [Hybrid-electric aircraft propulsion mission] [Ibrahim 2002] [Iwanizki et al. 2019] [Jagtap 2025] [Jet Thrust Measurement 2003] [Khailany et al. 2025] [Khalid 2016] [Khalid 2017] [Kingcombe and Dunning 1980] [Krase 1967] [Kunwar et al. 2024] [Lambregts 1983] [Li and Geiselhart 2026] [Licheva and Liscouet-Hanke 2023] [Liu et al. 2013] [Lourenco et al. 1996] [Ma et al. 2020] [Malan and Brown 1994] [Matching Engines and Airframe 2013] [Mattingly 1989] [Nelson and Dix 2003] [Boden 2026] [Oelberg and Rodrigues 2018] [Ojha 1992] [Orefice et al. 2020] [Panzeri et al. 2018] [Patterson et al. 1991] [Phillips et al. 1968] [Propulsion 2017] [Propulsion 2024] [Propulsion and Engine Technology 2013] [Propulsion and Fuel System 2024] [Propulsion Data 2010] [Propulsion System Thrust Sizing 2010] [Rauh and Anders 1986] [Remiger et al. 2024] [Sabzehali and Alibeigi 2023] [Salay and Elliott 1996] [Sallee 1969] [Scholz 2021] [Sebastiampillai et al. 2019] [Seitz et al. 2008] [Sens 1978] [Silva and Guimarães 2020] [Sizing the Engine 2002] [Sizing the Engine 2018] [Solies 1994] [Sowers and Tabakoff 1983] [Specific fuel consumption] [Steinmetz and Wagner 1986] [Stephan and Fichter 2016] [Svoboda 2000] [Taflan et al. 2026] [Telectro-mek INC Fort Wayne in 1965] [Thrust-to-Weight Ratio and Wing 2024] [Turbine Engine Inlet Design 2010] [Van Dommelen 1995] [Velásquez-SanMartín et al. 2021] [Vos 2019a] [Wang et al. 2007b] [Wang et al. 2025c] [Weisshaar and Allen 1991] [York et al. 2018] [ÇOban and Oktay 2018]

Human supervisory control and the span of control

This cluster holds the fan-out relation set out in the article on the X-45. Supervisory control of multiple unmanned vehicles, operator workload and situation awareness, ground control stations, levels of automation and trust in automation. Its vocabulary is that of human factors rather than of aircraft, so the survey admits records written in that vocabulary as well as in the aeronautical one.

99 records. [Alexander et al. 2000] [Aviation Automation 2018] [Billings and Durlach 2010] [Bostock et al. 2024] [Brooks 1989] [Buerger et al. 2012] [Calhoun et al. 2017] [Chen et al. 2026b] [Clare et al. 2010] [Clare et al. 2012a] [Clare et al. 2012b] [Clauss and Schulte 2014] [Connelly 1995] [Courtois and Aouf 2017] [Cuevas and Aguiar 2017] [Cummings 2014] [Cummings and Guerlain 2007] [Cummings and Mitchell 2007] [Cummings et al. 2013] [Dixon et al. 2005] [Doane 2003] [Donmez and Cummings 2010] [Donmez et al. 2008] [Donmez et al. 2009] [Draper 2008] [Durbin and Hicks 2009] [Fincannon et al. 2009] [Friedrich and Vollrath 2022] [Fuchs et al. 2013] [Gacy 2011] [Ghofur et al. 2020] [Ground Control Station 2020] [Haber and Chung 2016] [Hart and Williams 2008] [Hicks and Durbin 2014] [Hinsz 2006] [Hobbs et al. 2016] [Human Factors in Unmanned 2016] [Hunt et al. 2026] [Initial Evaluation of Video 2012] [Jensen 2016] [Jensen 2021] [Kaliardos and Lyall 2014] [Kidwell et al. 2012] [Kilgore et al. 2009] [Knutzon] [Kurkcu et al. 2011] [Lin et al. 2015b] [Liu et al. 2017b] [Luo Jun et al] [Lysaght et al. 1989] [Maere et al. 2010] [Malpica Hincapie and Bejarano Cifuentes 2026] [Manning et al. 2004] [McKendrick et al. 2013] [McLeod 2025c] [McLeod 2025b] [McLeod 2025a] [McLeod 2025e] [McLeod 2025d] [Measurement of Operator Workload 1988] [Mekdeci and Cummings 2009] [Mercado-Ravell] [Miller 2013] [Neff 2019] [Nelson and Bolia 2006] [Nelson et al. 2006] [Oliver 2012] [Operator Interface 2026] [Parasuraman et al. 2013] [Poma et al. 2024] [Pomranky 2006] [Rasmussen 1979] [Rencken and Durrant-Whyte] [Roltgen and Gilbert 2010] [Ruff et al. 2002] [Sadraey 2017] [Schneider et al. 2011] [Scukins et al. 2023] [Sen et al. 2025] [Shigekuni et al. 2015] [Shively and Barnes 2008] [Shmelova et al. 2017] [Squire et al. 2006] [Stephenson et al. 2026] [Terwilliger and Ison 2014] [Theunissen et al. 2005] [Tvaryanas 2006] [Tvaryanas et al. 2012] [Varga et al. 2015] [Walters et al. 2002] [Wang et al. 2025d] [Wewrinke 1974] [Widiyanti et al. 2022] [Wolf 1978] [Yanushevsky 2026c] [Zak et al. 2018] [Zeng 2011] [Zheng et al. 2019]

Unmanned combat aircraft and the strike mission

The vehicle class as a combat aircraft. Unmanned combat aircraft design, their aerodynamics and control, air combat decision making, path planning for strike and the operational arguments for them. The X-45A appears here by name and the X-47B does not, and the generic unmanned combat configurations studied in the wind tunnel are of the same tailless family.

