X-Planes: Curtiss-Wright X-19

The Curtiss-Wright X-19 carried 13,660 pounds on 154.6 square feet of wing. That is a wing loading of 88 pounds per square foot in an aircraft required to land vertically. The wings were not merely small. They were too small to carry the aircraft at any speed below 137 knots, a strange property for a machine whose entire purpose was to arrive at zero. This article is the twentieth in the X-Planes series, following the X-1, the X-2, the X-3, the X-4, the X-5, the X-6, the X-7, the X-8, the X-9, the X-10, the X-11, the X-12, the X-13, the X-14, the X-15, the X-16, the X-17, and the X-18.

The previous article covered the X-18, which tilted its whole wing. It would be natural to expect the same analysis here, since both aircraft convert by rotating propellers from vertical to horizontal. That expectation is wrong, and following it would produce the wrong article. A tilt-wing must keep its wing flying at absurd angles of attack, so the fraction of that wing immersed in the propeller slipstream governs everything. A tilt-propeller never rotates its wing at all. The wing sits at zero incidence from hover to cruise and never sees an angle it could not see in ordinary flight.

The question the X-19 asked instead is whether a propeller can be counted on for lift. Not thrust turned upward, which is trivial, but the force a propeller develops at right angles to its own axis when the oncoming flow meets the disc obliquely. Curtiss-Wright called this the radial force or radial lift in the programme’s final report, and the company’s claim was that it is large enough to size a wing around.

The standard inventory entry remains Jenkins Landis and Miller 2003 American X-Vehicles, An Inventory X-1 to X-50 and the vehicle compilation is Miller 2001 The X-Planes, X-1 to X-45. The keystone has a literature older than the aircraft by eighteen years, drawn from aerodynamic stability and not from vertical flight, in Ribner 1945b and Ribner 1945a.

The Research Question

The Keystone Is the Propeller Normal Force

The keystone is how much lift a propeller produces without pointing at the sky.

A propeller meeting the air along its axis produces thrust and nothing else. Incline the axis to the flow and the symmetry breaks. Each blade sees a velocity that varies around the azimuth, the loading varies with it, and the disc as a whole exerts a force perpendicular to its axis. It was pointed out in 1909, as Ribner 1945b recounts, that a yawed propeller develops a side force like a fin, and Rumph et al. 1942 treated the effect as a stability problem, as it had always been. A tractor propeller ahead of the centre of gravity is destabilising precisely because this force exists.

Curtiss-Wright proposed to stop treating it as a nuisance and start treating it as lift.

If the propellers carry part of the lift, the wing carries less, so the wing can be smaller. Writing the argument down makes its leverage visible. If the propellers supply a fraction $\phi$ of the lift at the slowest wing-borne speed, the wing need only supply the rest.

\[S = \frac{2 W \left( 1 - \phi \right)}{\rho V_{\text{conv}}^{2} C_{L,\max}} \tag{1}\]

A smaller wing is lighter, has less drag at high speed, and presents less area to the downwash in hover. The X-19’s 88 pounds per square foot is the arithmetic consequence of taking that argument seriously.

The same force that supplies $\phi$ is a nuisance elsewhere, and the sign distinguishes the two readings. A propeller mounted a distance $x_p$ ahead of the centre of gravity contributes a pitching moment that grows with angle of attack.

\[\frac{\partial C_m}{\partial \alpha} = \frac{x_p}{q S \bar{c}} \frac{\partial N}{\partial \alpha} \tag{2}\]

That derivative is positive for a tractor propeller, which is destabilising, and it is the reason the effect was studied for nearly half a century before Curtiss-Wright proposed to exploit it.

The scale of that literature is the strongest evidence that the X-19’s premise was not eccentric. Wind tunnel investigation of how a running propeller and its slipstream change an aeroplane’s stability and move its neutral point was a standing subject through the 1940s and 1950s, much of it at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, hereafter NACA, in Delany 1942, Pitkin 1943, Schuldenfrei 1944, Purser and Spear 1947, Hagerman 1947a, Weil and Sleeman 1948, Brewer and May 1948, Lange and McLemore 1950, Queijo et al. 1953, Sleeman 1953, Vollo and Brassaw 1956, with the static stability of canard, three-surface and research aircraft and its general factors beside them in Sleeman 1957, Donlan 1976a, Nagy and Kirsten 1976, Ostowari and Naik 1986.

The propeller reports among them treat the propeller force as a correction to be predicted and designed around. Curtiss-Wright’s proposal was to change its sign in the accounting, not its magnitude in the physics.

Why This Was the Binding Unknown in 1960

The competing configurations of the moment each had a defect that was already visible. The tail-sitter of the X-13 required the pilot to descend onto a landing point that lay behind his line of sight. The tilt-wing of the X-18 stalled the un-immersed part of its wing throughout conversion. The deflected slipstream arrangements studied by Kuhn and Grunwald 1960 and Grunwald 1961a paid a large download penalty.

The tilt-propeller avoided all three. Nothing about it requires the wing to stall, nothing requires the pilot to fly backward, and the wing is small enough that the download is modest. The competing arrangements were each studied at length, in the period and after it, in Hickey 1956, Koenig and Quigley 1960, Quigley and Koenig 1961, Putman 1961, Hargraves 1961, Newsom 1962a, Newsom 1962b, Breul 1963, Goodson 1966b, Goodson 1966a, Beppu and Curtiss 1966, Curtiss et al. 1967, Strand and Levinsky 1969, Kvaternik 1973, Widdison et al. 1974, Detore and Sambell 1975, Sambell 1976, Bartie et al. 1986, Huston et al. 1989. The unknown was not whether the configuration could hover or cruise. It was whether the propeller force that made the small wing defensible was real at the size claimed.

That question had an answer in the literature and the answer was not obviously encouraging. Ribner 1943b and its final form Ribner 1945b give a theory calibrated against experiment, and Crigler and Gilman 1949 and Crigler and Gilman 1952 give methods for computing the forces on a propeller in pitch or yaw. The forces are real. Whether they are large enough to size an aircraft around is a question of magnitude, and the sections that follow compute that magnitude.

Programme Origin

The X-19 did not begin as a military aircraft and did not begin with that designation. The programme’s final report is the primary source for what follows. It is Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory technical report AFFDL-TR-66-195, written by Curtiss-Wright’s Wright Aeronautical Division and issued in May 1967 in two volumes, Fluk 1967a, Volume I and Fluk 1967b, Volume II, hereafter the final report. It records that Curtiss-Wright designed the aircraft first as the Model 200, or M-200, a six-place corporate executive transport with four rotating-combustion engines of 580 horsepower each, a gross weight of 10,000 pounds and a maximum level speed of 400 miles an hour at 16,000 feet.

Before the transport there was a demonstrator. The Curtiss-Wright X-100 was built to test two things at once, the radial lift force itself and the gimballed nacelles a tilt-propeller needs. The Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum records that construction began on 20 February 1958, that tethered hovering started on 20 April 1959, and that the first and only transition from vertical to high-speed flight was made on 13 April 1960, and Vertipedia places the first free hover in September 1959. The final report describes a two-place aircraft of 3,500 pounds with one Lycoming YT53 engine of 825 horsepower driving two three-blade propellers of 10 feet, a wing of 22.5 square feet, and a wing loading it puts in excess of 170 pounds per square foot, although its own weight and area give $3{,}500 / 22.5 = 156$ pounds per square foot. It gives 220 hours of ground running and 10 flight hours, while the museum gives fourteen hours of flight. The museum records that the aircraft went to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, hereafter NASA, in October 1960 for ground erosion tests at Langley, and the final report adds a test in the 40 by 80 foot wind tunnel at Ames to obtain propeller loads at high tilt.

The X-100 also showed what the transport would have to fix. The final report lists insufficient hover control power, roll and yaw coupling in hover, and strong pitch-up with forward speed, and it gives these as the reasons for moving to four propellers on two tandem wings, since four propellers at two stations give pitch and roll control without an auxiliary device. Then the company’s management changed. The final report states that after the change it was decided that a new aircraft with new and untried engines had little hope, so the design was redrawn around two Lycoming T55-L-5 turboshaft engines and pointed toward military use, and it states that no military specification existed, so the design objectives were Curtiss-Wright’s own. The museum records that the company persuaded the services to fund the aircraft under a tri-service agreement between the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, with the Air Force managing the project, and that two airframes were built for what became a vertical take-off and landing programme, hereafter VTOL.

The sequence is unusual. A company proved a concept on a small demonstrator, redesigned the follow-on when its management changed, and sold it to a government that had written no requirement for it. The aircraft that resulted weighed 13,660 pounds, nearly four times the X-100’s 3,500 and well above the 10,000 for which, the final report notes, its transmission had first been designed.

Sizing From First Principles

The Wing Cannot Carry the Aircraft

Start with the number that makes everything else necessary. The final report’s dimension table gives the forward wing a span of 19.5 feet over 56.1 square feet and the aft wing a span of 21.5 feet over 98.5 square feet, both measured to the nacelle centrelines, with constant chords of 34.5 and 55.0 inches. The overall rear-wing span of 23.5 feet in the Jane’s-derived specification is a different measurement, and it is the wrong one here, because the propeller discs are centred on the nacelles. Aspect ratio and mean chord follow from span and area alone.

\[\text{AR} = \frac{b^{2}}{S}, \qquad \bar{c} = \frac{S}{b} \tag{3}\]

which gives 6.78 and 2.88 feet forward, and 4.69 and 4.58 feet aft. The report states aspect ratios of 6.8 and 4.7, and the chords are its 34.5 and 55.0 inches. Total area is 154.6 square feet against the report’s normal gross weight of 13,660 pounds.

Each surface has its own lift-curve slope, reduced from the two-dimensional value by its finite span, where $a_0$ is $2\pi$ per radian and $e$ is the span efficiency.

\[a = \frac{a_0}{1 + a_0 / \left( \pi e \, \text{AR} \right)} \tag{4}\]

At $e = 0.90$ this is 4.732 per radian forward and 4.264 aft. The aircraft’s single equivalent slope is the area-weighted mean of the two, and it is used throughout the article.

\[\bar{a} = \frac{S_f a_f + S_a a_a}{S_f + S_a} = 4.434 \ \text{rad}^{-1} \tag{5}\]

Wing loading follows immediately.

\[\frac{W}{S} = \frac{13{,}660}{154.6} = 88.4 \ \text{lb/ft}^2 \tag{6}\]

The report itself calls the loading approximately 85 pounds per square foot on both wings.

The speed at which a wing alone supports that loading is the stall speed, where $\rho$ is density, $S$ is wing area and $C_{L,\max}$ the maximum lift coefficient.

\[V_{s} = \sqrt{\frac{2W}{\rho S C_{L,\max}}} \tag{7}\]

For an unflapped wing with $C_{L,\max} = 1.4$ at sea level this gives 230.4 feet per second, or 136.5 knots. At 1.2 it is 147.5 knots and at 1.6 it is 127.7 knots. The final report gives both wings zero incidence, zero dihedral and zero sweepback, and its only high-lift device is a plain flap of 15.16 square feet on the forward wing, so the middle value is used and the two bounds show how far the answer moves with it.

An aircraft that stalls at 136 knots and is required to land at zero has a gap of 136 knots to explain. Tilting the propellers explains most of it, because a propeller pointed upward is a lifting device regardless of any subtlety. The radial lift force explains the rest, and the wing area was won in that remainder.

What a Propeller Does in Oblique Flow

Write the force from momentum, not from blade elements, because the momentum form has exactly one unknown and that unknown can be estimated from geometry.

Let the disc of area $A$ meet a freestream $V$ with its axis at angle $\alpha_d$ to the flow. Resolve the freestream into a component along the axis and a component in the plane of the disc.

\[V_{\text{axial}} = V \cos\alpha_d, \qquad V_{\text{in-plane}} = V \sin\alpha_d \tag{8}\]

The mass flow through the disc is set by the axial component plus whatever the propeller induces, where $v_i$ is the induced velocity.

\[\dot{m} = \rho A \left( V \cos\alpha_d + v_i \right) \tag{9}\]

The blades resist the in-plane component and turn part of it toward the axis. Let $k$ be the fraction of the in-plane momentum flux the disc removes. The reaction on the aircraft is the radial lift force.

\[N = k \, \rho A \left( V \cos\alpha_d + v_i \right) V \sin\alpha_d \tag{10}\]

This is the keystone relation of the article and everything downstream depends on $k$.

The Fin Analogy Fixes the Unknown

Leaving $k$ free would make the calculation circular, since any wing area could then be justified by choosing $k$ to suit. Ribner 1945b supplies the constraint. Ribner extends the fin analogy to the form of the side-force expression and identifies the effective fin area with the projected side area of the propeller, meaning the blade area seen from the side and not the disc area.

Write the propeller as a fin of area $S_f$ and lift-curve slope $a_b$ and equate the two expressions at small angle and high speed, where $v_i$ vanishes against $V$.

\[\tfrac{1}{2} \rho V^2 S_f a_b \alpha_d = k \rho A V^2 \alpha_d \tag{11}\]

The dynamic pressure, the freestream and the disc angle all cancel, which is why the fin analogy is useful, not merely suggestive. What remains is pure geometry.

\[k = \frac{S_f a_b}{2A} \tag{12}\]

The projected side area of a propeller with $B$ blades of chord $c$ and radius $R$ is not simply the blade area, because a rotating blade presents its full width to the side only twice per revolution. The azimuthal mean of that projection supplies the factor.

\[\frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{0}^{2\pi} \left| \cos\psi \right| \, d\psi = \frac{2}{\pi} \tag{13}\]

Multiplying the blade area by that mean gives the effective fin.

\[S_f = \frac{2}{\pi} B c R \tag{14}\]

So $k$ follows from blade chord, and the final report records the blade. Before using it, the rotational speed has to be settled, because blade loading depends on it as strongly as on chord.

The Cruise Requirement Caps the Tip Speed

The Jane’s-derived specification quotes a maximum speed of 400 knots at 20,000 feet. The final report states the design objective as a speed range up to 400 miles an hour, which it equates to Mach 0.65. Those two statements disagree. Four hundred miles an hour is 586.7 feet per second, which is Mach 0.566 at 20,000 feet and cannot reach Mach 0.65 at any altitude of the standard atmosphere, whose slowest speed of sound is 968.1 feet per second, while 400 knots at 20,000 feet is Mach 0.651. The 400-knot figure is used here. A propeller at 400 knots is close to its limit, because the blade tip sees the vector sum of flight speed and rotational speed. Write the helical tip Mach number with $a$ the speed of sound, $\Omega$ the rotational rate and $R$ the radius.

\[M_{h} = \frac{\sqrt{V^2 + (\Omega R)^2}}{a} \tag{15}\]

Propeller efficiency collapses as $M_h$ approaches unity, so take 0.90 as the working ceiling and solve for the rotational tip speed the cruise permits.

\[\Omega R \le \sqrt{\left( M_{h,\lim} a \right)^2 - V^2} \tag{16}\]

At 20,000 feet the dynamic pressure at that speed is 288.6 pounds per square foot, the speed of sound is 1,036.8 feet per second and 400 knots is 675.1 feet per second, a flight Mach number of 0.651. The ceiling gives 933.2 feet per second for the helical tip, and the rotational component that leaves is 644.2 feet per second. The rotational rate and the shaft speed follow.

\[\Omega = \frac{\Omega R}{R} = \frac{644.2}{6.5} = 99.11 \ \text{rad/s}, \qquad n = \frac{60 \, \Omega}{2\pi} = 946 \ \text{rpm} \tag{17}\]

The record confirms the derivation. The propeller qualification schedule in the final report runs the propellers at 957 revolutions per minute for maximum-speed cruise, and the specification gives 955. The derived 946 is 1.1 percent below the record, and the record’s speed puts the helical tip at

\[M_h = \frac{\sqrt{675.1^2 + 651.4^2}}{1{,}036.8} = 0.905, \qquad \Omega R = \frac{2\pi (957)}{60} (6.5) = 651.4 \ \text{ft/s} \tag{18}\]

which is the assumed 0.90 ceiling almost exactly. That is a slow propeller. Take the tip speed back to sea level and compare it against the static case, where no flight speed adds to it.

\[M_{\text{tip,static}} = \frac{\Omega R}{a_0} = \frac{644.2}{1{,}116.5} = 0.577 \tag{19}\]

where a conventional propeller would run near 0.8. The propeller would see that tip Mach number if it hovered at its cruise speed, and the next section shows that it did not.

The other measure of how hard this propeller is working is the advance ratio, the distance advanced per revolution against the diameter.

\[J = \frac{V}{n D} = \frac{675.1}{(15.77)(13)} = 3.29 \tag{20}\]

which is high, and is the regime in which a propeller behaves least like a hovering rotor.

This regime has its own literature, distinct from that of the hovering rotor. The high-speed propeller was a continuous research subject from the wartime compressibility work to the advanced turboprop programmes, in Wood and Woodward 1944, Stack et al. 1950, Doetsch and Mark 1953, Perisho 1959, Watts and Biggers 1972, Hohenemser and Prelewicz 1974, Reader 1980, Bober and Mitchell 1980, Mitchell and Mikkelson 1982, Gilchrist 1983, Takallu and Lessard 1991, Gazzaniga and Rose 1992, Harris 1996, Gur and Rosen 2005, Cavcar 2011.

Two of those bear directly on the X-19. Wind tunnel measurement of two-blade propellers to forward Mach numbers of 0.725 to determine the effects of compressibility on their performance, in Stack et al. 1950, bears on the constraint that sets the tip speed above. A later reanalysis of early high-speed propellers applied explicitly to civil tiltrotor configurations, in Harris 1996, is the same question asked again for the configuration the X-19 anticipated.

What Hover Asks of the Propeller

Hovering thrust must exceed weight, since the wings sit under the discs and are pushed down by the slipstream. Compute the download first. With the nacelles at the tips, the disc reaches inboard by one radius from each tip, so the immersed fraction of a semi-span is the radius over the semi-span whenever the disc does not reach the root.

\[f_{\text{imm}} = \frac{R}{b/2} = \frac{2R}{b} \tag{21}\]

which is 0.667 forward and 0.605 aft, and the immersed area is the sum over the two surfaces.

\[S_{\text{imm}} = \sum_j f_{\text{imm},j} S_j = 97.0 \ \text{ft}^2 = 62.7\% \ \text{of the wing} \tag{22}\]

measured for adjacent configurations and not calculated, in White et al. 1960, Curtiss et al. 1985, Qin et al. 2017.

The slipstream velocity at the wing is a multiple $\lambda$ of the induced velocity, and the download is that dynamic pressure acting on the immersed area with a normal-flow drag coefficient.

\[D_{\text{down}} = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho \left( \lambda v_i \right)^2 S_{\text{imm}} C_{D,\perp} \tag{23}\]

Thrust and download depend on each other through $v_i$, so they solve together. Substituting the momentum-theory induced velocity into the download makes the pair linear in thrust, not requiring iteration, because $v_i^2$ is proportional to $T$.

\[T = W + \frac{\lambda^{2} S_{\text{imm}} C_{D,\perp}}{4 A} \, T \quad \Longrightarrow \quad T = \frac{W}{1 - \lambda^{2} S_{\text{imm}} C_{D,\perp} / 4A} \tag{24}\]

The coefficient is 0.1233, so the download is 1,921 pounds, or 14.1 percent of gross weight, and the required thrust is 15,581 pounds. The final report gives the measured download only in figures, but it states two things that bear on this estimate. The download measured on the full-scale X-100 and on its model was higher than predicted, and the blockage of the rear wing raised propeller thrust by 3 or 4 percent, which is a correction the momentum model does not contain. Momentum theory then gives the induced velocity, where $A$ is the total disc area of 530.9 square feet.

\[v_i = \sqrt{\frac{T}{2 \rho A}} = 78.57 \ \text{ft/s} \tag{25}\]

Ideal power in hover is the thrust acting through the induced velocity, and dividing by the figure of merit converts it into a shaft requirement.

\[P_{\text{ideal}} = T v_i = 2{,}226 \ \text{hp}, \qquad P_{\text{req}} = \frac{P_{\text{ideal}}}{\text{FM}} = 3{,}180 \ \text{hp} \tag{26}\]

Against 5,300 installed that is a comfortable margin. The hovering rotor and propeller, and the measurement of their performance, were studied at length, in Castles and Gray 1951, Warsett 1953, Blaser 1969, Boatwright and Clingan 1969, Parker and Heltsley 1972, Velkoff 1981, Naumowicz and Smith 1992, Talbot et al. 1994, Zhao et al. 2014, Ramasamy 2015, and one of those addresses a high disc loading propeller in cross flow by vortex-lattice methods, approaching the keystone condition by a different route.

\[\frac{P_{\text{inst}}}{P_{\text{req}}} = \frac{5{,}300}{3{,}180} = 1.67 \tag{27}\]

The record allows one check on this. The propeller and transmission qualification schedule in the final report, written for the 13,660-pound aircraft, sets 860 horsepower at each propeller for take-off and hover, and dividing the ideal power by that total gives the figure of merit the schedule implies.

\[P_{\text{sched}} = 4 \times 860 = 3{,}440 \ \text{hp}, \qquad \text{FM}_{\text{sched}} = \frac{2{,}226}{3{,}440} = 0.647 \tag{28}\]

That is below the 0.70 assumed here, and well below the 0.80 the report says the designers expected when they chose the disc loading. A qualification schedule is a design load case and not a measurement, so this bounds the assumption without replacing it.

The Blade the Record Gives

Thrust scales with the square of tip speed, which is why a slow propeller must be wide.

\[T_1 = C_T \rho A_1 (\Omega R)^{2} \tag{29}\]

The X-19 did not hover at its cruise speed. The qualification schedule runs the propellers at 1,204 revolutions per minute for take-off and hover, 1,066 in transition and 957 in cruise, and the flight test summary in Volume II records the pilot changing propeller speed in flight at 50 to 60 knots from 98.5 to 88 percent of the power-turbine speed and back. The hover speed gives a tip speed of

\[\Omega R = \frac{2\pi (1{,}204)}{60} (6.5) = 819.5 \ \text{ft/s}, \qquad M_{\text{tip}} = \frac{819.5}{1{,}116.5} = 0.734 \tag{30}\]

which is the “approximately 820 feet per second” the report states for peak static thrust.

The report also gives the blade. Each propeller has three blades of NACA 64 sections, a blade area of 8.4 square feet and an activity factor of 168. Activity factor weights chord by the cube of radius,

\[\text{AF} = \frac{10^{5}}{16} \int_{0.15}^{1} \frac{c}{D} \, x^{3} \, dx \tag{31}\]

where $x$ is the fraction of tip radius, so a blade of constant chord with the same activity factor has the chord

\[c_{\text{AF}} = \frac{\text{AF} \, D}{\tfrac{10^{5}}{16} \cdot \tfrac{1 - 0.15^{4}}{4}} = \frac{(168)(13)}{1{,}561.7} = 1.398 \ \text{ft} \tag{32}\]

The blade area must be per blade. If 8.4 square feet were the whole propeller, each blade would average a chord of 0.431 feet and an activity factor of 51.7, which is a third of the stated 168. That reading is an inference from the two figures, since the table does not say. Spread over the radius, the area gives a mean chord and a solidity, where solidity is blade area over disc area.

\[\bar{c} = \frac{A_b}{R} = \frac{8.4}{6.5} = 1.292 \ \text{ft}, \qquad \sigma = \frac{B A_b}{\pi R^{2}} = \frac{(3)(8.4)}{132.73} = 0.190 \tag{33}\]

A mean chord of 15.5 inches on a 13-foot propeller. The ratio of chord to radius is 0.199, and the blade aspect ratio is that ratio inverted.

\[\text{AR}_b = \frac{R}{\bar{c}} = \frac{6.5}{1.292} = 5.03 \tag{34}\]

which is a wing rather than a blade.

Blade loading $C_T/\sigma$ governs rotor stall, and 0.14 is taken here as a reference limit for a heavily twisted blade. At the hover tip speed, with one quarter of the total thrust including download, the documented blade sits far below it.

\[C_T = \frac{T_1}{\rho A_1 (\Omega R)^2} = \frac{3{,}895}{(0.002377)(132.73)(819.5)^{2}} = 0.01838, \qquad \frac{C_T}{\sigma} = 0.097 \tag{35}\]

Had the propellers hovered at the 644.2 feet per second the cruise permits, the same thrust would need a thrust coefficient of 0.02975 and a blade loading of 0.157, beyond the limit, and holding the limit would need a chord of

\[c = \frac{\pi R}{B} \cdot \frac{C_T}{0.14} = \frac{\pi (6.5)}{3} \cdot \frac{0.02975}{0.14} = 1.446 \ \text{ft} \tag{36}\]

or 17.4 inches. The variable propeller speed spared the blade that requirement.

Stall on a heavily loaded rotor blade was measured and modelled repeatedly, and the solidity that follows from it is the classical design variable, in Saari and Sorin 1946, Delano 1947, Chawla 1952, Meyer and Falabella 1953, Hirsch 1954, Castles and Durham 1956, Bradley 1956, Liiva 1968, Fisher and McCroskey 1971, Bobo 1972, Gabel and Tarzanin 1972, Bellinger 1972, Crimi 1975, Borst 1978b, Gentry et al. 1991, Yamauchi and Johnson 1994.

One of those is the experiment this article’s argument needs. A wind-tunnel investigation of the effect of high solidity on propeller characteristics at high forward speed, Delano 1947, asks the question the X-19’s blade answers, and it was published in 1947, sixteen years before the aircraft flew.

The Wide Blade Was Chosen for Radial Force

Photographs of the X-19 show propellers of remarkable width, and the final report says why. Its propeller design section states that the blades were configured to generate high values of radial force while keeping efficiency high at take-off and cruise, that the diameter was fixed by the disc loading and every other feature by a compromise among cruise, take-off and radial lift, and that a narrower blade with a higher design lift coefficient was rejected because the radial force relation requires a large blade area. Three blades were chosen over four so that each could be wide and thick inboard while staying below 30 percent thickness, and two blades were rejected because they would generate very high vibratory loads at high shaft angles.

The width was therefore bought for the radial lift force, and the hover arithmetic above shows what it cost. At hover speed the blade is lightly loaded, with a blade loading of 0.097, which is consistent with the report’s stated aim of lightly loaded propellers turning slowly for low noise. Only hovering at the cruise speed would have demanded such a blade on its own, and the aircraft did not do that. Dunham and Gentry 1989 address this coupling, since blade chord enters the analysis as solidity and the normal force follows from it.

Feeding the documented blade back gives the projected side area and the recovery fraction.

\[S_f = \frac{2}{\pi} B A_b = \frac{2}{\pi}(3)(8.4) = 16.04 \ \text{ft}^2 \ \text{per propeller} \tag{37}\]

With a blade lift-curve slope of 4.358 per radian at aspect ratio 5.03, the recovery fraction is

\[k = \frac{(16.04)(4.358)}{2(132.73)} = 0.263 \tag{38}\]

The disc removes about 26 percent of the in-plane momentum that passes through it. The value is physically admissible, being safely below unity, and it was obtained from the documented geometry rather than chosen.

The assumption the keystone relation makes, that the normal force grows in proportion to the sine of the disc angle, was measured at full scale before the X-19 flew. Yaggy and Rogallo 1960 tested three full-scale propellers in the Ames 40 by 80 foot wind tunnel at shaft angles from 0 to 85 degrees, one of them a ten-foot Curtiss-Wright propeller designed to produce large normal forces, and found normal force, yawing moment and pitching moment nearly linear in shaft angle over large ranges at constant blade angle and effective advance ratio. The final report cites that measurement among its sources. Later work reports the effect of solidity and inclination on propeller-nacelle force coefficients, in Gentry et al. 1991, the same pairing this section derives by hand. A quantity this article obtains from a fin analogy and a projected area is a quantity somebody else measured.

How Much Lift the Propellers Supply

The final report gives the cruise speed as 325 knots at 15,000 feet, where its estimated lift-to-drag ratio of 7.1 is best for that altitude. The Jane’s-derived specification gives 347.6 knots, and the report’s figure is used. Dynamic pressure and the lift coefficient the aircraft must reach follow directly.

\[q = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho V^{2} = 225.0 \ \text{lb/ft}^{2}, \qquad C_L = \frac{W}{q S} = 0.393 \tag{39}\]

which is unremarkable, and corresponds to an attitude of 5.07 degrees before any interference is allowed for.

\[\alpha = \frac{C_L}{\bar{a}} = \frac{0.393}{4.434} = 0.0886 \ \text{rad} \tag{40}\]

Compare the lift slopes of the two contributors. For the wings, with $\bar{a} = 4.434$ per radian area-weighted across the two surfaces,

\[\frac{\partial L}{\partial \alpha} = q S \bar{a} = 154{,}238 \ \text{lb/rad} \tag{41}\]

and for the four propellers, from the keystone relation at small angle,

\[\frac{\partial N}{\partial \alpha} = 4 k \rho A_1 (V + v_i) V = 63{,}148 \ \text{lb/rad} \tag{42}\]

so the propellers supply

\[\frac{\partial N / \partial \alpha}{\partial N / \partial \alpha + \partial L / \partial \alpha} = 29.0\% \tag{43}\]

of the incidence-dependent lift, with the thrust set by a lift-to-drag ratio of 8. The figure moves by less than a tenth of a percentage point across lift-to-drag ratios from 7 to 10, because $v_i$ is about two feet per second at this speed and contributes almost nothing.

Curtiss-Wright’s claim survives the arithmetic. Roughly three tenths of the lift slope in cruise comes from the propellers. The final report’s design statement is that at the design cruise condition the propellers would generate at least 20 percent of the lift required, with the front propellers at a shaft angle of 2.8 degrees at 271 knots equivalent airspeed. The two figures measure different things, a share of the lift slope here and a share of the total lift there, so they agree in size without testing each other.

The mutual interference between a propeller and the surface behind it is the older half of the same subject, and it was worked continuously from the 1940s onward, in Katzoff 1940, Thoren and Johnson 1940, Purser and Spear 1946, Spreemann and Kuhn 1956, Kuhn 1957, Brenckmann 1958, Vidal et al. 1960, Kuhn and Grunwald 1961, Welge and Crowder 1978, Bencze et al. 1978, Rizk 1980b, Welge et al. 1981, Johnson and White 1983, Miley et al. 1985, Howard et al. 1985a, Miley et al. 1986, Howard and Miley 1989, Johnson et al. 1991, Applin et al. 1994, Gentry et al. 1994.

The X-19 sits at an unusual point in that literature. A tilt-wing or a deflected-slipstream aircraft wants the slipstream on the wing, and most of the work above is about arranging that. The X-19 wants lift from the disc itself and treats the slipstream over the wing as a secondary effect, which inverts the usual emphasis without leaving the field.

What That Bought, Computed Two Ways

The honest counterfactual is not to switch the radial lift force off and leave the wing unchanged, which describes no aircraft anyone would build. It is to hold the conversion speed fixed and ask how much wing would be needed without the propellers’ help.

The first route ignores drag and thrust entirely. The wing works at its stall angle, which is the maximum lift coefficient over the equivalent slope.

\[\alpha_{\text{stall}} = \frac{C_{L,\max}}{\bar{a}} = \frac{1.4}{4.434} = 0.3157 \ \text{rad} = 18.1^{\circ} \tag{44}\]

With the nacelles horizontal the propeller axis sits at that same angle to the flow, so the balance to solve is the wing at maximum lift plus the keystone relation evaluated at the stall angle.

\[W = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho V^{2} S C_{L,\max} + 4 k \rho A_1 \left( V \cos\alpha_{\text{stall}} + v_i \right) V \sin\alpha_{\text{stall}} \tag{45}\]

Both terms grow as $V^2$ apart from the small induced-velocity contribution, so the solution is close to a closed form and the speed falls to 115.8 knots, against 136.5 knots for the wing alone. Wing area scales with the square of that speed.

\[\frac{S_{\text{equiv}}}{S} = \left( \frac{V_{\text{without}}}{V_{\text{with}}} \right)^{2} = 1.391 \tag{46}\]

which puts the equivalent plain wing at 215.1 square feet and 63.5 pounds per square foot.

The second route reads the same quantity off the fully trimmed corridor derived below, where drag, thrust and induced velocity are all present, and gets 116.7 knots against 138.0 knots, an equivalent wing of 216.3 square feet at 63.2 pounds per square foot. The two routes differ by 0.6 percent, which is the useful part, since they share no machinery beyond the keystone relation itself.

The conclusion is quantitative. Without the radial lift force the X-19 would have needed a wing of roughly 215 square feet at about 63 pounds per square foot. The radial lift force accounts for the difference between 88 and 63.

The Conversion Corridor

Steady level flight at nacelle angle $i$ requires two equations rather than one. With the propeller axis at $i + \alpha$ to the flight path,

\[T \sin(i + \alpha) + N \cos(i + \alpha) + L \cos\alpha = W \tag{47}\]

The second is the horizontal balance along the flight path, where the radial lift force acts against the thrust rather than with it, because the force normal to a forward-tilted disc leans backward.

\[T \cos(i + \alpha) - N \sin(i + \alpha) - D = 0 \tag{48}\]

Thrust appears in both and is not free. Eliminating it by multiplying the first by $\cos(i+\alpha)$, the second by $\sin(i+\alpha)$ and subtracting leaves a condition on angle of attack alone.

\[\cos(i + \alpha) \left[ W - L \cos\alpha \right] - N - D \sin(i + \alpha) = 0 \tag{49}\]

The drag needed here is not available from the sources, so derive it from the quoted maximum speed rather than assume it. Drag is parasite plus induced, written with an equivalent flat-plate area $f$ so that the tiny reference wing does not distort the coefficient.

\[D = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho V^{2} \left( f + \frac{S C_L^{2}}{\pi e \, \text{AR}_{\text{eff}}} \right) \tag{50}\]

At maximum speed thrust equals drag, and thrust power is the shaft power the propellers convert.

\[D = \frac{\eta_p P_{\text{shaft}}}{V} = \frac{(0.80)(5{,}300)(550)}{675.1} = 3{,}454 \ \text{lb} \tag{51}\]

Of that, 277 pounds is induced, and the remainder inverts to the flat-plate area.

\[f = \frac{D - D_i}{q} = \frac{3{,}454 - 277}{288.6} = 11.01 \ \text{ft}^{2} \tag{52}\]

The induced part of that split is not a detail for an aircraft with two wings. Trim on a multi-surface aeroplane costs drag in a way a single wing does not, because the two surfaces can be loaded against each other, and that cost sits within a wider literature of induced, trim, parasite and installed drag, in Lockwood Taylor 1942, Payne 1958, Churchill and Harrington 1959, Milla and Blick 1966, Lundry 1967, Katz et al. 1980, Lottati 1984, Bennett 1984, Goodrich et al. 1989, Chiocchia and Pignataro 1995. One of those gives a closed-form trim solution minimising drag for aircraft with multiple longitudinal control surfaces, and another treats the induced drag reduction available from propeller and wing interaction directly.

Thrust available at any other speed is not this quantity divided by speed, which diverges at the hover. Momentum theory with the same power gives a form that stays finite at zero.

\[2 \rho A_1 v_i \left( V + v_i \right)^{2} = \frac{\eta_p P_{\text{shaft}}}{4}, \qquad T = 4 \cdot 2 \rho A_1 v_i \left( V + v_i \right) \tag{53}\]

A solution exists only where the angle of attack it demands is below the stall and the thrust it demands is below what the engines can deliver. Those two ceilings are the corridor, and at sea level they give the following.