93 records. [Ananyev 2019] [Aircraft Payload Limits 1970] [Aleisa et al. 2023a] [Aleisa et al. 2023b] [Aslan and Oktay 2023] [Bookstaber 2000] [Booz 1998] [Brown 1989] [Brown 1998] [Chang et al. 2022] [Choi et al. 2010] [Cox 2009] [Crutchfield 2003] [Cummings and Schütte 2012] [Cummings et al. 2003] [Cummings et al. 2008] [Cummings et al. 2018] [Davidson 2004] [Dickes et al. 2002] [Dong et al. 2017] [Dong Kangsheng et al. 2016] [Elkhoury 2008] [Elkhoury and Rockwell 2004] [Elkhoury et al. 2005] [Ernest and Carroll 2016] [Ernest and Cohen 2016] [Faisal and James 2025] [Flow Control and High-Lift 2016] [Fu Li et al. 2008] [Gern et al. 2001a] [Gordnier et al] [Gordnier et al. 2006] [Gordnier et al. 2007] [Grzesik and Sobolewski 2014] [İşci and Günel 2021] [Khalid 2023] [Khreish et al. 2005] [Klein 2002] [Kumar 2020] [Kumar et al. 2026] [Lee and Tahk 2019] [Lewis 2002] [Li and Fan 2018] [Li et al. 2024g] [Liersch and Bishop 2018] [Lima Filho et al. 2021] [Liu et al. 2023e] [Liu et al. 2025e] [Matsushima 2001] [Minglang et al. 2018] [Mishra et al. 2022] [Nguyen et al. 2009] [Nguyen et al. 2013] [Nichols 1998] [Ordaz et al. 2004] [Pedro et al. 2013] [Pradeep 2002] [Prakash 2020] [Qinkun Xiao et al. 2006] [Ramamoorthy and Sinha 1980] [Ramin et al. 2022] [Reichenbach 2003] [Renehan 1997] [Ruetten 2018] [Sudhakar et al. 2025] [Sathe and Pant 2010] [Schneider 1989] [Sepulveda Palacios and Smith 2019] [Tekinalp and Cavus 2012] [Tianyuan and Xiongqing 2009] [Tomac et al. 2012] [Twesme and Corzine 2003] [Vallespin et al. 2011] [van Rooij and Cummings 2018] [van Rooij et al. 2018] [van Rooij et al. 2019] [Venetsky et al. 2003] [Vicroy et al. 2012] [Vicroy et al. 2014] [Voss et al. 2011] [Wang et al. 2009a] [Wang et al. 2020d] [Wills 2015b] [Wills 2015a] [Wilt et al. 2022] [Wise 2003] [Woo et al. 2022] [Wyatt 2003] [Yang 2024] [Yin et al. 2020] [You 2026] [Zhou et al. 2015] [Zhou et al. 2022c]

Programme, acquisition and the cost of a demonstrator

How a demonstrator ends without becoming a procurement. Aerospace programme management, acquisition, cost estimation, technology demonstrators and flight test programmes. The joint programme was cancelled early in 2006, and the X-47B that followed was a demonstration whose primary test programme was complete by May 2015 with neither airframe entering service.

84 records. [Aerospace series - Programme] [Aerospace series - Programme] [Aerospace series - Programme] [Aerospace series. Programme Management] [Aerospace series. Programme Management] [Aerospace series. Programme management] [Aerospace series. Programme Management] [Aerospace series. Programme management] [Aerospace series�� Programme management��] [Air Proving Ground Center Eglin AFB FL 1954] [Air Proving Ground Center Eglin AFB FL 1955a] [Air Proving Ground Center Eglin AFB FL 1955b] [Aircraft Cost Considerations 2010] [Apgar 1993] [Bajurko 2019] [Barufaldi and Annes Da Silva 2020] [Barufaldi et al. 2022] [Bell 1993] [Bogdan 2015] [Carico 1995] [Carlyle 1976] [Cordeaux 1991] [Cost Analysis Improvement Group Washington Dc 1980] [Crafton 1965] [Daidzic 2016] [Dawson 2015] [Dietrich 2020] [Draper et al. 1983] [Ellis 1976] [Energy Approach to Performance 2003] [Farley 1971] [Flight Test Programme 1970] [Gilge 2010] [Gudmundsson 2014b] [Gudmundsson 2022b] [Ha et al. 2017] [Harvey and Ryan 2012] [Hintzke and Haggard 1991] [Holubik 1988] [Integrated Wing Research Programme 2006] [Jenista and Bodden 1989] [Kaminski 1997] [Kaminski and Ralston 1996] [Kandarpa et al. 1992] [Kenyon 1974] [Kindley 2015] [Kneppe and Baier 1990] [Konar et al. 2024] [Kraft 2018] [Krüger et al. 2022] [Lappas and Bozoudis 2018] [Larsson 2025] [Lemmon 2013] [Lemmon 2015] [Li et al. 2007] [Lin et al. 2025] [Marchese 1963] [Marx et al. 1995] [Mathy Franz-Josef 2012] [McGahern 2000] [Montes et al. 2022] [Morley 2013] [Naval Air Systems Command Patuxent River MD 2013] [Nickol 2011] [Olejnik et al. 2019] [Peck and Hudson 1956] [Pittsburgh Univ Washington DC Research Staff 1966] [Roush and Mavris 2026] [Shane 1992] [Sodja et al. 2021] [Spreen 2019a] [Spreen 2019b] [Spreen 2023] [Standard Practice for Development] [Strock 1983] [Suzuki et al. 2013] [Sylvester 1980] [Sylvester 2013] [Tsujikawa and Nagaoka 1990] [van den Broek et al. 2025] [Wallace 1978] [Wang 2026] [Yechout 1988] [Zhongfei and Lijun 2025]

Aeroelasticity, flutter and structural loads

The loads an airframe is designed to carry. Structural load criteria, gust and manoeuvre loads and their alleviation, buffet loads, loads monitoring and estimation in flight, structural design for strength and flutter, and the aeroelasticity of folding, low aspect ratio and delta wings. The article computes rigid-body arrestment loads only, and this literature is where the airframe’s flexible response to them would be found.

63 records. [A Static and Dynamic 1993] [Aeroelasticity and Loads Models 2014] [Aircraft Internal Loads 2014] [Aircraft Load 2010] [Appa and Argyris 1994] [Ashburn et al. 1970] [Austin and William H. 1967] [Barnard 1969] [Brown et al. 1980] [Burken et al. 2011] [Cerulli et al. 2004] [Chen et al. 2018a] [Cole 1990] [Cole 1992] [Cooper and Stroud 1972] [Cooper et al. 2016] [de Jonge 1993] [De Oro Fernandez et al. 2020] [Divenah and Beaufils 2005] [Doggett and Soistmann 1992] [Doggett and Soistmann 1989] [Flansburg 2011] [Flansburg 2015] [Flansburg 2016] [Fonte and Mantegazza 2017] [Fournier et al. 2022] [Fuller 1995] [Félix et al. 2019] [Hwang and Pi 1982] [Jarrah and Ashley 1989] [Jones 2009] [Karpel 1982] [Katz 1979] [Lappe 1966] [Lauridia and White 1981] [Lizotte and Lokos 2005a] [Lizotte and Lokos 2005b] [Luderer and Thielecke 2025] [Marschalk et al. 2021] [Masud and Khan 2015] [Meadows et al. 2008] [Minshall et al. 2017] [Mukhopadhyay 1995] [Ntourmas et al. 2020] [Ouellette et al. 2009] [Pettit and Grandhi 2003] [Rao 2018] [Raveh and Karpel 1999] [Rodzewicz and Glowacki 2014] [Schulz et al. 2020] [Snyder et al. 2009] [Span Load Program 1998] [бен Салем 2005] [Study on Aircraft Structure 2015] [Suresh et al. 2010] [Suzuki and Yonezawa 1993] [Tang and Dowell 2008] [Ullah et al. 2021] [Vecchio et al. 2003] [Wilkinson et al. 1974] [Wilkinson et al. 1976] [Woodward 1956] [Xu and Kroo 2014]

The atmosphere and the flight condition

The article displays a relation that uses this cluster. The standard atmosphere, atmospheric property tables, the speed of sound, and the height and temperature of the tropopause. The fuel table at Mach 0.75 and 40,000 feet needs the standard atmosphere to become a true airspeed, and the temperature there is the constant stratospheric value because forty thousand feet is above the tropopause.