Nacelle angle	Minimum	Maximum	Width
90 degrees	3.0 kt	57.5 kt	54.5 kt
80 degrees	3.0 kt	74.1 kt	71.1 kt
70 degrees	12.4 kt	85.9 kt	73.5 kt
60 degrees	52.7 kt	102.5 kt	49.8 kt
50 degrees	71.7 kt	119.1 kt	47.4 kt
40 degrees	83.5 kt	138.0 kt	54.5 kt
30 degrees	90.7 kt	166.5 kt	75.8 kt
20 degrees	100.1 kt	209.2 kt	109.0 kt
10 degrees	107.2 kt	270.8 kt	163.5 kt
0 degrees	116.7 kt	325.3 kt	208.6 kt

Continuity is a condition on consecutive rows rather than an impression from the table. A conversion can be flown at constant speed through a nacelle step only where the bands share a speed.

\[V_{\min}(i_{n+1}) \le V_{\max}(i_{n}) \quad \text{for every consecutive pair} \tag{54}\]

Every band satisfies it, so a continuous path from hover to cruise exists.

Transition and hover were computed and flown for most of the configurations of the period, together with the control and the criteria that bound a corridor of this kind, and the body of work is large, in Smith 1958a, Smith 1959, NASA Conference on V/STOL 1960, Conference on V/Stol Aircraft 1960, Conference on V/Stol Aircraft a Co, Tapscott 1960b, Anderson 1960a, Tapscott 1960a, Kirby 1961, A Preliminary Study 1961, Garren 1961b, Kelley 1962, Drinkwater and Rolls 1962, Drinkwater and Rolls 1963b, Ostheimer and Giguere 1963, Linnell 1963, Rolls 1965a, Garren et al. 1965, Hegarty et al. 1965, Garren and Kelly 1965, Hickey et al. 1966, Margason 1966, Scientific and Technical Information Division 1966, Fry et al. 1966a, Trenka 1967. The narrowest point is at 50 degrees of nacelle, 47.4 knots wide. The top speed at zero nacelle at sea level is 325 knots, which is consistent with the 400-knot figure quoted at 20,000 feet rather than in conflict with it.

A Result That Does Not Support the Sales Argument

Running the same corridor with the radial lift force removed produces something that has to be reported carefully, because it cuts against the argument the article has been building.

Nacelle angle	Minimum with	Minimum without
90 degrees	3.0 kt	3.0 kt
70 degrees	12.4 kt	59.8 kt
60 degrees	52.7 kt	107.2 kt
40 degrees	83.5 kt	126.2 kt
20 degrees	100.1 kt	133.3 kt
0 degrees	116.7 kt	138.0 kt

That corridor is also continuous. Without the radial lift force the aircraft still converts, at higher speeds and through narrower bands, but it converts. The radial lift force therefore does not make the X-19 possible. That would be the stronger claim, and a reader might have expected the article to reach it.

What it does is lower every boundary. Write the reduction as a difference between the two minimum speeds.

\[\Delta V(i) = V_{\min}^{\text{without}}(i) - V_{\min}^{\text{with}}(i) \tag{55}\]

That difference is 54.5 knots at 60 degrees of nacelle and 21.3 knots at zero, so the benefit is largest where the disc meets the flow most obliquely, as the keystone relation predicts through its $\sin\alpha_d$ factor. The small wing was bought with that reduction. Making a configuration possible and making it cheaper are different achievements, and the arithmetic supports only the second.

The conditions the aircraft flew sit in the part of the corridor the radial lift force opens. The flight test summary in the final report records a stabilised 80 knots at a nacelle angle of 65 degrees on Flight 49, and on Flight 50 a level run at 90 knots with the nacelles at 55 degrees, after which the speed varied between 95 and 105 knots. In the model, trim at both conditions exists with the radial lift force and does not exist without it, because the minimum speeds without it are 59.8 knots at 70 degrees, 107.2 knots at 60 degrees and 121.5 knots at 50 degrees. The model’s angles of attack at those two points are compared with the pilot’s estimates in the comparison section below. Within this model, the flight envelope the X-19 explored depended on the effect, even though a conversion flown faster at every nacelle angle could have done without it.

Dependent Systems

The Tandem Wing Costs Attitude

Two wings in line is not merely a way to divide area. The aft wing flies in the downwash of the forward one. The final report puts the two quarter-chord points 23 feet 4.1 inches apart, which is 2.39 forward semi-spans, so the far-field value is nearly reached. Write the downwash gradient with respect to aircraft attitude.

\[\frac{d\varepsilon}{d\alpha} = \frac{2 a_{\text{fwd}}}{\pi \text{AR}_{\text{fwd}}} = 0.444 \tag{56}\]

The aft wing therefore loses 44 percent of every degree of attitude the aircraft takes. Trim solves in closed form because the downwash is proportional to the same angle that produces it.

\[W = q \alpha \left[ S_f a_f + S_a a_a \left( 1 - \frac{d\varepsilon}{d\alpha} \right) \right] \tag{57}\]

Without the interference the cruise attitude would be 5.07 degrees. With it the attitude is 6.97 degrees, a penalty of 1.90 degrees, or 37.4 percent more attitude for the same lift. The downwash at the aft wing is 3.10 degrees at that condition.

The consequence shows up in the lift split, where the forward surface works at the full attitude and the aft surface at the attitude less the downwash.

\[L_f = q S_f a_f \alpha = 7{,}270 \ \text{lb}, \qquad L_a = q S_a a_a \left( \alpha - \varepsilon \right) = 6{,}390 \ \text{lb} \tag{58}\]

The penalty becomes concrete when the lift share is compared with the area share.

\[\frac{L_a}{L_f + L_a} = 46.8\% \quad \text{on} \quad \frac{S_a}{S} = 63.7\% \ \text{of the area} \tag{59}\]

The larger wing is the less effective one, which is the price of putting it second. The designers met the same downwash in their control layout. The final report records that the ailerons were first placed on the forward wing and moved to the aft wing once it was realised that a forward aileron’s added lift increases the downwash at the aft wing behind it and cancels much of its own rolling moment. Its assessment adds that the tandem layout cost at least 6 percent of hover lift, from a centre of gravity forward of the midpoint between the propeller stations and from the larger download under the rear propellers.

Interference between two lifting surfaces in line is a well-populated subject, though most of it arrives under the word canard rather than tandem, and it shades into the interference of propellers, ducts and jets with the surfaces near them, in Gebhard 1953, Kirby 1956, Driver 1958, Morse and Newhouse 1960, McKinney and Newsom 1962, Clark et al. 1963, Curtiss 1965b, Winston et al. 1975, Gloss and Washburn 1979, Feistel et al. 1981, Prabhu and Tiwari 1983, Keith and Selberg 1984, Phillips 1985b, Batina 1985, Rangwalla and Wilson 1987, Er-El 1988, Brown and Timmerman 1991, Craig et al. 1991.

Three of those are about this exact machine or its close relatives. Experimental research on four-duct tandem vertical take-off configurations in McKinney and Newsom 1962, an investigation of control and stability augmentation for tandem tilting ducted-propeller aircraft in Clark et al. 1963, and downwash tests of dual tandem ducted-propeller research aircraft in Curtiss 1965b all address a four-propulsor tandem layout. The ducts are the difference, and the longitudinal arrangement is not.

The Layout Supplies Pitch Control for Nothing

Here the tandem arrangement earns its keep, and the comparison with the previous article is direct.

The X-18 carried a turbojet in its tail for no purpose except pitch control in hover, because a tilt-wing with two propellers on one lateral axis has no way to generate a pitching moment at zero airspeed. The X-19 has four propellers at two longitudinal stations. Differential thrust between the stations is a pitching moment with no additional hardware whatever.

Shifting a fraction $f$ of total thrust from one station to the other raises each station by $fT/2$ and lowers the other by the same, so both arms of length $\ell/2$ contribute.

\[M = 2 \left( \tfrac{1}{2} f T \right) \frac{\ell}{2} = \tfrac{1}{2} f T \ell \tag{60}\]

The station separation is taken as the 23.34 feet between the wing quarter-chord points that the final report gives, because its assessment places the tilt centre near the one-third chord of each wing, so the two separations differ by a fraction of a foot. Ten percent differential then gives 18,185 foot-pounds.

The inertia it acts against does not have to be assumed. The final report lists the design hover control moments and the maximum angular accelerations they produce for a 12,300-pound aircraft, which are 27,000 foot-pounds and 0.68 radians per second squared in pitch, 20,000 and 1.75 in roll, and 5,600 and 0.12 in yaw. The quotient of each pair is the inertia the designers used.

\[I = \frac{M_{\max}}{\ddot{\theta}_{\max}} \quad \Longrightarrow \quad I_{yy} = \frac{27{,}000}{0.68} = 39{,}706, \quad I_{xx} = \frac{20{,}000}{1.75} = 11{,}429, \quad I_{zz} = \frac{5{,}600}{0.12} = 46{,}667 \ \text{slug ft}^{2} \tag{61}\]

These refer to the lighter weight, so they slightly understate the inertia at 13,660 pounds. Angular acceleration in pitch is the quotient of moment and inertia.

\[\ddot{\theta} = \frac{M}{I_{yy}} = \frac{18{,}185}{39{,}706} = 0.458 \ \text{rad/s}^{2} \tag{62}\]

At 30 percent it is 1.374 radians per second squared. The design maximum of 27,000 foot-pounds corresponds to a differential fraction of hovering thrust, at the design weight, of

\[f = \frac{2 M_{\max}}{W \ell} = \frac{2 (27{,}000)}{(12{,}300)(23.34)} = 0.188 \tag{63}\]

so the specified pitch authority asks for less than a fifth of the thrust to move between stations. That is ample authority obtained from geometry rather than from an engine.

Roll uses the same relation with the lateral arm in place of the half-station-separation, so the moment is the differential acting at the mean semi-span of 10.25 feet.

\[M_\phi = f T \, y = (0.10)(15{,}581)(10.25) = 15{,}970 \ \text{ft\,lb}, \qquad \ddot{\phi} = \frac{15{,}970}{11{,}429} = 1.397 \ \text{rad/s}^{2} \tag{64}\]

Roll is better still, because the arm is comparable and the inertia is less than a third of the pitch value. The final report records why the designers wanted it. Jet-lift VTOL experience, and NASA’s recommendation from the X-14A, pointed to roll accelerations of 1.5 to 1.8 radians per second squared at low speed, against the 1.14 of the original X-19 specification, so the maximum roll moment was raised to 20,000 foot-pounds. Later flight data showed that full roll control was needed to reach 35 knots of lateral velocity with the roll stability augmentation switched off.

Yaw Control Is Not Free

With all four nacelles vertical, yaw can come from torque reaction and from thrust acting through nacelles that are not quite vertical. The final report records both. The nacelles were toed in, and the propeller rotation, right-handed for propellers 2 and 4 and left-handed for 1 and 3, was chosen so that torque reaction adds to the yawing moment from thrust, which it credits with a 50 percent increase in hover yaw control power. The torque part can be estimated. Torque per propeller follows from hovering power and the hover rotational speed of 126.08 radians per second.

\[Q_1 = \frac{P_1}{\Omega} = \frac{795 \times 550}{126.08} = 3{,}468 \ \text{ft\,lb} \tag{65}\]

A differential of fraction $f$ between the two pairs of like rotation, two propellers each, leaves

\[Q_{\text{net}} = 4 f Q_1 \tag{66}\]

At 20 percent this is 2,774 foot-pounds, which is half of the documented 5,600, and it acts on the largest of the three inertias.

\[\ddot{\psi} = \frac{Q_{\text{net}}}{I_{zz}} = \frac{2{,}774}{46{,}667} = 0.0594 \ \text{rad/s}^{2} \tag{67}\]

The documented total is itself small. The design maximum of 0.12 radians per second squared is, by the final report’s account, low. It states that the hover control powers departed deliberately from the military helicopter handling specification MIL-H-8501A, that precise heading changes were difficult because the yaw time constant was about 14 seconds, giving acceleration control rather than rate control, and that the X-19’s hover yaw control would be unacceptable in an operational aircraft. It also notes that no problem in flight could be attributed to it, while noting that most testing was flown in calm air. The handling-qualities criteria of those years appear in Reeder 1958, Carlson 1958 and Slaughter 1958, with the earlier hovering analyses in Miller 1948 and Albachten 1956.

The criteria themselves were an active subject rather than a settled one while the X-19 was being built, and the body of work behind them is substantial, in Carpenter and Paulnock 1949, Kidd and Bull 1963, Ashkenas 1965b, Ashkenas 1965c, Hoffman 1969b, Hoffman 1969a, Hoffman 1969c, Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1969, McCormick 1969, Hoffman et al. 1970, Aiken et al. 1977, Corliss et al. 1977, Smith 1977, Gerken 1979, Goldstein 1982, Helicopter Handling Qualities 1982, Corless and Blanken 1983.

Differential tilt was proposed and never fitted. Among the remedies the final report lists, differential fore and aft tilting of the left and right propellers is the one it calls feasible and the only one that would meet the yaw requirement of the Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and Development’s report 408, and it adds that none of the remedies had been made when the project ended. The report’s assessment attributes most of the aircraft’s lateral-directional stability and control deficiencies in forward flight to a different cause, the large dihedral effect of a tall vertical tail whose short moment arm forced its size.

What the Cross-Shaft Cost

The X-18 had two engines that were not interconnected, and losing one meant losing the aircraft. That is the defect the X-19’s designers had in front of them, and they fixed it. The final report states that the shafting of the transmission interconnects all four propellers to the two engines and that either engine can supply flight power to all four, so an engine failure is a power reduction rather than an asymmetry.

The magnitude of what the fix prevents is easy to state. Losing both propellers on one side leaves a rolling moment of

\[M_{\text{upset}} = \frac{T}{2} \times 10.25 = 79{,}851 \ \text{ft\,lb} \tag{68}\]

Divide it by the design maximum roll moment of 20,000 foot-pounds.

\[\frac{M_{\text{upset}}}{M_{\phi,\max}} = \frac{79{,}851}{20{,}000} = 3.99 \tag{69}\]

The upset is four times full roll control. Without the interconnect it is unrecoverable, so the cross-shaft is not a refinement. Losing a single propeller, which no shaft can prevent, is half of that, $39{,}925$ foot-pounds or twice full roll control, and the final flight described below is that case.

The cost is transmission. With one engine dead the survivor drives the far pair through the shaft, which is half the hovering power, or 1,590 horsepower. Torque depends on where in the drive train the shaft runs.

\[Q = \frac{P}{\Omega} \tag{70}\]

At 6,000 revolutions per minute that is 1,392 foot-pounds, at 3,000 it is 2,783, and at the hover propeller speed of 1,204 it is 6,935 foot-pounds. Shafts therefore run fast and every propeller needs its own reduction gearing, which is why the drive system is the large item. The rotorcraft transmission literature that followed treats these components, their weight, life, noise, failure and overhaul among them, in Leishman 1966, Laskin et al. 1968, Badgley and Laskin 1970, Hayden and Keller 1974, Battles 1975, Townsend et al. 1976, Korzun 1976, Mancini 1983, White 1985, Coy et al. 1988c, Mitchell 1991, Savage and Lewicki 1991, Krantz 1994a, Henry 1995, Dempsey et al. 2013.

The shape of that literature is itself an argument. It is dominated by helicopter transmissions, by failure analysis, by split-torque arrangements and by overhaul economics, the profile of a field that has accepted that the drive system is the hard part. The final report’s assessment says the same of the X-19 at first hand. The transmission was first designed for a 10,000-pound aircraft, the torque requirement grew with the weight and the control inertias, and the designers had to uprate it inside the original envelope. That forced a finite-life design built on a hover time-torque histogram, with the governor limiting any throttle input to 20 percent, where helicopter practice designs for full throttle torque at infinite life. The report calls the philosophy the subject of many heated discussions, and records that experience demonstrated in a dramatic fashion that the minimum requirement is to design for the maximum torque the throttle can impose, because full throttle is an instinctive pilot reaction.

The drive system’s design was contested, but the record does not make it the cause of the loss. The part that failed on the last flight was the housing that carried a propeller on its nacelle gearbox, and the loads that broke it were generated by the propeller.

The Propellers Themselves

On disc loading the tilt-propeller beats the tilt-wing outright.

\[\frac{W}{A} = \frac{13{,}660}{530.93} = 25.7 \ \text{lb/ft}^2 \tag{71}\]

against 82.1 for the X-18. The figure was chosen rather than inherited. The final report explains that a thrust-to-power ratio near 6.0 pounds per horsepower with a figure of merit of 0.80 gives a disc loading of 25 pounds per square foot, that this set the X-100’s ten-foot propellers, and that the X-19 kept the loading, which fixed its diameter at 13 feet. Four thirteen-foot propellers present a great deal more disc than two sixteen-foot ones, and the penalty for disc loading is explicit once the induced velocity is substituted into the ideal power.

\[\frac{P_{\text{ideal}}}{W} = v_i = \sqrt{\frac{1}{2\rho} \cdot \frac{W}{A}} \tag{72}\]

Induced power per pound scales with the square root of disc loading, so the X-19 pays $\sqrt{25.7/82.1} = 0.56$ of what the X-18 pays for every pound it holds up. Power loading follows.

\[\frac{W}{P_{\text{req}}} = \frac{13{,}660}{3{,}180} = 4.30 \ \text{lb/hp} \tag{73}\]

Pitch control of the blades is the mechanism every axis depends on, and the final report records redundant dual-piston pitch-change actuators for that reason. Static thrust estimation is treated in Coward 1955 and Brusse and Cronk 1965.

The Flight Test Record

The X-19 first hovered on 20 November 1963, a date Vertipedia and the Smithsonian both give, and it was lost on 25 August 1965. The final report gives 50 flights and a total flight time of 3 hours 45 minutes, all on the first airframe, serial 62-12197, with 84 lift-offs, and it adds 134 hours of ground running and tie-down tests across both airframes. The figure of four hours in the secondary accounts appears to be that total rounded. Flights 1 to 7 were flown under an earlier contract, and the report gives 3 hours 44 minutes for Flights 8 to 50 in one place and 3 hours 38 minutes in another, so its accounting of the contract time is not internally consistent. The total is used here.

Those two numbers deserve to be set against each other.

\[\frac{225}{50} = 4.5 \ \text{minutes per flight} \tag{74}\]

Over the 644 days between first hover on 20 November 1963 and loss on 25 August 1965 the calendar rate is as thin as the airborne one.

\[\frac{644}{50} = 12.9 \ \text{days per flight}, \qquad \frac{3.75}{644/30.44} = 0.177 \ \text{flight hours per month} \tag{75}\]

A programme averaging under eleven minutes of flight per calendar month is not a flight test programme in any ordinary sense.

The programme moved in distinct phases, and the final report sets them out. Flights 8 to 19, 70 minutes and 25 lift-offs, developed the pilot’s hovering ability without stability augmentation, including spot turns, translation in every direction and hovering at 5 to 25 feet to find the ground effect. From Flight 20 the stability augmentation was switched on and evaluated. Every flight before Flight 38 was made at the Caldwell-Wright Airport in Caldwell, New Jersey, together with the first 262 ground runs. The programme then moved to the Federal Aviation Agency’s National Aviation Facilities Experimental Center at Pomona, New Jersey, for its 10,000-foot runway and adjoining airspace, and a company co-pilot joined the crew. There, Flights 40 to 43 were conversion runs along the runway that advanced the speed from 20 knots at a nacelle angle of 90 degrees to 62 knots at 82 degrees. Flight 44 made short take-offs and landings at 20 to 60 knots. Flights 45 to 49 took off at 60 knots with the nacelles at 77 degrees and tilted further in flight to reach 70 and then 80 knots, with coordinated turns at 60 knots, and Flight 49 held a stabilised 80 knots at a nacelle angle of 65 degrees.

The X-19 never completed a conversion. The report’s summary states that the conversion envelope had been extended to 100 knots with the nacelles tilted to 45 degrees, and that every flight lay within the Flight Capability Demonstration, whose purpose was sustained hover followed by gradually increasing tilt toward cruise. The aircraft never flew with its nacelles down and its wings carrying it, which the report puts at 160 knots, so it never demonstrated the regime the configuration existed to provide. Every number about cruise in the sizing section above describes a regime the aircraft did not reach.

The Final Flight

The final report chronicles Flight 50 at length, quoting the account it supplied to the Air Force accident board. The flight was planned to extend the conversion to 90 and 100 knots on an airfield circuit. After a 60-knot short take-off with the nacelles at 77 degrees, the pilot lowered them to 65 degrees to accelerate to 80 knots and climbed to 1,000 feet. At the top of the climb the nacelles were brought to 55 degrees and the aircraft reached 90 knots, with the pilot estimating an angle of attack of 10 degrees and the stick 85 to 90 percent forward. Uncomfortable with that, he returned the nacelles to 63 degrees, at about 7 degrees angle of attack, and on the downwind leg the aircraft held between 1,000 and 1,300 feet and 95 to 105 knots under good control.

Temperature warning lights ended the flight. Power was reduced at 105 knots and 1,100 feet, and the aircraft descended in a tightening right turn that missed the runway. At about 60 feet and 85 knots, descending at 1,100 to 1,200 feet per minute, the co-pilot applied nearly full power. The aircraft rotated 10 to 15 degrees, climbed at up to 1,400 feet per minute, accelerated to 120 knots, and the propeller speed rose to about 103 percent before the fuel governor held it. The aircraft levelled at 400 feet with the right turn continuing, and three to four seconds after the top of the turn the No. 2 propeller left the aircraft. It rolled left and pitched up, the No. 1 propeller followed after about 40 degrees of roll, and the remaining two were torn off by the rate of rotation. At a roll angle of 200 to 210 degrees, at about 400 feet and 120 knots, both pilots ejected almost together. Their parachutes opened at about 250 feet, and they landed with minor injuries, about 500 feet from where the airframe struck a dried reservoir bed inside the airport boundary and burned.

The failure was structural, and the loads that caused it came from the propeller. The report’s propeller section names the failed part as the propeller housing, a ribbed casting of AZ92A magnesium that carried the propeller on the nacelle gearbox housing. It states that the housing could not carry the vibratory propeller loads at twice the rotational frequency that the flight testing imposed, and that the investigation found three causes acting together. Strain-gauge data from Flights 32 to 50 showed that during conversion flying the vibratory load at twice propeller frequency was as large as the steady once-per-revolution load, considerably higher than the original design criteria anticipated. The emergency manoeuvre just before the failure produced steady loads well above design values. And the actual stress gradient at the rib transition was twice the value in the analysis, with sand pits in the rib tips adding to the stress concentration. The housing was redesigned and static tested before the contract ended.

The secondary accounts call this a gearbox or transmission failure, the Smithsonian adding pilot error and Vertipedia a transmission part. The record is more specific. The part that broke was the structure joining the propeller to the drive, not a gear, and the load that broke it was the propeller’s own response to oblique flow. The steady once-per-revolution load is the shaft moment that the report derives alongside the normal force, from the same asymmetric blade loading that produces the radial lift force, the keystone of this article. The report states that the higher harmonics cannot be calculated with any reliable accuracy by the methods of the day, that flight test was relied on to find them, and that they may become significant in transition and are then controlling loads for the propeller, the nacelle housings and the tilt mechanism. The aircraft was lost in the regime it existed to explore, to a load its designers could not compute.

The flight also tested the emergency logic the cross-shaft section set out. Losing one propeller leaves a rolling moment twice the design maximum roll control, and the record shows the aircraft rolling and pitching at once and shedding the other propellers as the rate built.

A ballistic airframe has a fixed time budget. From the 400 feet of the ejection,

\[t = \sqrt{\frac{2h}{g}} = \sqrt{\frac{2(400)}{32.174}} = 4.99 \ \text{s} \tag{76}\]

and a body starting with no vertical velocity takes

\[t_{150} = \sqrt{\frac{2(400 - 250)}{32.174}} = 3.05 \ \text{s} \tag{77}\]

to fall the 150 feet to the height at which the parachutes opened. The report gives no timings, so the interval cannot be checked against it. At a roll angle of 200 to 210 degrees the aircraft was 20 to 30 degrees past inverted, which implies that the seats fired the crew partly toward the ground, and the seats and the parachutes had the 150 feet between ejection and canopy to work with.

The seat is the reason there is anything to reconstruct. Escape at low altitude from an uncontrolled attitude was the hardest case an ejection seat had to meet, and the seat was designed and tested at length, in Watts et al. 1947, Hodell and Rosner 1957, Latham 1957, Manzuk 1970, Gross and Mawhinney 1970, Stech 1977, Budd CO Fort Washington PA Technical Center 1978, Howland 1979, Hawker and Payne 1979, Chiang 1980, Pauer 2018.

Two of those predate the X-19’s flights by only a few years. Rocket-track ejection testing at Edwards in Hodell and Rosner 1957 and a study of seat ejection treated as body ballistics in Latham 1957 both date from 1957, six years before the X-19 first flew. An ejection 20 to 30 degrees past inverted at 400 feet is a case that none of those titles names, a more accurate statement of what happened than calling it routine.

The programme was cancelled four months later. The report records that the second airframe, serial 62-12198, had been reassigned from structural testing to carry on the flight programme and had completed its transmission runs and preflight tests, but never flew. It survives in storage, recorded by National Museum of the United States Air Force, Curtiss-Wright X-19 and Vertipedia, Curtiss-Wright X-19.

Comparison With Ground Prediction

There is no flight data from cruise or from completed conversion, because the aircraft never reached either. There is, however, a small amount of data from the first half of the conversion, and the final report records it with the company’s predictions beside it. On Flight 50 the pilot estimated an angle of attack of 7 degrees at 80 knots with the nacelles at 65 degrees, and 10 degrees at 90 knots with the nacelles at 55 degrees, and the report states that its calculated steady condition at 55 degrees of tilt was 90 knots at 10 degrees. The trimmed model of the corridor section gives, at the same nacelle angles and speeds and at the 13,660-pound weight,

\[\alpha_{\text{model}}(65^{\circ}, 80 \ \text{kt}) = 4.9^{\circ}, \qquad \alpha_{\text{model}}(55^{\circ}, 90 \ \text{kt}) = 8.0^{\circ} \tag{78}\]

which is about 2 degrees below both the pilot’s estimates and the company’s calculation. The report also gives the design point at which the nacelles lock down, 160 knots at 13.5 degrees angle of attack and 13,660 pounds. With the nacelles at zero the model gives 9.3 degrees with the radial lift force and 13.1 degrees without it, and the wing alone gives

\[\alpha = \frac{W}{q S \bar{a}} = \frac{13{,}660}{(86.67)(154.6)(4.434)} = 0.2299 \ \text{rad} = 13.2^{\circ} \tag{79}\]

so the company’s design figure sits closer to the model without the effect than with it. Two explanations are open. The model’s recovery fraction may overstate the radial lift force at small shaft angles, or the angles may be measured from different references, since the report gives the forward and aft wing zero-lift lines at 2.3 and 0.9 degrees to the fuselage reference line without a convention this comparison can apply. The record does not separate the two, and the article’s cruise and conversion figures carry that uncertainty.

The company’s own theory was validated where the model is weakest. The final report’s radial force section states that its strip theory agreed closely with tests of the X-100 propeller, with the largest difference, 10 to 15 percent above measurement, at a shaft angle of 15 degrees, and that the theory is accurate only to shaft angles of about 30 to 45 degrees, above which the company used test data for performance, loads and stability. The full-scale tunnel measurements of Yaggy and Rogallo 1960 supply such data to 85 degrees.

What also exists is the X-100, which transitioned once on 13 April 1960 and which Curtiss-Wright regarded as proof. Its assessment states that the X-100 tests showed the propellers generating large radial force that could replace wing area in transition, on an aircraft whose wing loading made radial lift an important part of the total. It does not establish anything quantitative about the X-19, which was heavier and differently proportioned.

The wind tunnel record for adjacent configurations is comparatively rich. Tilt-wing and four-propeller models appear in Grunwald 1961a, Newsom and Tosti 1959, Tosti 1962 and Winston and Huston 1962, slipstream effects on performance and stability in Goland et al. 1964 and Butler et al. 1966, and a tandem-wing configuration in ground effect in Harry and Trobaugh 1966. None of it is the X-19, and the two flight points above are the only measurements that bear on this airframe’s aerodynamics in conversion.

What the Data Changed

Very little, and for more than one reason.

The radial lift force did not enter subsequent practice as a sizing principle. No later production aircraft is known to have been given a wing sized on the assumption that its propellers would carry three tenths of the lift slope. The tiltrotor line that eventually reached service in the V-22 took the opposite approach, using large rotors and a conventional wing.

The tandem-wing arrangement did not propagate either, though it was studied afterward and the canard interference literature of the 1970s, Gloss and McKinney 1973, Gloss 1974b, Gloss 1975, Gloss and Washburn 1977b and Gloss et al. 1978, covers the same physics in a different application.

What the final report offers as lessons are about loads and drives rather than lift. Its propeller section concludes that the vibratory harmonics of a propeller in transition dynamically couple it to the airframe and are controlling design loads for the propeller, the nacelle housings and the tilt mechanism, which no method of the day could compute and which only flight measurement could find. Its assessment concludes that a VTOL transmission should be designed for the full torque a throttle can impose and for weight growth, and that the nacelle system should be designed for infinite life at the largest combined control deflection. Each of those is a statement the last flight made at the cost of the airframe. Two other tilting aircraft of the period, the tri-service XC-142 and the Navy’s X-22, also carried interconnected drives.

The most useful thing the X-19 changed may be the sharpest and the least flattering. A programme that flies under four hours in twenty-one months is not testing an aircraft.

The Contemporary Literature

Cluster	Records
Propeller aerodynamics, blades, solidity and stall	1,457
Structural dynamics, vibratory loads and whirl flutter	795
Hover, download, disc loading and ground effect	777
Handling qualities, control power and the criteria	685
Tilt-rotor, tilt-wing and the convertible configurations	678
Stability, control and flight dynamics	604
Propeller and wing interference and the slipstream	567
Sizing and configuration design of vertical take-off aircraft	446
Tandem wings, canards, downwash and trim	419
Transmissions, gears and the drive system	356
Computational methods, wind tunnel testing and flight test	345
Electric propulsion, motors and energy	329
High-speed propellers, compressibility and the propfan	285
Certification, urban air mobility and the vertiport	272
Transition, conversion and the corridor	267
Ejection and crew escape	214
Noise of propellers, rotors and vertical take-off aircraft	207
Fault tolerance, redundancy and control allocation	207
Propellers in yaw, at incidence and in non-axial flow	173
Vertical take-off programmes, applications and the state of the art	164
Helicopter rotors in forward flight, wakes and hubs	112
Power effects on stability and the propeller as a fin	88
Jet lift, lift fans and jet-induced effects	84
Engines, turboshafts and propulsion systems	76
Short take-off, powered lift and high lift	36
The X-19, the XC-142 and the X-22	29
Other aeronautical literature	5
Total	9,677

The X-18 article that precedes this one closed on a configuration that came back because the constraint that killed it dissolved. This article cannot make that claim and should not try to.

The X-19’s keystone was never wrong. A propeller meeting the flow obliquely develops a force normal to its axis, it did so in 1963, and it does so now. Nothing dissolved it and nothing needed to. What changed is the thing that destroyed the aircraft, and the change there is more radical than anything that happened to the aerodynamics.

The survey below follows the order of the analysis above, so that each modern field can be set against the quantity it addresses.

The Keystone Became a Routine Term

The modern literature on the propeller at incidence is large, and very little of it names the force this aircraft was built on. Of the 173 records below on propellers in yaw, at incidence and in non-axial flow, 97 date from 2015 or later, measuring and modelling propellers in edgewise, oblique and high-incidence flow, often for electric vertical take-off aircraft, as in Stokkermans and Veldhuis 2021 and Patience and Nahon 2024. Only seven titles in the whole survey name the force normal to a propeller’s axis under any of its names, as the Source Base sets out under Thin Subjects.

That is not neglect. It is the signature of a solved problem. A simplified model for propeller thrust in oblique flow, and a treatment of propeller performance at large angle of attack for compound helicopters, are the forms the subject now takes, a term to be included in a simulation and not a question to be settled.

Curtiss-Wright’s claim about the steady force was correct and is now uncontroversial. The company’s misfortune was that the same oblique flow also produced unsteady loads that it could not compute and that broke the aircraft.

The Configuration Is Common Now

The X-19’s arrangement, several propellers at more than one longitudinal station with a small wing, is no longer unusual. It is close to a description of much of the current electric vertical take-off field, in Burton et al. 2026, Chaohui et al. 2026, Choi et al. 2026a, Critchfield and Ning 2026, Hong et al. 2025, Hou et al. 2026b, Jokar and Khoshnood 2026, Kim et al. 2026a, Liang et al. 2026, May et al. 2026a, Min et al. 2026b, Shubert et al. 2026, Spadão et al. 2026, Wang et al. 2026f, Xue et al. 2026a, Yanev and Staack 2026.

Tilt-wing, tilt-rotor, lift-plus-cruise and compound layouts are all represented, and several address problems that this article works by hand, including rotor sizing for tilt-wing vehicles, the aerodynamics of a compound tilt-wing during tilt transition, and the effect of a failure during a backward transition.

The Corridor Is an Optimisation Problem

The corridor above is computed at ten nacelle angles, and its continuity is read off a table. The modern treatment optimises a trajectory through it under constraints, in Shimizu and Miwa 2019b, Wang et al. 2019g, Sakai and Abiko 2020, Chen 2023, Gupta et al. 2023, Kulhánek et al. 2023, Hsu et al. 2024, Li et al. 2024h, Zanotti et al. 2024a, Xiang et al. 2025, Yang et al. 2025a, Zhu et al. 2025a, Lee et al. 2026b, Setiawarman and Sasongko 2026.

The shape of the answer is unchanged and the method is unrecognisable. A conversion schedule is now the output of a constrained optimisation rather than a line on a pilot’s card, and the constraints include quantities the X-19’s designers never had to write down.

Wing Loading and Disc Loading Are Still the Trade

The X-19 pushed wing loading to 88 pounds per square foot to buy speed and paid for it with a conversion that could not complete below 117 knots. The same trade is made now with different variables, in Alfares 2026, Bosch et al. 2025, Gholamian and Beik 2026, Hu et al. 2026b, Jiao and Yang 2026, Lee and Kim 2026, Li et al. 2026f, Makeev 2026a, Park and Park 2026, Qiao and Zhou 2026, Cui et al. 2027.

What has changed is which quantity binds. The X-19 was limited by installed power and by the conversion speed its wing permitted. A battery-powered vehicle is limited by stored energy, which inverts the sizing problem, and the disc loading that once determined hover power now determines how long the vehicle can hover at all.

Blades, Solidity and the Advance Ratio

The wide blade the X-19 carried for radial force, on a propeller that had to change speed between hover and cruise, is a design problem the field still has, in Bacchini et al. 2021, Baek et al. 2021, Fan et al. 2021, Kovačević et al. 2021, Maung et al. 2021, Wang et al. 2022a, Jardin et al. 2023, Nozaki et al. 2023, Sinha 2025, Goyal et al. 2025b, Liu et al. 2025c, Shao et al. 2025b, Yu et al. 2026f.

The X-19’s particular version of it has eased. Each of its propellers had to hover a quarter of the aircraft at 1,204 revolutions per minute and cruise toward 400 knots at 957, a speed ratio of $1{,}204/957 = 1.26$. Distributing lift across more, smaller rotors relaxes both ends of that requirement, and a vehicle that does not attempt 400 knots relaxes the tip-speed cap that the cruise imposed.

The Drive Was Deleted and the Propeller Loads Were Not

This section matters most, because here the X-19 differs from every other aircraft in this series so far.

The X-19’s drive existed because two engines had to drive four propellers, which requires an interconnected transmission with cross-shafts and gearing at every nacelle. The torque that shaft carries is computed above, and the interconnection was not optional, since losing one side is four times full roll control, and the final report records that the transmission design philosophy was the subject of many heated discussions.