60 records. [A 2006] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1962] [Andrews 2019] [Appendix a. the Standard 2011] [Appendix B 2013] [Atmosphere Model 1993] [Atmospheric Modeling 2014] [Atmospheric Modeling 2022] [Atmospheric Structure with Altitude] [Atmospheric Table 1998] [Azzazy et al. 1992] [Bass et al. 2007] [Bègue et al. 2010] [Cizrelioğullari et al. 2023] [Dean 1979] [Definition of the Standard 1954] [Diehl 1926] [Fels 1986] [Goody 1949] [Gregg 1923] [Atmospheric and Space Environments CoS 2010] [Guido et al. 2021] [Justh] [Imanov 2025] [Jun Li and Wei Li 2010] [Kalnajs et al. 2023] [Kirtskhalia 2012] [Kumar 2025] [Kurzke and Halliwell 2018] [König et al. 2019b] [König et al. 2019a] [Lewis 2009] [Li et al. 2017d] [Luo 2025] [Minzner 1967] [Minzner et al. 1976] [New Stratosphere Aircraft 1945] [Noersomadi et al. 2018] [Ouseph and Link 1984] [Peters 1977] [Pilch Kedzierski et al. 2016] [Rao and Ganesan 1953] [Report No. 538 Altitude-Pressure 1935] [Standard Atmosphere 1955] [Standard Atmosphere 2024] [Turns and Kraige] [U.S. Standard Atmosphere Supplements 1966] [U.S. Standard Atmosphere 1962 1962] [U.S. Standard Atmosphere 1976 1976] [1976 US Standard Atmosphere 2014] [Vaidya and Peter-Contesse 1985] [Vaughan 2003] [Vaughan 2015] [Vespe and Andrisani 2022] [Brombacher 1926] [Brombacher 1935] [Watkins 2011] [Worland and Wilson 1999] [Yager 2013] [Zuppardo 1993]

Landing gear, tyres, brakes and landing loads

The parts that meet the deck. Landing gear design and dynamics, shock absorption, tyre mechanics, wheel brakes, touchdown detection and landing loads. A carrier undercarriage is sized for the descent rates tabulated above, and only four of these 58 titles name a carrier-based aircraft, the rest being about aircraft that land on runways.

58 records. [Aircraft Tire-to-Wheel Performance Characteristics] [Al-Bess] [Alroqi et al. 2017] [Anamet Labs INC San Carlos CA 1979] [Anderson 1973] [Apparatus for Rotating 1998] [Bakunowicz and Rzucidło 2020] [Bolton and Rogers 1968] [Bronstein et al. 2015] [Case 1965] [Castrichini et al. 2017] [Castrichini et al. 2018] [Chen et al. 2011c] [Chester 2002] [Chuban 2020] [Deak and Johnston 1973] [Design and Implementation 2014] [Dickinson and Goggin 2000] [Douglas Aircraft Co Long Beach Ca 1962a] [Fazeli and Narayan 2017] [Gamon 1979] [Gerardi 1977] [Gong et al. 2015] [Hou et al. 2025c] [Jiao et al. 2017] [Johnson 1934] [Jones] [Jóźwik et al. 2023] [Kaliszuk et al. 2025] [Kirk 1971] [Li and Wang 2023] [Liu et al. 2026b] [Majumder and Rao 2009] [McGehee 1984] [Mendoza Lopetegui et al. 2023] [Norwood and Chichester 2015] [null] [null] [Optimized Fuzzy Logic 2016] [Palmisano and Gillam 2005] [Recommended Practice for Measurement] [RlDHA 1969] [Ro 2003] [Sprinc and KropÁČ 1983] [Structural Dynamics Centre 1999] [Suresh et al. 2019] [Venkatesan 1977] [Wang et al. 2025e] [Wei and Nie 2005] [Wheel and Brake Design] [Wheel and Brake Design] [Wheel and Hydraulically Actuated] [Wu et al. 2017a] [Xie et al. 2021a] [Xue et al. 2012] [Zhang and Zhu 2025] [Zhou et al. 2018] [Özkaya and Sakarya 2024]

Verification, validation and the certification of autonomous software

The reason an autonomous combat aircraft is hard to field rather than hard to fly. Verification and validation, airworthiness and certification of unmanned aircraft, safety management and fault-tolerant flight computers. A demonstrator may fly on a waiver and a fielded aeroplane may not, and the X-47B stayed on the demonstrator side of that gap, since neither airframe entered service.

41 records. [Abouzahr and Jacob 2023] [Chen 2007] [Clothier and Walker 2014] [Conducting Unmanned Aircraft Flight 2015] [Cook 2024] [Cour-Harbo 2018] [Cronk 2007] [Cygańczuk and Roguski 2023] [Forman and Moses 1979] [Gao et al. 2021b] [Hodgkinson and Johnston 2018a] [Joslin 2015] [Klyde et al. 2020] [Methodology to Aircraft Design 2010] [Miao et al. 2025] [Murray et al. 2022] [Neufeld and Chung 2008] [Oztekin et al. 2011] [Panchal et al. 2024] [Pham] [Practice for Application of] [Practice for Production Approval] [Practices for Unmanned Aircraft] [Rajeswari and Suresh 2012] [Schmollgruber] [Schoenbein 2009] [Shriwastav and Song 2020] [Specification for Aircraft Flight] [Specification for Design, Construction] [Specification for Unmanned Aircraft] [Standard Specification for Design] [Standard Specification for Design] [Stastny and Stoica 2021] [Taylor et al. 2021] [Truxal and Scott 2024] [Unmanned Aircraft Systems Regulation] [Validation and Verification Process] [Walker 2024] [Westat INC Rockville MD 2001] [Xiao and Li 2024] [Xie et al. 2023a]

Internal weapons carriage and store separation

A bay is a hole in a low observable aeroplane and opening it is the moment it stops being one. Internal carriage, store separation, cavity flow and acoustics, and store compatibility. The X-47B carries a payload of 2,040 kilograms, and no weapon release appears in the flight test record this article tabulates, so this literature describes what the payload was for rather than anything the programme demonstrated.