Electric propulsion does not improve that transmission. It removes it. Each rotor takes its own motor, there is no cross-shaft, there is no combining gearbox, and there is no propeller reduction box to fail. The literature reflects the change, in Bai and Zhou 2023, Lee et al. 2024a, Lee and Yee 2024, Li et al. 2024g, Chen et al. 2025d, Machado et al. 2025, Nguyen et al. 2025, Ni and Lee 2025, Shang et al. 2025, Yu et al. 2025a, Böhnisch et al. 2026, Granata et al. 2026, Koshel et al. 2026.

That removes the component whose design the X-19’s designers argued over, but not the one that failed. The housing that broke carried a propeller, and it broke under the vibratory loads of that propeller in oblique flow. A tilting propeller on an electric aircraft still meets oblique flow in conversion, and the steady and vibratory hub loads that come with it still have to reach the airframe through a nacelle structure. That last point follows from the physics, not from the papers above. The outcome differs from the one the X-18 article described. The X-18’s keystone was dissolved by a technology that made its central quantity irrelevant. The X-19’s keystone survives untouched, its drive was designed out, and the loads that destroyed it are now computed rather than discovered in flight.

Redundancy Replaced Mechanical Interconnection

Removing the cross-shaft removes what the cross-shaft was for. The X-19 needed mechanical interconnection because an engine failure would otherwise be an unrecoverable rolling moment. With enough independent motors the same failure is a control-allocation problem, in Antonakis and Biannic 2024, Du et al. 2024, Kang et al. 2023a, Mabboux et al. 2024, Zhao et al. 2024a, Atmaca et al. 2025, Hung and Dai 2025, Jing and Ma 2025, Ruggia 2025, Choi and Suk 2026, Han and Pei 2026, Strampe and Klingauf 2026.

The engine-out case stopped being a mechanical problem and became a software one. The change is in the kind of engineering required, not in its difficulty. The one engine inoperative case is still studied, still hard, and no longer solved with a shaft.

Handling Qualities Became Criteria

The hover yaw authority that the final report calls unacceptable for an operational aircraft would today be measured against a published criterion rather than against judgement, in Biernacki and Lewkowicz 2024, Deng et al. 2024, Ducard and Carughi 2024, He et al. 2024, Antonakis 2025, Saetti 2025, Yan et al. 2025b, Yang 2025, Yang et al. 2025d, Cavalcanti et al. 2026, Ioannis and Ioannis 2026, Janetzko et al. 2026, Kang et al. 2026b.

Simplified vehicle operations, meaning low workload and minimum required pilot training, is now a design objective, as in Lombaerts et al. 2020a, which would have been an extraordinary claim while the X-19 was being flown four or five minutes at a time by test pilots.

Certification Has Become the Constraint

This is the largest single difference between the X-19’s world and the present. A 1963 research aircraft needed to fly. A modern powered-lift aircraft needs to fly, to be certified against a category that had to be invented for it, and to operate in shared airspace, in Dudziak et al. 2020, Feng 2022, Schweiger and Preis 2022, Takacs and Haidegger 2022, Zhou 2022, Kim et al. 2023c, Park et al. 2023, Dong et al. 2024, Zhang and Zhou 2024, Farooqui 2025, Lee and Ko 2025, Laplante et al. 2026, Park 2026a.

The X-19 was destroyed by a propeller housing and cancelled four months later. Its descendants must also satisfy means-of-compliance documents written for their category, which the European Union Aviation Safety Agency was still issuing in 2025, and an article treating only the aerodynamics would miss where the difficulty now lies.

Noise Is a Constraint the X-19 Never Faced

A 1963 military testbed answered to no noise requirement beyond the quiet, lightly loaded propellers that the final report records among Curtiss-Wright’s design objectives. A vehicle intended to operate from a city rooftop has one that may bind before any aerodynamic limit does, in Araghizadeh et al. 2025, Bauer 2025, Bergmann et al. 2025, Boucher 2025, Gandhi et al. 2026, Georgiou et al. 2026, Hummel et al. 2026, Marques et al. 2026, Page et al. 2026, Pascioni et al. 2026, Rizzi et al. 2026a, Tinney and Valdez 2026, Voropayev et al. 2026b.

This is a new constraint rather than an old one made stricter, and it interacts directly with the quantity this article derives. Tip speed was capped here by cruise Mach number in cruise and raised for hover. It is capped now by community noise, which bears hardest on hover, the condition in which the X-19 ran its propellers fastest.

Ground Effect, Download and the Vertiport

The download of 14.1 percent of gross weight found in the hover section is a wing-area penalty, and the outwash it implies is now an infrastructure question, in García Crespillo et al. 2024, Guo et al. 2025a, Guo et al. 2025b, Jung et al. 2025, Li et al. 2025k, Zhang and Hwang 2025, Zhao et al. 2025g, Li et al. 2026k, Lyu and Feng 2026, Mirković et al. 2026, Nagrare and Lieb 2026, Park and Kim 2026.

A vehicle at 26 pounds per square foot of disc loading needs a prepared surface, and the modern field calls that a vertiport and writes design specifications for it, as in European Union Aviation Safety Agency 2022, which is the same requirement with a name and a standard attached.

Methods, Autonomy and What Replaced the Wind Tunnel

The interference this article estimates with a downwash gradient and a contraction factor is now simulated directly, in Dabaghian et al. 2025, Lopez and Biancolini 2025, Sadiq Ali Mir et al. 2025, Sastre et al. 2025, Wang et al. 2025a, Yan and Shi 2025, Cai et al. 2026, Claro et al. 2026, Qin 2026, Shen et al. 2026a, Zhang et al. 2026d.

The 0.444 downwash gradient that costs this aircraft 1.90 degrees of attitude is not a quantity a modern analysis would need to approximate. It would be resolved, and so would the propeller-wing interference that sits behind the keystone.

What the Survey Shows

Three things, of which the third matters most.

The aerodynamics were right. The radial lift force is real, is still used, and is no longer argued about.

The configuration was reasonable. Multiple propellers at two longitudinal stations with a small wing describes a large fraction of the current field.

The loads were the problem, and they are now a computed quantity. The X-19 was lost to a vibratory propeller load in conversion that its designers could not calculate and found only in flight, while its transmission, the part whose design was argued over, is not what failed. Electric motors abolished the transmission, and modern methods resolve the interference flow from which such loads arise. An aircraft can be correct in the argument it makes about the steady force and still be destroyed by the unsteady one.

Propeller aerodynamics, blades, solidity and stall

The propeller and the rotor as blades. Propeller and rotor blade aerodynamics and design, solidity, twist, blade stall, sections for rotating blades, advance ratio and performance, together with propeller titles that no more specific cluster claims. 274 of its 1,457 titles name a rotor.

1,457 records. [A “New Type Adjustable-Pitch 2017] [A Propeller 2017] [Senthil Athiban et al. 2017] [Acree et al. 2019] [Adamson 1968] [adebimpe 2023] [Adnan Fadilah and Furqon Era 2018] [Aerodynamic Design of Low-Speed 1986] [Aerodynamics and Acoustics 1993] [Aerodynamics of Propellers 2007] [Aerodynamics of Propellers 2018] [Systems et al. 2025] [Nurachmat et al. 2023] [Ahmad et al. 2021] [Ahmad et al. 2023] [Ahmed et al. 2025] [Ahn and Lee 2013] [Akila et al. 2018] [Al-Jaburi] [Al-Sa’D 2023] [Albert et al. 2013] [Alfiannor et al. 2022] [Algozino et al. 2016] [Christy et al] [de Almeida et al. 2016] [Althaus et al. 2007] [Althoff et al. 2012] [Altmikus and Knutzen 2007] [Alì et al. 2026] [Amer 1990] [Amer et al. 1966] [Amiet 1976] [Amin et al. 2018a] [Amin et al. 2018b] [Amit Kumar Mehar 2020] [An et al. 2020] [An et al. 2026] [Anand et al. 2023] [Anantha et al. 2026] [Patterson et al. 2020] [Patterson et al] [Patterson et al] [Andrews 1941] [Appendix E Derivation 1999] [Appendix L 2002] [Arafat et al. 2024a] [Arafat et al. 2024b] [Arai et al. 2003] [Army Service Forces Washington Dc 1940] [Wiedemann et al] [Asghar et al. 2018] [Ash et al. 2000] [Ashwill 2010] [Atlam and Kolhe 2013] [Attachment of a Rotor 1991] [Aziz and Mukherjee 2011] [Ba and Zong 2025] [Saheb et al. 2024] [Baek et al. 2015] [Baek et al. 2021] [Bagherzadeh and Salehi 2021] [Bahgat 1965] [Bailey] [Bain et al. 2021] [Baker 1938] [Balachandran et al. 2020] [Balakrishna et al. 2023] [Bangalee et al. 2025] [Barara et al. 2024] [Barber 1983] [Barnes 1999] [Barshai 1970] [Barton and Mixson 1981] [Baskaran et al. 2023] [Battelle Memorial Inst Columbus Oh 1959] [Battey and Russell 2020] [Bauer et al. 2016] [Baumeister and Eversman 1987] [Bazzana et al. 2024] [Becker et al] [Beek 1978] [Behbahani et al. 2011] [Bell Aerospace Co Buffalo Ny 1956a] [Bell Aerospace Co Buffalo Ny 1956b] [Bell Aerospace Co Buffalo Ny 1956c] [Bellinger 1971] [Bellinger 1972] [Benjamin 2023] [Bennett 1984] [Benson 1938] [Bergmann et al. 2021] [Bergmann et al. 2022] [Bergmann et al. 2024a] [Bergmann et al. 2024b] [Bergmann et al. 2025] [Berkowitz 1953] [Berry and Chopra 2015] [Berton and Nark 2018] [Berton and Nark 2019] [Betz 1928a] [Betz 1928b] [Betz 1939] [Betzina and Nguyen 2004] [Betzina et al. 2000] [Bhaganagar 2025] [Bhat and Mixson 1978] [Bianchi et al. 2007] [Biber 2000b] [Biber 2016] [Biber 2017a] [Biber 2017b] [Biber 2023] [Bienert and Regnet 2025] [Biermann 1936] [Biermann 1954] [Biermann and Hartman 1940] [Biermann and Hartman 1942] [Biermann et al. 1940] [Bingham and Keith 1953] [Biplane Aerofoils 1983] [Black 2007] [Black and Michael 2003] [Black and Wainauski 1967] [Black et al. 1983] [Blade Element Rotor BER 2026] [Blade Element Rotor Overview 2026] [Blade Propeller 2011] [Blade Stall during Take-off 1942] [Blaurock 1975] [Bliss 1987] [Block 1984a] [Block 1984c] [Block 1984b] [Block 1986a] [Block 1986b] [Block and Gentry 1984] [Block and Gentry 1986] [Blunt and Rebbechi 2007] [Boden and Stasicki 2014] [Boden and Stasicki 2016] [Boeing Vertol Co Philadelphia Pa 1977a] [Boeing Vertol Co Philadelphia Pa 1977b] [Boisard 2021] [Boling and Zha 2021] [Bolonkin 1999] [Bonanza and Debonair Top 2004] [Boniface et al. 1995] [Bontempo and Manna 2020] [Borer and Patterson 2020] [Borst 1978b] [Borst 1978a] [Borysiuk and Rudkin 2026] [Bose 2012] [Bose and Lai 1989] [Boswell and Miller 1968] [Bousquet 1986] [Bousquet and Gardarein 2000] [Boyd and Fleeter 2002] [Boyle 2002a] [Boyle 2002b] [Boyle 2003] [Bradley 1956] [Brady 1944] [Litherland et al] [Bridges et al. 1977] [Bristeau et al. 2009] [Brizzolara et al. 2009] [Brockett 1972] [Brouwer 1992] [Brown and Chopra 2025] [Brown and Fischer 1967] [Brown et al. 2026a] [Brun and Bhaganagar 2021] [Bryant and Walters 2021] [Bulat et al. 2023a] [Bulat et al. 2023b] [Bulten 2019] [Burnell and Fan 1957] [Burpo and Darlington 1965] [Busurin and Mulin 2021] [Acree 2022b] [Acree 2026a] [Acree 2026b] [Acree et al. 2022] [Cai and Gunasekaran 2025] [Cai et al. 2021a] [Cai et al. 2021b] [Cai et al. 2023] [Campbell 1951] [Campos 1999] [Campos and Lau 2006] [Caracostas 1978] [Cardinale 1969] [Meyer and Johnson 1952] [Carlson and Carta 1972] [Carlson and Hilzinger 1965] [Carlton 2007a] [Carlton 2007c] [Carlton 2007d] [Carlton 2012a] [Carlton 2012c] [Carlton 2012d] [Carlton 2018] [Carlton 2019a] [Carlton 2019c] [Carlton 2019d] [Carroll and Carroll 2005] [Carta et al. 1973] [Casadei et al. 2019] [Cassarino 1970] [Castells et al. 2019] [Castells et al. 2020] [Castelucci et al. 2026] [Castles and Durham 1956] [Castles et al. 1960] [Catherines and Mayes 1975] [CFD Results on Propeller 2017] [Cha] [Chakraborty and Kumar 2019] [Chalmers] [Chandukrishna and Venkatesh 2022] [Chang and Sullivan 1982] [Chang et al. 2020] [Chaplin 1986] [CHAPTER SEVEN Propellers Motors 2020] [Charla et al. 2024b] [Chattopadhyay and Walsh 1989] [Chattopadhyay et al. 1997] [Chaturvedi and Sahoo 2023] [Chaware et al. 2026] [Chawla 1952] [Chen and Samant 1985] [Chen et al. 1989] [Chen 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al. 1982] [Dittmar et al. 1983] [Doan 2023] [Dobrzynski 1986] [Doetsch and Mark 1953] [Doolan et al. 2021] [Dooley 1976] [Dorange et al. 2025] [Dorfling and Rokhsaz 2014a] [Dorfling and Rokhsaz 2014b] [Dorfling and Rokhsaz 2015] [Dougherty et al. 2023] [Dreyfus and Pellman 1978] [Drinkwater et al. 1963] [Droandi et al. 2026] [Du plessis and Bouferrouk 2024] [Dunham et al. 1985] [Dunham et al. 1986] [Dunn and Tarkenton 1992] [Duong] [Durai 2014] [Dvirnyk et al. 2019] [Easham 2001] [Echavarria and Poroseva 2015] [Efimtsov and Lazarev 2015] [Eisenhuth 1963] [Eisenhuth 1978] [Elliott et al. 1989] [Elston et al. 1993] [Engar and Huson 1983] [Engine Propeller Matching 2024] [Enos 1937] [Envia 1992] [Eppler and Somers 2012] [Erhard and Alonso 2022] [Erhard et al. 2025] [Erickson and John C. 1969] [Erickson et al. 1965] [Ernsthausen 1937] [Erzen et al. 2018] [Esfahani and Karimian 2024] [Evans and Liner 1948] [Ewert and Franco 2025] [Eyerci̇oğlu and Aladağ 2021] [Fabri and Siestrunck 1953] 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Structural dynamics, vibratory loads and whirl flutter

What broke the aircraft. Whirl flutter of propellers and proprotors, the aeroelastic stability of tilt-rotor and propeller installations, vibratory and harmonic loads on rotors and propellers, blade, gear and airframe fatigue, and the structural loads of rotorcraft and vertical take-off aircraft. 172 titles name whirl flutter and 125 a tilt-rotor or proprotor.

795 records. 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Hover, download, disc loading and ground effect

The hover end. Static thrust and hover performance of propellers and rotors, the download on a wing beneath them, disc loading, induced velocity and actuator-disc theory, and ground effect, recirculation, downwash and outwash. 135 titles name ground effect, 20 the outwash and 19 the download, so the download this article computes is the least named of the three.