39 records. [Air-to-Air/Air-to-Ground Weapons Integration 2010] [Aircraft Store Separation Motion 1980] [Allee 1976] [Anderson 1981] [Anderson and Teope 2017] [Ben-Gida 2022] [Cenko et al. 1981] [Chen et al. 2002b] [Clark 1975] [Gong and Wang 2019] [Gough and Carlson 1979] [Horton 1964b] [Horton 1964a] [Kiber 1977] [Kunlo 1959] [Lawson and Barakos 2010] [Lee 2010] [Loupy et al. 2018] [Manon 1981] [Marti 1970] [Nichols and Westmoreland 2007] [Panickar et al. 2013] [Piersol 1977] [Ramachandra et al. 1980] [Shaw and Smith 1977] [Shaw et al. 1988] [Sinha et al. 2001] [Song and Ai 2021] [Stanek 2002] [Stanek 2003] [Stanek 2007] [Tait et al. 2009] [Teng and Yu 2023] [Validation Methods for MIL-STD-1760] [Validation Methods for MIL-STD-1760B] [Validation Methods for MIL-STD-1760C] [Washington 1975] [Weapons Carriage and Guidance 2006] [Welterlen 2000]

The link is what makes supervision possible and what makes it fragile. Command and control links for unmanned aircraft, communication relay, latency, satellite relay and spectrum. A small cluster for a large subject, and the article draws no number from it.

32 records. [Ahmad and Narmeen 2026] [Avdonin et al. 2016] [Bass 2006] [Bennett] [Billings and Durlach 2008] [Bostian and Young 2011] [Bostian and Young 2013] [Brown et al. 2014] [Carney 2008] [Cetin and Zagli 2011] [Cruz and Fierro 2015] [Frew and Brown] [Gray 2015] [Grisworld 2008] [Hess 2018] [Horn 1973] [Hunn 2005] [Jain et al. 2011] [Khan 2021] [McGough et al. 1988] [Mostafa and Schnell 2016] [Reichstein et al. 2022] [Schagaev and Kirk 2024] [Schalk 2017] [Schwung and Lunze 2021] [Specification for Design of] [Spura et al. 2005] [Vahidi and Saberinia 2016] [Video Communications in Unmanned 2013] [Yuan et al. 2026] [Zhang et al. 2024a] [Zolanvari et al. 2018]

Low observable design and signature

Why the aeroplane has that shape and no fin. Radar cross section, stealth shaping and optimisation, absorbing materials, infrared signature and survivability. The premise is taken from this literature and nothing in it is computed here.

22 records. [Allard 1982] [Altman 2008] [Chen and Liu 2018] [Forrester] [Fry 2008] [Gaitanakis et al. 2020] [Kurdyla 1963] [Lu 2026] [Misovec et al] [Nath Dubba 2021] [Orhan 2020] [Papageorgiou et al. 2018] [Paterson 1999] [Paterson and Paterson 1997] [Siegel and Crain 1960] [Siegel and Lanterman 1963] [Strattan 1978] [Sutrakar et al. 2025] [Welch 1989] [White 2012] [Zhang et al. 2026a] [Zhou et al. 2025]

Suppression of enemy air defences and time-critical targeting

A mission the X-47B demonstration did not fly and the one that would set its clock. Suppression of enemy air defences, air defence systems and air vehicle penetration. A mobile emitter that shuts down sets a deadline, and whether the loop closes inside it is the question the mission poses to the autonomy.

10 records. [Army War Coll Carlisle Barracks Pa 1982] [Gaver and Jacobs 1998] [Heilenday 2000] [Horrigan 1990] [Mustopa 2022] [Purvis 2003] [Stegall 2001] [Suminsby 2002] [Sutton 2005] [Sutton 2006]

Where the Framing Breaks Down

Six places.

The precision this article computes is the deck’s requirement and not the aeroplane’s performance. By the geometry, a wire is worth two to three and a half feet of height. It does not show what the X-47B achieved, and the figures in circulation for that cannot be traced to a programme document, so no claim about achieved accuracy is made here.

The arrestment reading is settled by argument and not by the record. A stopping distance aboard a ship must be a deck distance, and the aeroplane’s wing loading makes 145 knots an implausible stalling speed and an ordinary approach speed, so the slower engagement is the better reading. Both rows are still printed because the wind over the deck on the day is not recorded, and because an argument that fixes a reading is weaker evidence than a document that states one.

Scoring the previous article’s predictions is comparing a requirement to one aeroplane. The X-47B is a single design by a single manufacturer that won a competition, and a payload fraction measured from it is one observation. The previous article’s constant came from two aircraft and this adds a third from a different company, which is better evidence and still not a population.

The gross mass figures disagree between sources by six percent. The specialist directory gives 19,000 kilograms [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles] and the encyclopaedia entry a maximum takeoff weight of 44,501 pounds, which is 20,185 kilograms [Northrop Grumman X-47B], and the directory warns that its own figures may be inaccurate,

\[\frac{20{,}185}{19{,}000} - 1 = 0.0624 \tag{24}\]

Every mass fraction in this article moves by about six percent between those readings, and the conclusions do not turn on which is right because the differences being argued about are larger than that.

Treating the X-47A as a proof of concept understates what its single flight was for. It carried the relative navigation system on which the subject turns, and is described as landing on a designated spot [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles]. One flight is one flight, and an article that made more of it would be building on a sentence.

The published range disagrees between sources by two-thirds. One source gives 2,100 nautical miles [Northrop Grumman X-47B] and the other 3,500 [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles], so the fuel the range relation demands is between 3.7 and 4.6 tonnes on one reading and between 5.8 and 7.1 on the other. The fuel-volume argument holds on both, more strongly on the larger figure, but the article cannot say which figure is a range and which, if either, is a radius.

The Source Base

The argument rests on a handful of public documents and none of them is a Northrop Grumman engineering report.

One carries both aircraft. The specialist designation directory gives the contract history, the designations, the dimensions, the engines, the payload and the X-47A’s single flight and its purpose [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles]. It is a secondary source, it is the best one available for the X-47A, and it warns that its own figures may be inaccurate. It was last updated in February 2009, so it predates every flight of the X-47B and supports nothing in this article after that date.

One carries the chronology and the second set of dimensions. The encyclopaedia entry supplies the wing area, the folded span, the weights, the range and the full sequence of carrier firsts [Northrop Grumman X-47B], and it disagrees with the directory about gross mass by six percent, about range by two-thirds and about the month in which the joint programme was cancelled.

Four carry the landings. The Navy’s release of 10 July 2013 gives the wire caught on the first engagement, the speed and the stopping distance [Unmanned X-47B makes historic landing aboard USS George H.W. Bush, NAVAIR], and a contemporary account adds the second wire and the abandoned third approach [Gresham, Details of the X-47B’s first autonomous carrier landing]. Two reports of the programme manager’s account of that third approach agree that the aeroplane detected the fault and disagree about whether the wave-off was automatic [Cahn, Navy drone fails third aircraft carrier landing attempt] [Sicard, Navy: glitch in X-47B test only proves unmanned aircraft’s reliability]. The naval news service’s report of the day says that precision satellite guidance brought the hook to the deck and gives none of the figures [New age in carrier aviation takes off with X-47B landing].