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2024] [Overmeyer and Martin 2017b] [Overmeyer and Martin 2017a] [Panayotov et al. 2019] [Panayotov et al. 2020] [Park et al. 2019] [Parkala and Kandath 2026] [Parwani and Coder 2018] [Pasquali et al. 2020] [Paw] [Pedro et al. 2016] [Perrotta 2015] [Peters and Shirazi 2025] [Petersohn 1931] [Phillips 1985b] [Phillips and Hunsaker 2013] [Phillips et al. 2002] [Piancastelli and Sali 2023] [Pieper] [Pieper et al] [Pirera 1983] [Pisano et al. 2025] [Platzer et al. 2016] [Polonsky et al. 2023] [Pomin and Wagner 2001] [Porcacchia et al. 2023] [Potsdam and Strawn 2002] [Preston 1994] [Prewitt et al. 2023] [Pruyn and Taylor 1970] [Pruyn and Taylor 1971] [Pulla and Conlisk 2005] [Purser et al. 1947] [Qu et al. 2017] [Qu et al. 2026] [Quackenbush et al. 2017] [Quackenbush et al. 2018] [Quackenbush et al. 2019] [Quackenbush et al. 2020] [Radhakrishnan and Schmitz 2003] [Radhakrishnan and Schmitz 2005] [Radhakrishnan and Schmitz 2006] [Radhakrishnan and Schmitz 2007] [Rajagopalan 1988] [Rajendiran Vijayaraj et al. 2024] [Vijayaraj et al. 2025] [Ramachandran and Tung 1992] [Ramachandran et al. 1989] [Ramasamy 2013] [Ramasamy and Yamauchi 2017] [Ramasamy et al. 2015] [Rampy 1966] [Rathod and Vemuri 2026] [Ren and Dong 2012] [Renselaer 1975] [Ritter et al. 1971] [Rogers and Belluomini 2026] [Rojo-Rodriguez et al. 2024] [Roltgen and Byrnes 1991] [Romander et al. 2026] [Romero and Salazar 2013] [Rosen and Gur 2008] [Rossow 1985] [Rotor Downwash Modeling 2018] [Rotor in Vertical Flight 2011b, Rotor in Vertical Flight Momentum] [Rovere et al. 2020] [Rozhdestvensky 2000] [Ruiz-Sanchez 2016] [Sadiq Ali Mir et al. 2025] [Sagaga and Lee 2020] [Sagaga and Lee 2023] [Sagaga and Lee 2025] [Saijo et al. 2003] [Sakai and Abiko 2019] [Sanchez et al. 2008] [Sankar and Komerath 1988] [Sankar et al. 2015] [Schaeffler et al. 1967] [Schroeder and Merrick 1990] [Schuldenfrei 1942] [Schwartz and Rogers 1992] [Scully 2018] [Sereez et al. 2018] [Setiawan] [Shahjahan and Ahuja 2026a] [Shahmiri 2017] [Shankar et al. 2025] [Sharkey et al. 2005] [Shastry et al. 2018] [Sheng 2018] [Sheng and Zhao 2016] [Sheng and Zhao 2025b] [Sheng and Zhao 2026] [Sheng et al. 2014] [Sheng et al. 2015] [Shumpert and Tibbetts 1969] [Sian et al. 2026] [Sicard and Sirohi 2010] [Siclari et al. 1980] [Siddhardha and Manathara 2019] [Silva and Navair 2011] [Silverstein and Katzoff 1939] [Silverstein et al. 1939] [Silwal and Raghav 2020] [Simmons and Ackerman 2026] [Simmons et al. 2025a] [Simon et al. 2023] [Singh et al. 2019] [Six et al. 2020] [Skelton 1968] [Smith 1958a] [Smith 1958b] [Smith 1961b] [Smith et al. 2021] [Solies 1992b] [Son and Kim 2023] [Song and Kim 2018] [Sorensen et al. 2026] [Spalart 2003] [Spalart 2004] [Spinner et al. 2020] [Sridhar and Phatak 1989] [Srinivasan and McCroskey 1987] [Stahl et al. 2018] [Stalker et al. 2004] [Stalnov et al. 2022] [Stapleford 1980] [Stapleford and Walton 1966] [Starikovskiy and Miles 2018] [Stauffer et al. 1990] [Steils 1965] [Steils 1966] [Stewart and Kemmerly 1987] [STOL Operation Transition-in-Ground Effect 2007] [Stratton and Spyropoulos 2024] [Stratton et al. 2023] [Strickland et al. 1990] [Strong 2011] [Study on the Ground 2022] [Sugawara et al. 2020] [Suresh 2020] [Svorcan and Ivey 2023] [Swanson 1993] [Sweberg 1945] [Sydney and Leishman 2013] [Tai and Vorwald 1993] [Takahashi 1994] [Talbot et al. 1994] [Tan et al. 2017] [Tan et al. 2018] [Tanner et al. 2015] [Tapscott 1960b] [Tapscott 1960a] [Tapscott 1960c] [Taylor 1950] [The Graphical Method 1988] [Thomas and Mija 2019] [Lombaerts et al] [Tinney and Valdez 2024] [Tinney and Valdez 2025] [Tinney and Valdez 2026] [Tischler et al. 1985] [Tolhurst 1948] [Tournes and Johnson] [Tritschler et al. 2019] [Tsoubanos 1975] [Tsujimoto and Murata 1978] [Tung and Low 1997] [Tuyet Nhung et al. 2022] [Tyler et al. 2026] [Valdez and Tinney 2022] [van der Vegt 1983] [Vasilescu and Dancila 2006] [Velkoff 1981] [Velkoff and Parker 1982] [Vinje 1968] [Vogler 1966] [Wachspress et al. 2026] [Wadcock et al. 2008] [Walter et al. 2022] [Wang and Li 2025] [Wang and Stremel 1996] [Wang et al. 2017c] [Wang et al. 2019h] [Wang et al. 2022c] [Wang et al. 2022d] [Wang et al. 2023a] [Wang et al. 2023d] [Wang et al. 2025a] [Wang et al. 2026m] [Weber 1973] [Weber 1982] [Webster et al. 1995] [Weilenmann and Geering 1993] [Weilenmann et al] [Wells and Keskar 1979] [Wells and Keskar 1980] [Wernicke 1981] [Whitaker et al. 1977] [White et al. 1960] [Whitmore and Merrill 2012] [Willshire and Martin 1984] [Wilmott 1986b] [Wilmott 1986a] [Wong 2008] [Wong et al. 2005] [Wong et al. 2007] [Wu et al. 2021] [Xin et al. 1998] [Xin et al. 1999] [Xin et al. 2000] [Xu et al. 2022a] [Yamauchi and Wadcock 1998] [Yang and Liu 2003] [Yang et al. 2013] [Yang et al. 2017] [Yang et al. 2022b] [YAV-8B Reaction Control System 1993] [Yin and Stuermer 2010] [Yon and Li 2026] [Zaludin 2024] [Zaludin and Harituddin 2019] [Zaludin et al. 2021] [Zhang et al. 2016] [Zhang et al. 2023d] [Zhang et al. 2024d] [Zhang et al. 2026e] [Zhao 2018] [Zhao and Sheng 2015] [Zhao and Sheng 2021] [Zhao and Sheng 2022] [Zhao and Sheng 2024] [Zhao Dubuc and Tinney 2026] [Zhao et al. 2014] [Zhao et al. 2019a] [Zhao et al. 2023d] [Zhao et al. 2024f] [Zhao et al. 2025c] [Zhao et al. 2025d] [Zhou et al. 2026d] [Zhu et al. 2024b]

Handling qualities, control power and the criteria

The criteria the X-19 was judged against, and those that came after. Handling and flying qualities, control power requirements, pilot rating, workload and simulation, for helicopters, vertical take-off aircraft and conventional aircraft. 161 titles name a vertical take-off or hovering aircraft and 97 an electric or urban air mobility aircraft.

685 records. [Abdulrahim et al. 2017] [Abdulrahim et al. 2019a] [Abdulrahim et al. 2019b] [Abzug and Larrabee] [Abzug and Larrabee] [Adams 1972] [Agrawal et al. 2024] [Ahmad and Biedron 2011] [Ahmad and Chaderjian 2011] [Aiken 1982] [Aiken 1986] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1969] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1981] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1988c] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1988a] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1988b] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1989] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1990c] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1990b] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1990a] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1991] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1992] [Aircraft Lateral-Directional Handling Qualities 2011] [Aircraft Longitudinal Handling Qualities 2011] [Aires et al. 2022a] [Aires et al. 2022b] [Alekseeva et al. 2022] [Alexander 2025a] [Alexander and Höfinger 2013] [Allen 2007] [Alomar and Shafqat 2026] [Villa et al] [Amer et al. 1978] [Ames 1975] [Anderson 1960a] [Anderson 1960b] [Anderson 1966] [Anderson 1970] [Anderson 1977] [Anderson 1979] [Anderson and Schroers 1972b] [Andriesen and Honaker 1987] [Antonakis 2025] [Mostavio et al. 2025] [Ashkenas 1965b] [Ashkenas 1965a] [Ashkenas 1982] [Autopilot, Flight Director, and] [Bachelder and Aponso 2020a] [Bachelder and Aponso 2020b] [Bachelder et al. 2023] [Bagiev and Thomson 2009] [Bagiev and Thomson 2010] [Bahr et al. 2020] [Bahr et al. 2021] [Bailes et al. 1975] [Bailey et al. 1983] [Baillie and Morgan 1997] [Baillie et al. 1995a] [Baillie et al. 1995b] [Barbini et al. 1970] [Barnes et al. 2025] [Baughman and Longeauay 2015] [Bechelder et al. 2025] [Beilman et al. 1975] [Benmoussa and Gamboa 2024] [Bennett et al. 1988] [Berger et al. 2016] [AvMC et al. 2020a] [Berger et al. 2022a] [Berger et al. 2022b] [Berger et al. 2025a] [Berger et al. 2025b] [Adelstein et al] [Bezuidenhout et al. 2026a] [Bhalla et al. 2024] [Biernacki and Lewkowicz 2024] [Birckelbaw and Corliss 1992a] [Birckelbaw and Corliss 1992b] [Birckelbaw and Corliss 1994] [Birckelbaw et al. 1994] [Bischoff et al. 2003] [Bivens 1986] [Black and Moorhouse 1979] [Blackburn 1968] [Bland et al. 1976] [Blanken and Pausder 1994] [Boeing Vertol Co Philadelphia Pa 1983] [Boothe et al. 1974] [Boussard et al. 2022] [Bouwer and Taghizad 1999] [Bower 1978] [Bowes and Miller 1976] [Branson 1994] [Brauser 1982] [Brauser 1983] [Bray 1963] [Bray 1982] [Brenner et al. 2022] [Brenner et al. 2023] [Breul 1963] [Bryant and Trueblood 1975] [Builta et al. 1995] [Buley 1970] [Bustamante Alarcon et al. 2023] [Cameron and Padfield 2007a] [Cameron and Padfield 2007b] [Cameron et al. 2018] [Cao and Anvar 2012] [Cappetta and Johns 1990] [Carico and Garcia-Otero 1995] [Carlson 1958] [Carpenter and Jenny 1964] [Carter and Stultz 1958] [Caseria 1966] [Castleberry and McElreath 1982] [Celi 1989] [Cerezo-Pacheco et al. 2021] [Chakraborty et al. 2023b] [Chalk and Key 1969] [Chalk and Saunders 1969] [Chalk et al. 1969] [Champine 1971] [Chance Vought Corp Dallas Tx 1979] [Chang and Kiang 2026] [Osman et al. 2024] [Chen 1982b] [Chen and Ji 2017] [Chen and Xie 2024] [Chen et al. 1978] [Chen et al. 2025e] [Cheng et al. 2026b] [Cherepinsky et al. 2012] [Chevalier and Burke 1972] [Childs and Nixon 1987] [Choi et al. 2014] [Choksey and Gonzalez 2004] [Chopra et al. 2021] [Chowhan et al. 2019] [Cicolani and Meyer 1975] [Citurs and Caton 1985] [Clark 1964] [Clark 1975] [Clark 1982] [Clarke and Griffin 2001] [Cleveland 1971] [Cockpit Information Required for] [Comer et al. 2025a] [Concurrent Design of Engines] [Conrad et al. 2024] [Cook 1985] [Cook 1997a] [Cook 2007a] [Cook 2013b] [Cooke 2010] [Corless and Blanken 1983] [Corliss 1983] [Corliss and Dugan 1972] [Corliss et al. 1983] [Crombie and Moorhouse 1980] [Curry et al. 1965] [Curtiss 1971] [Curtiss and Warburton 1992] [Darling et al. 1970] [Darmstad et al. 2024] [Darmstadt et al. 2021] [Datta 2012] [Daud Filho] [Daughaday and Duwaldt 1955] [Davenport et al. 1972] [Caudle et al] [Davis 1983] [Davis et al. 1975] [De Florio 2011a] [De Florio 2016a] [Van Decker 1992] [Decker et al. 1989] [Decker et al. 1994] [Decker et al. 1996] [Deng et al. 2024] [Design and Simulation 2024] [Design Objectives for Flying] [Design Objectives for Handling] [Difranco 1969] [Doman 1995] [Dooley 1977] [Dougherty 1968] [Dreier 2007] [Dreier 2017] [Dreier 2026] [Drewiacki et al. 2016] [Drinkwater and Feistel 1965] [Drinkwater and Rolls 1963a] [Drinkwater et al. 1964] [Duman and Demirci 2026b] [Edwards et al. 1997] [Eigenmann and Bailey 1977] [Eney 1967] [Eskey and Wilson 1986] [Eskey and Wilson 1989] [Farris et al. 1983] [Faulkner and Sinn 1985] [Fegely et al. 2017] [Feingold et al. 1995] [Ferguson et al. 1984] [Ferguson et al. 2017] [Feroskhan et al. 2025] [Ferrarese et al. 2013] [Finger et al. 2018] [Flood and Cartwright 1977] [Flying Qualities 2007a] [Flying Qualities 2007b] [Flying Qualities 2007c] [Ford 1989] [Forrest and Lebacqz 1980] [Forrest et al. 1979] [Franklin 1970] [Franklin 1993] [Franklin 2000] [Franklin 2002] [Franklin and Miller 1967] [Freeman and Klunk 2018] [Friend 1964] [Frost et al. 2002] [Fry et al. 1966a] [Fry et al. 1966b] [Fry et al. 1966c] [Fry et al. 1967] [Fujizawa] [Fujizawa et al. 2011] [Gallagher 1970] [García Crespillo et al. 2024] [Garrard and Liebst 1990] [Garren 1961b] [Garren 1961a] [Garren 1962] [Garren and Kelly 1965] [Garren and Kelly 1968] [Garren et al. 1970b] [Gasaway 1970] [Altamirano et al] [Gera and Bosworth 1987] [Gerdes 1964] [Gerdes and Hynes 1971] [Gerdes and Hynes 1972] [Gerken 1979] [Gertsen and Shomber 1965] [Gibson 1990] [Goldberger 1966] [Goldstein 1982] [Gonzalez-Martino] [Goodrich 2024] [Gorham 1977] [Gottschall et al. 2022] [Gracey 1967] [Grant et al. 2015] [Gray 2009] [Greendyke et al. 1997] [Griffin and Bellaire 1968] [Griffith and Brewer 1974] [Gubbels and Carignan 2005] [Guglieri et al. 1997] [Guruswamy 2020] [Rosenstein et al. 1973a] [Santos et al. 2025] [Haffley 1982] [Halbe and Hajek 2019] [Hale 1987] [Hall 1992] [Ham et al. 1995] [Hammond 1971] [Handling Qualities 2000] [Handling Qualities Analysis 2008] [Lee 2017] [Handling Qualities Workshop 2009] [Hanks and Ham 1992] [Harper and Robert P. 1955] [Harper et al. 1970] [Harris et al. 2000] [Harrison et al. 2019] [Hart 1956] [He et al. 2020c] [Heinle 1960] [Heintzman 1965] [Henriquez Huecas et al. 2022] [Hess 1980] [Hess 1981] [Hess 1984] [Hess 2009] [Hess 2010] [Hewson 1959] [Hijazeen et al. 2026] [Hodgkinson et al. 1990] [Höfinger and Blanken 2012] [Hoffelner et al. 2023] [Hoffman 1969b] [Hoffman 1969a] [Hoffman 1969c] [Hoffman 1971] [Hoffman et al. 1970] [Hoffman et al. 1974] [Hoffman et al. 1975] [Hoffman et al. 1976] [Hoh 1982] [Hoh 1988] [Hoh and Ashkenas 1979] [Hoh and Ashkenas 1981] [Hoh and Mitchell 1983] [Hoh and Mitchell 2018] [Holladay 1966] [Holzhauser et al. 1971] [Holzhauser et al. 1972] [Hong et al. 1991] [Horn et al. 2010] [Huang et al. 2023d] [Huang et al. 2025] [Huang et al. 2026a] [Huang et al. 2026b] [Huff 1949] [Hughes et al. 2002] [Hung and Dai 2025] [Hutchings 1977] [Ibrahim et al. 2023] [Ickes et al. 2014] [Innis et al. 1966] [Innocenti 1985] [Instrumentation Requirements for Turboshaft] [Ioannis and Ioannis 2026] [Iseler et al. 1996] [Ivler et al. 2022a] [Ivler et al. 2022b] [Putnam and Littell] [Jacobson and Kuhlthau 1972] [Janetzko et al. 2025] [Aires et al] [Bull 1960] [Callaghan and Kunz 2021] [Campos and Marques 2021] [Dussart et al. 2019] [Eilertson 1975] [Jia and Lee 2019] [John 2022] [Johnson 1974a] [Johnson and Weir 1968] [Johnson et al. 2024] [Johnston et al. 1965] [Litt et al] [Litt et al. 2025] [Jones and Jusko 2022] [Jones et al. 2023] [Joppa and Parikh 1984] [Joshi and Rickard 1981] [Jusko and Berger 2026] [Littell et al] [Kahn 1968] [Kamath et al. 2025] [Kang and Sun 2000] [Kang et al. 2016a] [Kang et al. 2024a] [Goodrich] [Goodrich] [Han and Park 2019] [Herbst et al. 2015] [Hess and Hess 1997] [Hu et al. 2024d] [Humphreys-Jennings et al. 2020] [Kereliuk and Sinclair 1979] [Kesling 1968] [Monk et al. 2025] [Key 1971] [Key et al. 1965] [Kidd and Bull 1963] [Kim et al. 2023c] [Kimball 1993] [Kimura et al. 2024] [Kish et al. 2021] [Kisslinger and Wendl 1971] [Kleckner 1973] [Klein et al. 2017] [Kleinman 1975] [Klyde et al. 2022] [Kopyt and Dylicki 2025] [Kose and Oktay 2021] [Kriechbaum and Lollar 1968] [Kucuk 1988] [Kuczynski et al. 1979] [Kuczynski et al. 1980] [Kuhn et al. 1964] [Kukla 2026] [Kunwar and Chakraborty 2025] [Landis and Glusman 1985c] [Lateral-Directional Flying Qualities 2002a, Lateral-Directional Flying Qualit 2] [Lawrence et al. 2016] [Leacock and Thomson 1998] [Lebacqz and Forrest 1982] [Lebacqz and Radford 1978] [Lebacqz and Radford 1979] [Lebacqz and Scott 1984] [Lebacqz et al. 1981] [Lee et al. 2001] [Lee et al. 2013] [Lee et al. 2024b] [Lee et al. 2026d] [Lemon et al. 2011] [Lepe and Huynh 2026] [Levison and Rickard 1981] [Lewis et al. 1991] [Li 2025a] [Li 2026] [Li et al. 2023a] [Li et al. 2024e] [Li et al. 2026e] [Lind and Tamplin 1981] [Littell et al. 2021] [Lollar and Kriechbaum 1968] [Longitudinal Flying Qualities 2002a, Longitudinal Flying Qualities in 2] [Haworth et al] [Lu et al. 2026] [Lusardi 2023] [Lutze et al. 1993] [Mabboux et al. 2024] [Makarov 2019] [Malaek and Karimi 2008] [Maleki et al. 2026] [Malpica and Lusardi 2013] [Malpica et al. 2023] [Mancinelli et al. 2022] [Mao et al. 2019] [Margason 1981] [Margason 1982] [Marr and Roderick 1974a] [Marr and Roderick 1974b] [Martin 1963b] [Martin 1963a] [Mathur and Atkins 2025] [Gladfelter et al] [McCormick 1969] [McGregor and Smith 1965] [McGREGOR and Smith 1966] [McIntyre 1963] [McKillip et al. 2025] [McVeigh 1976] [McVeigh and Widdison 1976] [Meakin 1993] [Memon et al. 2021] [Mendela 1971] [Mercan et al. 2025] [Merrick 1981] [Merrick 1984] [Meuleners 1981] [Meyer and Padfield 2002] [Meÿer and Padfield 2005] [Mikic et al. 2021] [Miller 1969] [Miller 1986b] [Miller and Clark 1965] [Miller and Vinje 1967] [Milz et al. 2026b] [Mitchell and Hoh 1983] [Mitchell et al. 2003] [Mkrtchyan et al. 2009] [Modelling Helicopter Flight Dynamics 2007a, Modelling Helicopter Flight Dynam] [Moen and Yenni 1975] [Mohd Arrif et al. 2020] [Mokotoff and Cinar 2026] [Momiyama 1977b] [Monnier 2026] [Mooij 1985a] [Mooij 1985c] [Mooij 1985d] [Moorhouse et al. 1989] [Moralez et al. 1987] [Moreau et al. 2024] [Morello et al. 1972] [Morgan 1982] [Moro et al. 2025] [Mouritsen 1994] [Mukherjee et al. 2022] [Mulyanto et al. 2026] [Murphy and Greif 1975] [Murphy et al. 1978] [Musso et al. 2024] [Myasnikov and Ilyin 2023] [Helicopter Handling Qualities 1982] [Nagata et al. 1973] [Nagy and Kirsten 1976] [Nakayama et al. 2026] [Nelson and Franklin 2021] [Nettleton 1965] [Newell 1963] [Nguyen and Stepanyan 2010] [Nguyen et al. 2025] [Nichols 1960] [Nicoll and Mitchell 2009] [Niemiec et al. 2020] [Niessen 1969] [North and Graffunder 1979] [Northrop Aircraft INC Hawthorne CA 1952] [Nugroho et al. 2022] [O’Rourke 1992] [Ockier 1993] [Ockier 1996] [Oki 1960] [Okumoto and Elsanker 1973] [Harendra et al. 1973] [Padfield 2013] [Padfield and Wilkinson 1997] [Padfield et al. 2006] [Pan et al. 2014] [Papa and Stoliker 1988] [Park 2026a] [Pasquariello et al. 2023] [Patil and García-Sánchez 2024] [Patil and García-Sánchez 2025] [Darmstadt et al] [Patton 1972] [Pauli et al. 1974] [Pedrioli et al. 2024] [Perhinschi 2000] [Suh et al. 2025] [Peterson and Grant 2011] [Phillips 1948] [Pilot Training and Certification] [Place et al. 1974] [Portapas 2025] [Portapas and Cooke 2020] [Postlethwaite et al. 1999] [Preis and Cheng 2022] [Preis and Hornung 2022a] [Preis and Hornung 2022c] [Pressburger et al. 2023] [Price 1964b] [Pricker and Armanini 2023] [Primatesta et al. 2022] [Primatesta et al. 2023] [Putman 1969] [Putnam and Littell 2023] [Quigley 1964] [Radford and Andrisani 1980] [Radford et al. 1976] [Ghatas et al] [Ghatas et al. 2023] [Ransone 1970] [Ransone 1971] [Raol and Singh 2023] [Rediess and Melton 1994] [Reeder 1958] [Reeder 1960] [Reschak 1970] [Reschak 1971] [Rhoads 1967] [Rhoads 1970] [Riccardi et al. 2025] [Rich 1969b] [Ringland 1977] [Rister and Bartling 2023] [Robbins 1967] [Roca León] [Rodchenko et al. 2003] [Rogers 1970] [Rogers and Holdstock 2022b] [Rohling 1968] [Rosenstein et al. 1973b] [Rothhaar et al. 2014] [Rotorcraft Handling Qualities Design 2011] [Roysdon 2013] [Roysdon and Khalid 2011] [Rylko et al. 2025] [Saetti and Buğday 2023] [Saetti and Rogers 2020] [Saetti and Rogers 2024] [Sahasrabudhe and Celi 1997] [Sarrafian and Powers 1988] [Sasongko and Muhammad 2017] [Saucez] [Schmidt and Jusko 2025] [Schneider et al. 2026] [Schrage and Meyer 1986] [Schwartz and Shearer 1964] [Schönenberg 2013] [Segner 1961] [Shan et al. 2026] [Sheridan et al. 1982] [Sheth 2023] [Shomber and Gertsen 1967] [Shubert and Jones 2025] [Simmons 2022b] [Simmons 2023b] [Simulation in Support 1988] [Sinacori 1970b] [Sinacori 1970a] [Slaughter 1958] [Smith 1966b] [Smith 1969] [Smith 1977] [Smith 2023] [Smith and Geddes 1979] [Srinathkumar 2011] [Srinathkumar 2015] [Stability Control and Handling 2024] [Standard Specification for Vertiport] [Stengel and Miller 1978] [Stepniewski and Schneider 1964] [Stevenson 1991] [Strand and Ennis 2012] [Surmann and Myschik 2023] [Surmann et al. 2022] [Swaim 1970] [Tai 1995] [Tai 1996] [Takii et al. 2020b] [Tapscott 1964] [Teofilatto 2001] [Theodore et al. 2020] [Lombaerts et al] [Thomson and Bradley 1997] [Thomson et al. 2005] [Tich 1991] [Tiltrotor Aircraft 2018] [Tinling and Cole 1980] [Tischler and Hoh 1982] [Tomczyk 2008] [Tormes and Guedry 1974] [Totah 1991] [Totah 1992] [Tuck 1985] [Turner et al. 2002] [Twin Engine Helicopter Power] [Umapathy et al. 2021] [Unverricht et al. 2024] [Rohit 2024] [V/STOL Flight Simulation 1979] [Van Dam et al. 1980] [Varela Martínez] [Verberne et al. 2024] [Veres 2009] [Vinje and Miller 1973] [Voropayev et al. 2025] [Voropayev et al. 2026a] [Wang and Zhang 2020] [Wang et al. 2023c] [Wechner et al. 2022] [Welter 1966] [Wernecke 1958] [Westbrook 1964] [Wetmore 1965] [Wetmore 1966] [Whitbeck and Hofmann 1978] [Wilcox and Quigley 1978] [Wilde et al. 2022] [Wille et al. 2026] [Willebeek-LeMair and Rhinehart 2023] [Hindson et al. 1993] [Wilson et al. 1983] [Wilson et al. 1993] [Wind Tunnel Simulations 2022] [Woodcock and Browne 1986] [Woomer and Carico 1977] [Wright and Lappos 1979] [Wright and Lappos 1981] [Wu et al. 2018] [Wynosky and Szyszko 1973] [Xue et al. 2026b] [Yan and Chen 2019] [Yan et al. 2025b] [Yang 2025] [Yang et al. 2025c] [Yavrucuk and Prasad 1999] [Yazar 2018] [Yomchinda et al. 2009] [Young 2015] [Young and Rajagopalan 2013] [Yu 2023] [Yue and Postlethwaite 1990] [Zhang et al. 2024h] [Zhang et al. 2024g] [Zhang et al. 2026c] [Zhao and Sheng 2025] [Zhao et al. 2009a] [Zhao et al. 2009b] [Ziakkas and Henneberry 2025] [Zintl et al. 2022] [Zintl et al. 2024] [Çakıcı and Leblebicioğlu 2011] [聂 2017]

Tilt-rotor, tilt-wing and the convertible configurations

The configurations that tilt the thrust. Tilt-rotor, tilt-wing, tilt-duct, lift-plus-cruise and compound aircraft, convertiplanes, quadplanes and tail-sitters, with their design, aerodynamics and control. 452 titles name the tilt-rotor and 104 the tilt-wing, so the arrangement that succeeded the X-19’s tilting propellers is chiefly the tilt-rotor.

678 records. [Abergo et al. 2026a] [Abergo et al. 2026b] [Abiko and Harada 2020] [Abiko and Tashiro 2016] [Abras and Narducci 2010] [Abrego et al. 2001] [Abrego et al. 2002] [Acree 2014] [Acree and Sheikman 2018] [Adebimpe 2023a] [Aihaitijiang and Onal 2019] [Alexander et al. 1973] [Alsharif et al. 2026] [An and Kim 2026] [An and Wang 2025] [An et al. 2024] [Anantha and Atkins 2023] [Anantha et al. 2024] [Andrade et al. 2020] [Andrade et al. 2024] [Apkarian 2018] [Application of Computational Fluid 1990] [Arif and Sasongko 2021] [Armutcuoglu et al. 2004] [Arnold et al. 1987] [Arroyo] [Atencio and Banda 1998] [Autenrieb et al. 2019] [Baerens 2024] [Baird et al. 1972] [Basnight et al. 2025] [Bath et al. 2021] [Bath et al. 2022] [Bath et al. 2023] [Bauer 2023b] [Bauersfeld and Ducard 2020] [Bauersfeld et al. 2021] [Beliautsou and Beliautsou 2024] [Belák and Hromčík 2023b] [Chakraborty and Mishra 2023b] [Simmons and Murphy] [Simmons et al] [Simmons et al] [Benkhoud and Bouallegue 2016] [Benkhoud et al. 2017] [Beppu and Curtiss 1966] [Beser 1978] [Betzina and Falarski 1979] [Betzina and Kita 1979] [Betzina and Kita 1980] [Bhandari and Chakraborty 2026] [Bhandari et al. 2023] [Bhandari et al. 2024] [Bona et al. 2026] [Botelho] [Bray 1995] [Brender et al. 1996] [Brown and Edenborough 1977] [Brown et al. 1977] [Brown et al. 1978] [Burley 1979] [Burley et al. 1999] [Burton et al. 2023] [Acree 2022a] [Acree 2024] [Cardoso et al. 2016] [Cardoso et al. 2021] [Carico] [Carico] [Carlin et al. 1986] [Carlson and Papachristos 2021] [Carlson and Papachristos 2024] [Carlson and Zhao 2002] [Carlson et al. 1999] [Cassinelli et al. 2023] [Cetinsoy 2014] [Cetinsoy 2015] [Cha et al. 2024] [Chakraborty and Mishra 2021] [Chakraborty and Mishra 2022] [Chakraborty and Mishra 2023a] [Chakraborty et al. 2022] [Chakraborty et al. 2023a] [Chakraborty et al. 2024] [Chakraborty et al. 2025] [Chakraborty et al. 2026a] [Chakraborty et al. 2026b] [Chambers 1991] [Chambers and Grafton 1966] [Chambers and Grafton 1968] [Chambers and Grafton 1970] [Champine et al. 1970] [Chana and Sullivan 1992] [Chandravanshi et al. 2026] [Chao et al. 2016] [Chaohui et al. 2026] [Chapman 2019] [Chattopadhyay et al. 1995] [Chauhan and Martins 2020b] [Chen 2024] [Chen 2025] [Chen and Jia 2020] [Chen et al. 2017] [Chen et al. 2019b] [Chen et al. 2020b] [Chen et al. 2024c] [Cheng et al. 2025a] [Chiariello et al. 2024] [Choi et al. 2012b] [Choi et al. 2026a] [Churchill and Gerdes 1984] [Civinskas 1973] [Clark 1985] [Clay et al. 1987] [Clements and Rais-Rohani 2000] [Cocco et al. 2022] [Cole et al. 1980] [Comer and Chakraborty 2023b] [Comer and Chakraborty 2024] [Comer et al. 2024a] [Comer et al. 2024b] [Comer et al. 2024c] [Comer et al. 2025b] [Comer et al. 2026a] [Conner et al. 1998] [Conner et al. 1999] [Conner et al. 2000] [Cook 2025] [Corle et al. 2019] [Costa 2012] [Critchfield and Ning 2023] [Critchfield and Ning 2026] [Cronkhite and Tanner 1985] [Crossley and Rutherford 1995] [Cui 2026] [Dabundo and Neary 1985] [Dancik et al. 1958] [Deckert and McCloud 1968] [Dehaeze et al. 2017] [Deng et al. 2025a] [Çakir and Kurtuluş 2021] [Design Definition Study 1975] [Detore and Sambell 1975] [Dezons and Ducard 2023] [Di Francesco et al. 2014] [Di Francesco et al. 2015] [Ding et al. 2025c] [Doff-Sotta et al. 2022] [Donadel et al. 2014] [Dong and Zhang 2020] [dos Santos et al 2021] [Doubrava et al. 2024] [Ducard and Carughi 2024] [Dugan 1985] [Dugan et al. 1980b] [Dumond 1969] [Eberhard and Salbashian 2013] [Edenborough 1967] [Edenborough 1968] [Edwards and Conner 2003a] [Edwards and Conner 2003b] [Edwards et al. 2001] [Eisenberg and Bowles 1986] [Eisenberg and Wait 2003] [El Gmili et al. 2019] [En Chao 2013] [Erhart et al. 1980] [Escamilla et al. 2020] [Eskandarpour et al. 2023] [Eskey et al. 1984] [Falarski et al. 1981] [Falarski et al. 1982] [Fasching and Asmus 1965] [Fasching and Kutney 1964] [Fatemi 2024] [Faulkner 1974] [Faulkner and Swan 1976] [Favale et al. 2021] [Fay 1963] [Fay 1964] [Fejtek and Roberts 1989] [Fischer et al. 2026] [Ford 1999] [Ford CEng MRAes 1988] [Fraga and Liiva 1972] [Fraser et al. 2018] [Fredericks et al. 2015] [Fry 1965] [Gao et al. 2024c] [Gass et al. 1986] [Gazdag and Alton 1990] [Gebril and Kamal 2023] [George 1996] [George et al. 1989] [George et al. 1992] [Ghiringhelli et al. 1997] [Ghiringhelli et al. 1999] [Gibs et al. 1973] [Gill and Sauer 1983] [Gleiter 1985] [Gold and Walchli 1974] [Gonzalez-Berbel et al. 2025] [Goodarzi et al. 2025] [Goodson and Yaggy 1960] [Gotlieb et al. 1976] [Gregory et al. 2015] [Gress 2003] [Grima 2016] [Grima et al. 2016] [Grosveld and Cabell 2011] [Grosveld et al. 2013] [Grunwald 1965] [Guan and Xian 2025] [Guo et al. 2025c] [Gupta and Baeder 2005] [Gupta and Bryson 1972] [Halder and Gandhi 2026] [Hall and McClure 1989] [Ham and Whitaker 1978] [Hancer et al. 2010] [Hardy 2002] [Hargraves 1961] [Harris 2003] [Harris 2017] [Hartmann et al. 2017a] [Hassanalian et al. 2018] [Hawk and Stockman 1979] [He 2024] [He et al. 2020b] [He et al. 2023a] [He et al. 2025c] [He et al. 2025d] [Hegde 2020] [Hegde et al. 2020] [Helicopter and Tiltrotor Flight 2018] [Hickey 1956] [Hill and Waters 1974] [Hill and Waters 1975] [Hiraoka et al] [Hirata and Miwa 2021a] [Hirata and Miwa 2021b] [Honaker 1987] [Tadghighi and Rajagopalan 1999] [Hosseini et al. 2024] [Hou et al. 2025] [Hou et al. 2026b] [Hou et al. 2026a] [Howard 2012] [Hrishikeshavan and Chopra 2012] [Hsu and Liu 2021] [Hu-Sheng Wu et al. 2015] [Hua et al. 2014] [Hua et al. 2015] [Hua et al. 2025a] [Huang et al. 2022] [Huang et al. 2023a] [Hunt et al. 1977] [Huston et al. 1989] [Hwang et al. 2007] [Hwang et al. 2024] [Ibrahim and Bil 2013] [Ibrahim et al. 2026b] [Imamura 2023] [Immersion and Invariance Adaptive 2026] [Invernizzi and Lovera 2017] [Iriarte et al. 2021] [Ivler and Juhasz 2015] [Putnam and Littell] [Jamaluddin et al. 2024] [Jensen and Pera 1977] [Jeong et al. 2015] [Jeong et al. 2025] [Horton et al] [Jia et al. 2024] [Jin et al. 2013] [Pei et al] [Kaneshige et al] [Johns et al. 1979] [Johnson 2001a] [Johnson 2001b] [Johnson et al. 1986] [Johnson et al. 2002] [Jokar and Khoshnood 2026] [Juanxia et al. 2022] [Judas and Deligiannidis 2013] [Jumper et al. 1991] [Kai 2024] [Littell and Putnam] [Littell and Putnam] [Kahvecioglu and Alemdaroglu 2015] [Kaneda and Miwa 2020] [Kaneko and Martins 2023] [Kaneshige et al. 2023] [Kaneshige et al. 2024] [Kang et al. 2008] [Kang et al. 2013] [Kang et al. 2014a] [Kang et al. 2014b] [Kang et al. 2019] [Kang et al. 2023c] [Kang et al. 2024b] [Kang et al. 2025a] [Katagiri et al. 2025a] [Katagiri et al. 2025b] [Keller et al. 2024] [Keller et al. 2026b] [Kilmer 1988] [Kim and Choi 2016] [Kim and Chung 2006] [Kim and Jo 2025] [Kim et al. 2007] [Kim et al. 2020a] [Kim et al. 2025d] [Kim et al. 2026a] [Kimball 1987] [Kirby et al. 1963] [Kodera and Miwa 2017b] [Kodera and Miwa 2017a] [Kolesar et al. 1970b] [Kong and Lu 2018] [Kong et al. 2025] [Kottapalli 1998] [Kottapalli and Kitaplioglu 2000] [Kutney 1964a] [Lade and Guérin 2026] [Large Scale Static Tests 1978] [Large Scale Wind Tunnel 1972] [Lebrun et al. 2015] [Lee and Baeder 2004] [Lee and Lee 2013] [Lee and Lee 2016] [Lee and Mosher 1979] [Lee et al. 2018b] [Lee et al. 2018c] [Lee et al. 2022c] [Leishman and Samsock 2007] [Leishman et al. 2004] [Li et al. 2023d] [Li et al. 2024b] [Li et al. 2024c] [Liang et al. 2025a] [Liao and Song 2020] [Lichota 2023] [Liden 1980] [Lin et al. 2024a] [Lindqvist et al. 2015] [Lira Sassett et al. 2025] [Littell and Putnam 2023] [Littell et al. 2026] [Litvin et al. 2020] [Liu 1962] [Liu et al. 2018c] [Liu et al. 2019] [Liu et al. 2020] [Liu et al. 2022a] [Liu et al. 2022c] [Liu et al. 2023a] [Liu et al. 2023b] [Lockhart] [Longhurst 1966] [Lu et al. 2017] [Lu et al. 2019b] [Lu et al. 2021] [Ludowicy et al. 2025] [Luo et al. 2024] [Luo et al. 2025a] [Luo et al. 2025b] [Luo et al. 2026a] [Lyle et al. 1997] [Lyu] [Ma et al. 2022c] [Ma et al. 2025a] [Ma et al. 2027] [Maadani et al. 2023] [Machini Malachias Marques et al. 2020] [Magariyama and Abiko 2019] [Magee 1976] [Magee 1983a] [Magee 1983b] [Magee and Alexander 1973] [Magee and Alexander 1976b] [Magee and Alexander 1976a] [Magee and Wernicke 1979] [Maisel et al. 2000] [Mancinelli et al. 2025] [Marepally et al. 2025] [Betzina and Nguyen 2003] [Marks 1957] [Marques] [Marr 1976] [Marr et al. 1974] [Marr et al. 1976] [Masarati et al. 2004] [Masuda and Uchiyama 2018] [Masuda and Uchiyama 2019] [Matthys and Scroggs 1984] [Matuska et al. 1994] [May et al. 2022] [May et al. 2026b] [McCarthy and Chattopadhyay 1996] [McCluer et al. 2001] [McCormick and Mallen 1956] [McCormick and Mallen 1957] [McDaniel et al. 1983] [McHugh et al. 1973] [Meakin 1996] [Mehra et al. 2001] [Melo et al. 2026] [Mercker et al. 1999] [Radotich] [Radotich] [Migdal 1973] [Mikami and Uchiyama 2015] [Milz and Looye 2022] [Milz et al. 2024a] [Mimouni et al. 2023] [Min et al. 2026b] [Misra et al. 2022] [Mita et al. 2021] [Model Predictive Control 2004] [Monnier and Litherland 2026] [Moodie and Yeo 2012] [Moore 2010] [Morlok and Schoendorfer 1985] [Morris and Alexander 1978] [Muggli et al. 1993] [Muraoka et al. 2009] [Muraoka et al. 2016] [Murphy and Landman 2015] [Murugan and Lm 2023] [Narducci et al. 2009] [NASA/Army XV-15 Tilt Rotor 1975] [NASA/HAA Advanced Rotorcraft Technology 1980b, NASA/HAA Advanced Rotorcraft Tech] [NASA/HAA Advanced Rotorcraft Technology 1980a, NASA/HAA Advanced Rotorcraft Tech 2] [NASA/HAA Advanced Rotorcraft Technology 1980c, NASA/HAA Advanced Rotorcraft Tech 3] [Newsom and Tosti 1959] [Nguyen et al. 2023] [Nichols 1963] [Nie et al. 2024a] [Nikhilraj et al. 2022] [Nixon et al. 2001b] [Notarstefano and Hauser 2010] [Novak 1975] [O’Heron et al. 1992] [O’Rourke et al. 1998] [Okan et al. 1999] [Omar and Lampkin 1977] [Oosedo et al. 2015b] [Oosedo et al. 2016] [Osa et al. 2022] [Osa et al. 2023] [Ouyang et al. 2024] [Oyama et al. 2024] [Pande 1999] [Panish et al. 2023] [Panza et al. 2016] [Papachristos et al. 2014] [Park et al. 2013] [Park et al. 2017] [Patterson et al. 2023] [Paw and