Two more carry the guidance and the engine. The same news service’s report of the first touch and go quotes the programme manager calling the guidance precision relative navigation technology and describes a precision satellite positioning scheme that gives the aeroplane its position relative to the ship [Navy’s unmanned carrier aircraft performs first touch and go]. The engine maker’s product sheet describes a nonaugmented turbofan of 16,000 pounds dry thrust [F100-PW-220U powered X-47B, Pratt and Whitney].

One set carries the deck. The wire count of each ship, the pendant spacing and the glide slope come from published descriptions of the Nimitz class, the arresting gear and the optical landing system [Nimitz-class aircraft carrier] [Arresting gear] [Tarantola, How to stop a jet dead in its tracks in two seconds] [The meatball, Air & Space]. The forty-foot pendant spacing in the sizing tables has no source and is carried as a sensitivity case.

The research survey holds 4,859 research records drawn from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Technical Reports Server, the Defense Technical Information Center and the journal literature indexed by Crossref. Records from 2015 or later number 2,094, or 45.6 percent of the 4,597 dated records, records predating 2000 number 1,086, and the median publication year is 2013. The arresting gear literature is mostly recent. Of the 4,696 dated titles that carry the word arrest, arrested, arresting or arrestment, 2,847 date from 2010 or later and 13 from the 1950s and 1960s.

The standard atmosphere is load-bearing in this article. The fuel table at Mach 0.75 and 40,000 feet needs it to become a true airspeed, the U.S. Standard Atmosphere of 1976 is cited beside that step, and the cluster holds 60 records. Two foundational primaries anchor it, being the U.S. Standard Atmosphere of 1976 and a performance flight test volume showing how a test discipline uses it.

One of the article’s conclusions rests on a substantial literature. The claim that an automatic wave-off on a detected fault is the behaviour a deck requires rests on 158 research records, counting titles that name a wave-off, a go-around, a balked landing, a missed approach, an abort or aborted approach or landing, fault detection, a fault-tolerant system, fault management, fault monitoring, failure detection, failure management, a failure mode, health monitoring, built-in test, contingency management, or a safe abort, safe separation or safe state.

How precisely a manned carrier landing lands is operational data, held by the Navy and not published in the open archives, and the thin-subject count below shows how little of it reaches a title. The word touchdown spans carrier aviation and planetary landing, and of the 20 records carrying it none is lunar, Martian or planetary.

No primary programme document was located. No test report, no navigation performance analysis and no weight statement for either aircraft has been found in the open literature.

The Definition of Primary

Primacy is a property of the document, and this survey derives it from the identifier. A record is a report primary when its address is on the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Technical Reports Server or it carries a digital object identifier under the 10.21236 prefix, which Crossref registers for Defense Technical Information Center reports. Report primaries number 479, or 9.9 percent of the 4,859 research records.

On a definition fitted to this subject, 2,694 of the 4,859 are primary, or 55.4 percent. The fitted definition adds the identifier prefixes of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 10.2514, of the Society of Automotive Engineers, now SAE International, 10.4271, of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 10.1109, and of the Association for Computing Machinery, 10.1145. The engineering society venues matter here because satellite navigation and relative positioning are published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers rather than in aeronautical journals. Neither definition reaches the public documents above, which are not research records, so neither percentage measures how first-hand the article’s argument is.

Thin Subjects

Seven subjects that this article’s derivations or conclusions depend on have thin literatures. Each count below is the number of research records in this survey whose title carries at least one of the listed terms, with a hyphen read as a space.

Subject Title terms counted Records
wing loading and thrust loading as design variables wing loading, thrust loading, thrust to weight, constraint analysis or diagram, matching chart or diagram, design point selection 16
which constraint actually sizes a wing active constraint, binding constraint, design driver, driving requirement or constraint, constraint activity, diagram or analysis, a sensitivity analysis or study followed within 25 characters by design, design point selection, which constraint or requirement 10
how well a conceptual estimate matches the aeroplane built prediction accuracy, error, versus or compared, estimate versus or compared to actual, validation of a design, weight, sizing or performance method, estimate or model, historical data, regression or trend followed within 25 characters by weight or design, weight growth, design maturity or convergence, as built 1
fuel volume as the thing that sizes a wing fuel tank, volume, capacity or system followed within 25 characters by wing, design or sizing, wing followed within 25 characters by fuel tank, volume or capacity, internal volume, tank or tankage volume or arrangement, volumetric constraint, efficiency or sizing 7
how precisely a carrier landing lands touchdown dispersion, scatter, accuracy, point or statistics, landing dispersion or scatter, boarding rate, bolter rate, wire selection or engagement statistics, pilot performance followed within 25 characters by landing or approach, approach performance or deviation statistics 6
autonomous aerial refuelling aerial refuelling, air to air refuelling, in flight refuelling, probe and drogue, refuelling boom, tanker followed within 20 characters by rendezvous or receiver 55
supervisory control and the operator to vehicle ratio supervisory control, human robot interaction, fan out, span of control, neglect time or tolerance, interaction time, operator workload, level or levels of automation, single operator, multiple robots 43

Wing loading as a design variable is thin in the vocabulary rather than in the literature. The phrase is rare while the design-point literature it belongs to holds 372, counting titles that name wing loading, thrust loading, thrust to weight, a constraint analysis or diagram, a design point, sizing, or conceptual or preliminary design.

Two of the article’s most distinctive claims stand on the arithmetic rather than on a literature. Identifying which constraint is active reaches ten titles on the terms in the table, and comparing a conceptual estimate against the aeroplane that was built reaches one, which validates a dynamic model in flight rather than a design estimate, so no title in the survey does what the section headed What the Data Changed does. Fuel volume as what sizes a wing is a subject of fuel tank design rather than of wing sizing, and its seven titles do not test the inference this article draws.

The precision of a carrier landing reaches six titles, and none of them gives the touchdown scatter of a carrier landing, which is why the article computes what the deck requires and does not compare it with what pilots achieve. Autonomous aerial refuelling is a genuinely modest literature, and this article mentions the achievement rather than arguing from it. Supervisory control is not load-bearing here at all, because this article explicitly declines to compute a fan-out for a vehicle that was demonstrated one at a time.

What the Survey Admits

A record is admitted only when a person reading its title finds it on this article’s subject, being a subject the argument uses, from the deck and its arresting gear through relative navigation, the configuration’s aerodynamics and control, sizing, propulsion, the airframe and its loads, autonomy and fault handling, supervision, the vehicle class and its programme. The configuration’s aerodynamics are admitted only as far as the argument uses them, being maximum lift and stall, drag and the lift to drag ratio of complete aircraft, wing and planform design, and the delta, lambda, flying wing and blended wing body family to which the aeroplane belongs. Its 4,859 records come from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Technical Reports Server, the Defense Technical Information Center and the journal literature indexed by Crossref. No cluster is a residual. Every record belongs to a named literature, and a title that bore on none of the subjects the argument uses was excluded rather than gathered under a heading of its own.

Many words this subject depends on also name something else, and a record that shares only such a word is excluded. Lift also names cargo lifts, sealift, plunger lift in gas wells, the lift-off of a flame and the lifting of sanctions. Wing also names a military unit, a church and the wings of birds, bats and insects. Carrier also names troop carriers, low-cost airlines and charge carriers in solids. Flight deck also names the cockpit of an airliner, and lower deck and main deck name the cargo holds of transports. Shipboard also names the antennas, radio links, cranes and magazines of ships. Heave and pitch also name the motion of road vehicles, offshore platforms and wave energy devices. Station keeping also names the line of battle of eighteenth-century fleets and the station keeping of satellites. Approach also names a method, sizing also names inventory lot sizing and the sizing agent of a carbon fibre, Breguet also names an aircraft company, and weight estimation also names estimating an airliner’s takeoff weight from air traffic surveillance data.

Neighbouring literatures that bear on none of the argument’s subjects are excluded too. These are rotor aerodynamics and helicopter flight mechanics, supersonic and hypersonic flow, missiles and rockets, spacecraft and planetary landing, atmospheric chemistry, climate and weather, satellite navigation used only as an instrument for geodesy, timing or ionospheric science, ground and marine vehicles, airline economics, air traffic management and airports, aircraft noise and icing, cabin and electrical systems, maintenance and logistics, and the law and ethics of armed drones. So are configurations and vehicle classes the argument never uses, among them tilt wing, short and vertical takeoff and powered lift aircraft, thrust reversers, canard, tandem and joined wings and propeller integration, together with general aviation and light aircraft, the ground risk of small unmanned aircraft, textbook lift theory, airfoil sections, unsteady and low Reynolds number flow, high-lift device design that does not concern maximum lift, generic flutter analysis and the vibration surveys of particular aircraft, engine component flow and engine maintenance monitoring, crashworthiness, guns, simulator motion cueing, pedestrian navigation, design education, and the chemistry and dynamics of the tropopause region. Correction notices, conference front matter and the records of whole conference volumes, and editorials are excluded as well, because a survey counts research works. Book reviews, unsigned news items and encyclopedia and dictionary entries of two pages or fewer are not admitted either, and nor is a second deposit of a document already held, such as a report-server copy of a presentation whose own record is kept, because counting it would count one work twice.

Some records of doubtful relevance are kept. Satellite and inertial navigation methods applied to land vehicles, ships and spacecraft formations share the relative measurement the deck problem needs. The heave and pitch of ships other than carriers, planing craft among them, share the motion of the deck. Studies of the height and temperature of the tropopause share the flight condition. The conceptual design of rotorcraft, electric, supersonic and hypersonic aircraft shares the sizing method. Supervisory control of unmanned vehicles that are not aircraft shares the fan-out theory. Each is kept and a reader may weigh it accordingly.

Every research title has been read for relevance, so the off-topic share that remains is a matter of reading judgement. A reading of titles cannot show that a work is relevant in substance, so this is a statement about titles only.

Epistemic State

Historical Fact

In June 2000 the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency awarded study contracts of two million dollars each to Northrop Grumman and Boeing for a carrier-based unmanned combat aircraft [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles] [Northrop Grumman X-47B].

The X-47A Pegasus was completed in July 2001 and flew once, on 23 February 2003, carrying a shipboard relative navigation system [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles].

In August 2007 the X-47B won the Unmanned Combat Air System Demonstration under a contract of 635.8 million dollars. It first flew on 4 February 2011 [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles] [Northrop Grumman X-47B].

On 14 May 2013 an X-47B was catapulted from USS George H.W. Bush and on 10 July 2013 one made an arrested landing aboard her, catching the three-wire and then on a second approach the two-wire, with a third approach abandoned once the aeroplane had detected a navigation subsystem failure [Northrop Grumman X-47B] [Unmanned X-47B makes historic landing aboard USS George H.W. Bush, NAVAIR] [Gresham, Details of the X-47B’s first autonomous carrier landing] [Cahn, Navy drone fails third aircraft carrier landing attempt].

In April 2015 an X-47B refuelled from a tanker autonomously, and in May 2015 the primary test programme was declared complete [Northrop Grumman X-47B].

Verified by Independent Derivation

A height error divides by the tangent of the glide slope to give a displacement along the deck, which is 19.08 feet per foot at three degrees, 16.35 at three and a half and 14.30 at four.

A pendant spacing of 40 to 50 feet corresponds to 2.10 to 3.50 feet of height across glide slopes from three to four degrees.

An arrestment from 145 knots in 350 feet is 26.08 metres per second squared, or 2.66 g, in 2.86 seconds, and from 120 knots is 17.86 metres per second squared, or 1.82 g, in 3.46 seconds. The energy is 56.2 megajoules at 20,185 kilograms and 145 knots.

The X-47B’s aspect ratio is 4.04, its wing loading 43.9 pounds per square foot at 19,000 kilograms, its thrust to weight ratio 0.382, and its payload fraction 0.10737.

Analysis

The deck sets a precision requirement of one metre or better in height if a particular wire is to be chosen rather than accepted, and that requirement is on a measurement relative to a moving ship.

The previous article’s inherited payload fraction did not hold for this aeroplane, and the failure ran in the direction that article predicted.

The approach speed constraint did not size this wing, since the achieved wing loading is below every value that constraint implies.

The quoted 145 knots is an approach airspeed rather than an engaging speed, because reading it as a stalling speed demands a maximum lift coefficient of 0.617 while reading it as an approach speed gives 1.14 times the stall at a maximum lift coefficient of 0.8. The engagement was therefore slower than 145 knots and the deceleration nearer 1.8 g than 2.7.

The wing area is most plausibly set by fuel volume, since the published ranges cost between 3,700 and 4,600 kilograms of fuel on one source and between 5,800 and 7,100 on the other, and there is no fuselage to put it in.

Inference

The relative navigation system is what made the rest of the aeroplane ordinary, inferred from the geometry in the absence of any statement of achieved accuracy, and the programme manager described the guidance as precision relative navigation without stating its accuracy [Navy’s unmanned carrier aircraft performs first touch and go].

The wing was sized by fuel volume or by low-speed handling margin rather than by approach speed, inferred from the margin between the achieved wing loading and the constraint.

What the Record Does Not Settle

What accuracy the navigation system achieved. No traceable figure has been found.

Whether the wave-off of the third approach on 10 July 2013 was automatic. The sources concur that the aeroplane detected the fault, and they divide on who waved it off.

Which published range is right. Both label their figure a range, the encyclopaedia giving 2,100 nautical miles and the specialist directory 3,500, and neither states the mission profile behind its figure.

What the wind over the deck was on 10 July 2013. The reading of the quoted 145 knots is argued from the aeroplane’s wing loading and from the fact that a deck distance implies a deck speed, and that argument is not a substitute for a recorded figure.

What the X-47B weighs empty. The encyclopaedia entry labels its empty weight a zero-fuel weight [Northrop Grumman X-47B], and the two differ by the payload.

Whether the aeroplane could have met the endurance the original naval requirement asked for. Its range is published and its loiter is not.

Out of Scope

The X-45 and the X-46, which are the previous two articles and are cited here only where this aeroplane’s record bears on theirs.

The operational programmes that followed, which are outside this series because they carry no X designation.

The arresting gear as a machine, meaning the hydraulic engine, the purchase cable and the sheave dampers, which the survey covers and which this article treats only through the deceleration it produces.

Satellite navigation as a subject, including integer ambiguity resolution and integrity monitoring, which the survey covers and which this article uses only as far as the relative measurement.

Conclusion

The Northrop Grumman X-47B is the aeroplane that made a carrier deck a place an unmanned aircraft can use.

The binding unknown was never the aerodynamics and never the autonomy in the sense the word usually carries. It was whether a position could be known with respect to a moving ship to the precision the deck demands. The deck’s geometry sets that precision and leaves little room for error, because a normal glide slope of 3.5 degrees converts height into distance at about sixteen feet per foot, and the fifty feet between arresting pendants is only about three feet of height.

A metre of height error is about one wire spacing. That is why the programme’s navigation was relative rather than absolute, and why an aeroplane that could do this could also be built to ordinary tolerances everywhere else [Navy’s unmanned carrier aircraft performs first touch and go].

The record it left covers the deck cycle from launch to refuelling. Catapult launch in May 2013, arrested landing in July, night flying in 2014, operations alongside manned aircraft in the same pattern, and autonomous refuelling in 2015 [Northrop Grumman X-47B]. On the third approach of 10 July 2013 a navigation subsystem failed, the aeroplane registered the fault, and the approach was abandoned, the accounts differing on whether the wave-off was automatic, and a demonstration that produced two traps and one correct refusal is worth more than three traps [Cahn, Navy drone fails third aircraft carrier landing attempt] [Sicard, Navy: glitch in X-47B test only proves unmanned aircraft’s reliability].

This article also scores the previous one, whose sizing had no aeroplane to check it against. That article predicted a gross mass of 32,539 pounds from an inherited payload fraction of 0.12293, and named that fraction as its weakest assumption because a designer under carrier weight pressure might trade it to avoid a larger aeroplane [previous article]. The X-47B carries the same payload as the X-45C at a fraction of 0.10737 and a mass 1.287 times the prediction. [Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles] Both predicted changes appeared, each larger than foreseen.

One prediction held and one failed usefully. The thrust to weight ratio of 0.382 fell inside the assumed band. The approach speed constraint, which that article used to size a wing, is met by this aeroplane with room to spare and therefore did not size its wing. A constraint that binds in an argument and not in the hardware is a true constraint used in the wrong role, the most useful lesson this aeroplane holds for the one before it.

Equations

This section collects the 24 display equations of the article in the order they appear, each under its number and reproduced exactly as it stands in the text. A title in bold names an established result, and a title in italics beginning with the word Bespoke names a construction made for this analysis. Of the 24, 19 are established and 5 are bespoke. Speeds are quoted in knots and converted at 0.5144 metres per second to the knot, masses and areas move between pounds, kilograms, square feet and square metres, and several letters are reused, so $\gamma$ is the glide slope in the approach relations and the ratio of specific heats in the standard atmosphere, $a$ is a deceleration in the arrestment and the speed of sound at altitude, $c$ is the speed of light in the range model and the specific fuel consumption in the Breguet relation, and $T$ is a tropospheric delay, a thrust and a temperature in different sections.

Equation 1, Touchdown Displacement from a Height Error. A height error at the ramp moves the touchdown point along the deck by that error divided by the tangent of the glide slope.

\[\Delta x = \frac{\Delta h}{\tan \gamma} \tag{1}\]

Equation 2, Height Equivalent of a Pendant Spacing. Read the other way, the same geometry gives the height error that moves the touchdown point by one wire spacing.

\[\Delta h = \Delta x \tan \gamma \tag{2}\]

Equation 3, Bespoke Closure Speed on a Carrier Making Twenty-Five Knots. The closure speed subtracts a ship speed of twenty-five knots, a value the article takes as representative, from the approach speed of 145 knots.

\[v_{\text{closure}} = v_{\text{aircraft}} - v_{\text{ship}} = (145 - 25) \times 0.5144 = 61.7 \ \text{m/s} \tag{3}\]

Equation 4, Pseudorange Error Model. The range a receiver measures to a satellite is the true range plus the satellite clock offset, the ionospheric and tropospheric delays and a noise term. Misra and Enge, Global Positioning System, signals, measurements and performance

\[\rho_{i} = r_{i} + c \, \delta t_{\text{sat}} + I_{i} + T_{i} + \varepsilon_{i} \tag{4}\]

Equation 5, Between-Receiver Single Difference. Differencing the pseudoranges of two receivers to the same satellite removes the satellite clock offset exactly and leaves the difference in true range with small residual atmospheric and noise terms. Misra and Enge, Global Positioning System, signals, measurements and performance

\[\rho_{A} - \rho_{B} = (r_{A} - r_{B}) + (I_{A} - I_{B}) + (T_{A} - T_{B}) + (\varepsilon_{A} - \varepsilon_{B}) \tag{5}\]

Equation 6, Constant Deceleration over a Stopping Distance. Under constant deceleration a body brought to rest from speed $v$ in distance $s$ decelerates at $v^{2}/2s$. Unmanned X-47B makes historic landing aboard USS George H.W. Bush, NAVAIR

\[a = \frac{v^{2}}{2s} \tag{6}\]

Equation 7, Stopping Time under Constant Deceleration. Under the same constant deceleration the time to rest is twice the stopping distance divided by the initial speed. Unmanned X-47B makes historic landing aboard USS George H.W. Bush, NAVAIR

\[t = \frac{2s}{v} \tag{7}\]

Equation 8, Speed Relative to the Deck. The speed relative to the deck is the airspeed less the wind over the deck.

\[v_{\text{deck}} = v_{\text{air}} - v_{\text{wod}} \tag{8}\]

Equation 9, Wing Loading of the X-47B in SI Units. The published gross mass of 19,000 kilograms on the published wing area of 88.59 square metres gives a wing loading of 2,103 newtons per square metre.

\[\frac{W}{S} = \frac{19{,}000 \times 9.80665}{88.59} = 2{,}103 \ \text{N/m}^{2} = 43.9 \ \text{lb/ft}^{2} \tag{9}\]

Equation 10, Bespoke Maximum Lift Coefficient If 145 Knots Were the Stall. Treating the quoted 145 knots as a stalling speed at sea-level density, a reading the article tests in order to reject it, gives a maximum lift coefficient of 0.617.

\[C_{L,\max} = \frac{2 (W/S)}{\rho V^{2}} = \frac{2 \times 2{,}103}{1.225 \times 74.6^{2}} = 0.617 \tag{10}\]

Equation 11, Kinetic Energy Absorbed by the Arresting Gear. The kinetic energy of the aeroplane at the published maximum takeoff mass and the quoted 145 knots is 56.2 megajoules.

\[E = \tfrac{1}{2} m v^{2} = \tfrac{1}{2} \times 20{,}185 \times 74.6^{2} = 56.2 \ \text{MJ} \tag{11}\]

Equation 12, Newton’s Second Law for the Hook Load. The hook load is the mass of the aeroplane times its deceleration.

\[F = m a \tag{12}\]

Equation 13, Bespoke Ship Travel During the Arrestment. The distance the deck moves beneath the aeroplane takes a ship speed of twenty-five knots, which the article assumes, over the stopping time of 2.86 seconds.

\[d_{\text{ship}} = v_{\text{ship}} \, t = 12.86 \times 2.86 = 36.8 \ \text{m} \tag{13}\]

Equation 14, Mass and Thrust Ratios of the X-47B to the X-47A. The published gross masses and thrusts of the two aircraft give a mass ratio of 7.60 and a thrust ratio of 5.01. Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles

\[\frac{m_{B}}{m_{A}} = \frac{19{,}000}{2{,}500} = 7.60 \qquad \frac{T_{B}}{T_{A}} = \frac{71.2}{14.2} = 5.01 \tag{14}\]

Equation 15, Aspect Ratio of the X-47B Wing. The aspect ratio is the square of the published span over the published wing area. Northrop Grumman X-47B

\[A\!R = \frac{b^{2}}{S} = \frac{62.1^{2}}{953.6} = 4.04 \tag{15}\]

Equation 16, Descent Rate on a Glide Slope. The rate of descent along a glide slope is the approach speed times the sine of the glide slope angle.

\[w = V \sin \gamma \tag{16}\]

Equation 17, Thrust to Weight Ratio of the X-47B. The published thrust of 71.2 kilonewtons over the weight of the published gross mass gives a thrust to weight ratio of 0.382. Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles

\[\frac{T}{W} = \frac{71.2}{19{,}000 \times 9.80665 \times 10^{-3}} = 0.382 \tag{17}\]

Equation 18, Fan-Out of a Supervised Vehicle. The fan-out is the number of vehicles one operator can serve, the sum of neglect time and interaction time divided by the interaction time.

\[FO = \frac{NT + IT}{IT} = 1 + \frac{NT}{IT} \tag{18}\]

Equation 19, Payload Fraction of the X-47B. The published payload of 2,040 kilograms over the published gross mass of 19,000 kilograms gives a payload fraction of 0.10737. Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles

\[\frac{m_{\text{payload}}}{m_{\text{gross}}} = \frac{2{,}040}{19{,}000} = 0.10737 \tag{19}\]

Equation 20, Bespoke Ratio of Actual to Predicted Gross Mass. The ratio sets the published gross mass against the 32,539 pounds that the previous article predicted from its inherited payload fraction of 0.12293. Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles

\[\frac{m_{\text{actual}}}{m_{\text{predicted}}} = \frac{41{,}888}{32{,}539} = 1.287 \tag{20}\]

Equation 21, Wing Loading of the X-47B in Imperial Units. The published gross mass of 41,888 pounds on the published wing area of 953.6 square feet gives a wing loading of 43.9 pounds per square foot. Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles

\[\frac{W}{S} = \frac{41{,}888}{953.6} = 43.9 \ \text{lb/ft}^{2} \tag{21}\]

Equation 22, Breguet Fuel Fraction. Inverting the Breguet range relation for a jet gives the fuel fraction that a range costs at a given speed, specific fuel consumption and lift to drag ratio.

\[\zeta_{\text{fuel}} = 1 - \exp \left( - \frac{R \, c}{V (L/D)} \right) \tag{22}\]

Equation 23, Bespoke Cruise Speed at Mach 0.75 and Forty Thousand Feet. The standard atmosphere gives the temperature and speed of sound above the tropopause, and the cruise speed takes an assumed Mach number of 0.75 because no cruise condition is published. U.S. Standard Atmosphere 1976 1976

\[T = 216.65 \ \text{K} \qquad a = \sqrt{\gamma R T} = 295.07 \ \text{m/s} \qquad V = 0.75 a = 430.2 \ \text{kn} \tag{23}\]

Equation 24, Discrepancy Between the Published Gross Masses. The encyclopaedia’s maximum takeoff mass of 20,185 kilograms exceeds the directory’s 19,000 kilograms by 6.24 percent. Parsch, Northrop Grumman X-47, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles Northrop Grumman X-47B

\[\frac{20{,}185}{19{,}000} - 1 = 0.0624 \tag{24}\]

Notation

  • $\Delta h$, the height error at the ramp, or the height equivalent of one wire spacing
  • $\Delta x$, the displacement of the touchdown point along the deck, or the pendant spacing
  • $\gamma$, the glide slope angle in the approach relations, and the ratio of specific heats, taken as 1.4 for air, in the standard atmosphere relation
  • $v_{\text{ship}}$, the speed of the ship
  • $v_{\text{closure}}$, the closure speed between the aeroplane and the deck
  • $\rho_{i}$, the pseudorange that receiver $i$ measures to one satellite
  • $r_{i}$, the true range from receiver $i$ to the satellite
  • $\delta t_{\text{sat}}$, the satellite clock offset, multiplied by the speed of light $c$
  • $I_{i}$, the ionospheric delay at receiver $i$
  • $T_{i}$, the tropospheric delay at receiver $i$
  • $\varepsilon_{i}$, the measurement noise at receiver $i$
  • $a$, the deceleration in the arrestment, and the speed of sound in the standard atmosphere relation
  • $s$, the stopping distance along the deck
  • $v_{\text{wod}}$, the wind over the deck
  • $W$, the weight
  • $m$, the mass of the aeroplane
  • $V$, the airspeed, which is the approach speed in the descent relation and the cruise speed in the Breguet relation
  • $S$, the wing reference area
  • $\rho$, the air density, taken at sea level
  • $C_{L,\max}$, the maximum lift coefficient
  • $E$, the kinetic energy the arresting gear absorbs
  • $F$, the hook load
  • $A!R$, the wing aspect ratio
  • $b$, the wing span
  • $w$, the rate of descent along the glide slope
  • $FO$, the fan-out, the number of vehicles one operator can supervise
  • $NT$, the neglect time, how long a vehicle can be left alone before it needs attention
  • $IT$, the interaction time, how long the operator must spend on a vehicle once it needs attention
  • $\zeta_{\text{fuel}}$, the fuel fraction of gross mass
  • $R \, c$, the range $R$ times the specific fuel consumption $c$
  • $L/D$, the lift to drag ratio

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