Ang 2023] [Pegg 1962] [Pei and Roithmayr 2022] [Persson and Lawrence 2017] [Phillips 1969] [Porter et al. 2016] [Potonides 1979] [Potsdam and Silva 2004] [Povarov 2021] [Pruynn and Shannon 1980] [Putman 1961] [Putnam and Littell 2020] [Putra et al. 2025b] [Wang and Wen-hai 2014] [Qin et al. 2024] [Qu et al. 2024] [Quackenbush et al. 1995] [Quigley and Franklin 1977] [Quigley and Koenig 1961] [Raeisi 2021] [Raghavan et al. 1990] [Rais-Rohani 1993] [Rais-Rohani 1994a] [Rais-Rohani 1994b] [Rais-Rohani and Baker 1994] [Reber 1993] [Renselaer 1977] [Ro et al. 2010] [Rogers and Reisdorfer 1993] [Roh et al. 2026] [Roiati et al. 2024a] [Rollet 2001] [Rolls et al. 1976] [Rosenstein and Clark 1986] [Rostami et al. 2023] [Ruh et al. 2023] [Russell and Acree 2018] [Rutherford and Bass 1992] [Rysdyk and Calise 1999] [Sahin et al. 2016] [Sakai and Abiko 2018] [Sakai and Miwa 2014] [Sakai and Miwa 2016] [Samadikhoshkho and Lipsett 2025] [Sambell 1975] [Sambell 1976] [Sanchez et al. 2019] [Sanchez-Rivera et al. 2019] [Sanchez-Rivera et al. 2020a] [SantaMaria et al. 1991] [Santos Martins Nunes and Su 2024] [Sato and Muraoka 2013a] [Sato and Muraoka 2013b] [Saunders et al. 2026] [Sawron 2026b] [Sawron 2026a] [Schatzman and Malpica 2019] [Schenk et al. 2026] [Schroers 1989] [Schroers et al. 1979] [Scott and Schrage 2012] [Segner 1965] [Seo and Kang 2026] [Septian and Huda 2022] [Serafini et al. 2024] [Hosseini et al] [Shen and Tsuchiya 2022a] [Shen and Tsuchiya 2022b] [Shen and Tsuchiya 2023] [Shen et al. 2018] [Shen et al. 2023] [Sheng et al. 2022] [Shimizu and Miwa 2019a] [Shimizu and Miwa 2020] [Shin et al. 2026] [Shinde et al. 2025] [Sidestick Control Evaluation Completed 1985] [Simmons and Murphy 2021] [Simmons et al. 2021] [Simoes Pessoa] [Smith 1966a] [Snyder 2014] [Snyder and Thurman 2009] [Soemarwoto et al. 2022] [Soule 1973] [Soule and Badri-Nath 1973] [Soykasap 2001] [Sridhar et al. 2019] [Stepniewski 1957] [Sternfeld et al. 1995] [Stettner and Schrage 1992] [Stewart et al. 2026a] [Stratton and Landman 2021] [Aerospace et al. 2025] [Sulistijono et al. 2023] [Sullivan 1993] [Sun et al. 2026] [Swanson and Light 1992] [Meza et al. 2024] [Jeong et al] [Tai et al. 1997] [Takayama et al. 2020] [Takigawa and Miwa 2021] [Takita and Kashitani 2019] [Takita et al. 2019] [Tan et al. 2014a] [Tanaka et al. 2022] [Tanaka et al. 2023] [Tang et al. 2020] [Tang et al. 2025] [Tao and Ko 2024] [Tarifa] [Tashiro and Abiko 2017] [Tavoosi 2020] [Theodore et al. 2014] [Thipyopas 2008] [Thomason 1978] [Thomason 1982] [Thomason 1983] [Thompson et al. 1991] [Tischler et al. 1983] [Toda and Abiko 2018] [Totoki et al. 2015] [Tsai and Datta 2019] [Tsuji et al. 2021] [Uemura and MIWA.Masafumi 2015] [Ugur and Yesildirek 2025] [Umer et al. 2018] [Unger and Alexander 1991] [Urakubo et al. 2023] [V/STOL Tilt Rotor Aircraft 1972a, V/STOL tilt rotor aircraft study] [V/STOL Tilt Rotor Aircraft 1972b, V/STOL tilt rotor aircraft study 2] [V/STOL Tilt-Rotor Study Task 1972] [Van Wyckhouse 1966] [Veres and Thurman 2010] [Villanueva-Aguado and Bronz 2026] [Vorwald 2009] [Wada et al. 2022] [Wakefield et al. 2019] [Wang and Nobuhara 2025] [Wang et al. 1999c] [Wang et al. 2018b] [Wang et al. 2019j] [Wang et al. 2020d] [Wang et al. 2021b] [Wang et al. 2021e] [Wang et al. 2022i] [Wang et al. 2024e] [Wang et al. 2024d] [Wang et al. 2024h] [Wang et al. 2025c] [Wang et al. 2025f] [Wang et al. 2025d] [Wang et al. 2026b] [Ward 1989] [Welch 2010] [Wernicke 1977] [Wernicke 1980] [Wernicke et al. 1980] [Whitaker and Cheng 1975] [Whiteside et al. 2021] [Widdison et al. 1974] [Decker et al. 1995] [Whiteside and Pollard 2022] [Willis et al. 2020] [Wilson and Prazenica 2020] [Wilson et al. 2011] [Wu et al. 2022a] [Wu et al. 2026b] [Xu et al. 2022b] [Yang and Morales 2021a] [Yang et al. 2026e] [Yanguo and Huanjin 2009] [Yao et al. 2026] [Yassini 2007] [Yassini and Syrovy 2002] [Yeh and Du 2023] [Yeh et al. 2023] [Yih 2016] [Yih and Wu 2022] [Yildiz et al. 2015] [Yin et al. 2017] [Yokota and Fujimoto 2022] [Yokota et al. 2021] [Yoo et al. 2008] [Yoshida et al. 2014] [Young 2018] [Young 2023] [Young et al. 1998] [Young et al. 2001] [Young-Shin Kang et al. 2007] [Youngshin Kang et al. 2008] [Yu et al. 2024b] [Yu et al. 2026d] [Yuan et al. 2019] [Yuan et al. 2020a] [Yuan et al. 2020b] [Yuan et al. 2022] [Yuba et al. 2019] [Yue et al. 2025] [Zabinsky and Higgins 1975] [Zarudzki et al. 2017] [Zerdia et al. 2026] [Zhang et al. 2020b] [Zhao et al. 2024b] [Zhao et al. 2025a] [Zheng and Chopra 2025] [Zheng et al. 2020a] [Zheng et al. 2024b] [Zheng et al. 2025b] [Zhou] [Zhou et al. 2021b] [Zinjarde et al. 2026] [Zosimovych 2024] [Zosimovych and Singh 2024] [Çakir and Kurtuluş 2022] [Design, control, and autonomous] [진재우 et al. 2014]

Stability, control and flight dynamics

The rest of the control literature. Stability and control of aircraft, rotorcraft and multirotors, flight dynamics, lateral and directional motion, stability augmentation, guidance and flight control systems.

604 records. [3D Path-Following Control 2017] [Abadi et al. 2018] [Abdessameud and Janabi-Sharifi 2013] [Abdessameud and Janabi-Sharifi 2015] [Abdessameud and Tayebi 2013a] [Abdessameud and Tayebi 2013b] [Abdulhamitbilal 2016] [Abzug and Larrabee 2002] [Abzug and Larrabee] [Abzug and Larrabee] [Abzug and Larrabee] [Adolf and Moraes Carneiro 2009] [Ailon] [Ailon 2006] [Ailon 2009] [Aircraft Moments of Inertia 1996] [Aircraft Stability and Control 2003] [Aircraft Stability and Control 2014] [Aircraft Stability and Control 2024] [Aircraft Stability Derivatives 2002] [Airplane Stability and Control 1998] [Akturk and Camcı 2014] [Alharasees et al. 2024] [Ali and Gueaieb 2010] [Ali et al. 2024] [Allen et al. 1989] [Ananthkrishnan 2004] [Ananthkrishnan and Sinha 2013] [Ananthkrishnan and Sinha 2023] [Andersen and Kristiansen 2020] [Anderson 1967] [Anderson and Innis 1965] [Anderson and Schroers 1972a] [Ando and Kajita 1992] [Anthony and Habashi 2021] [Anthony et al. 2018] [Appendix G 2003] [Araar and Aouf 2014] [Ashraf and Van Kampen 2020] [Automatic Control of VTOL 1966] [Axten et al. 2024] [Baker et al. 1950] [Bakshi 2018] [BaniAsad et al. 2024] [Barnwell and Boyd 1998] [Barwal et al. 2025] [Baxter and Finvold 1958] [Bazhenov 2011] [Beattie 1975] [Beatty and Worthey 1984] [Bengtson et al. 1975] [Benzaid et al. 2016] [Bestaoui and Slim 2007] [Bhatkhande] [Bi et al. 1989] [Biber 2006] [Binnie and Stengel 1978] [Bird 1970] [Bischoff and Palmer 1983] [Bivens 1985] [Bliamis et al. 2021] [Blight et al. 1986] [bo 2025] [Bodson and Athans 1985] [Boles et al. 1984] [Bouldjedri 2018] [Bowman et al. 2012] [Bramwell et al. 2000] [Britt and Wheelock 1977] [Brown 1981] [Bruner 1983] [Budak et al. 2023] [Calise and Kramer 1982] [Calise and Kramer 1984] [Campbell and Abramovitz 1975] [Campos et al. 2021] [Capen 1971] [Carpenter 1970] [Carter 1969] [Carvalho] [Castaldi et al. 2014] [Castiglione et al. 2023] [Celi et al. 2004] [Chambers 1971] [Chapter 6. Lateral-Directional Motions 2005] [Chapter 7. Coupled Longitudinal 2005] [Chen and Wang 2013] [Chen et al. 2018] [Chen et al. 2024a] [Chu and Berman 2025] [Chuan et al. 2016] [Chung and Son 2023] [Chung et al. 2019] [Ciliberti and Nicolosi 2026] [Coelho et al. 2017] [Connors and Swaim 1968] [Cook 1997b] [Cook 1997c] [Cook 2007b] [Cook 2007c] [Cook 2013a] [Cook 2013c] [Cook 2021] [Cook and Hickey 1967] [Cornish 1964] [Cornish 1965] [Cortez et al. 2026] [Costandin et al. 2018] [Costello 2009] [Coupled Longitudinal and Lateral-Directional 2015] [Craig and Paley 2017] [Craig et al. 2019] [Crandall et al. 1973] [Cristobal 2024] [Cunha et al. 2009] [da Cunha et al. 2011] [Cunningham 1976] [Curran and Levine 1979] [Curtiss 1965a] [Curtiss 1969] [Curtiss 1970] [Czyba and Kronhof 2020] [Dagal and Erol 2025] [Danek 2002] [Dang and Dao 2024] [Davis et al. 1977] [Davis et al. 1985] [De Paula Vera and Rozenfeld Henrique 2015] [de Plinval et al. 2013] [Ruiz and Aouf 2017] [Dendy and Tribken 1968] [Development of Longitudinal 2014] [Development 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Propeller and wing interference and the slipstream

The interference the tandem wing lived in. Propeller and wing interaction, the slipstream and its effect on lift, drag, stability and the boundary layer, deflected-slipstream and propeller-blown wings, and the installation of propellers on wings and nacelles. 166 titles name the slipstream and 25 distributed propulsion, the second being the modern form of a wing immersed in several propeller slipstreams at once.

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Sizing and configuration design of vertical take-off aircraft

The aircraft as a design problem. Conceptual and preliminary design, sizing, configuration selection, weight and performance of vertical take-off, short take-off and electric aircraft, and design optimisation.

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Tandem wings, canards, downwash and trim

The longitudinal layout. Tandem wings, canards, biplanes and joined wings, the interference between lifting surfaces in line, downwash at the aft surface, trim and its drag, and induced drag. 188 titles name the canard and 83 the tandem arrangement, which is the review’s observation that the subject arrives mostly under the word canard.

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[Kravchenko 1995] [Kryvokhatko 2023a] [Kryvokhatko 2023b] [Kryvokhatko 2023c] [Kryvokhatko 2024a] [Kryvokhatko 2024b] [Kryvokhatko 2025] [Kuntjoro et al. 2015] [Kunwar et al. 2024] [Kusunose 2004] [Kusunose and Crowder 2001] [Kuzmina et al. 2004] [Lacey 1979] [Laitone 1980] [Lamar 1976b] [Lamar 1976a] [Lamar 1977] [Lamar and Hodges 1995] [Landfield and Rajkovic 1984] [Landfield and Rajkovic 1986] [Larrabee 1975b] [Levin 1997] [Leyser 1996] [Li] [Lifting Surfaces 1977] [Lijewski 1987] [Lijewski 1988] [Liu et al. 2008] [Lockwood Taylor 1942] [Lombardi and Mengali 1997] [Lombardi and Morelli 1994] [Lombardi and Vicini 1994] [Longo and Das 1990] [Loth and Boyle 1969] [Lottati 1984] [Loubimov and Kinzel 2021] [Lu and Lu 1997] [Lundry 1967] [Lyapunov 1993] [Keith and Selberg 1983] [Ma et al. 2004] [Ma et al. 2017] [Mahadev et al. 2024] [Malfa et al. 1991] [Malpica 2017b] [Malpica 2017a] [Mark and Dehart 1976] [Martins et al. 2024] [Mason 1982] [May et al. 2023] [May et al. 2024a] [McBreen et al. 2023] [McCutchen 1989] [McGeer and Kroo 1983] [McKinney and Newsom 1962] [McKlNNEY and DOLLYHlGH 1971] [Mele et al. 2015] [Menees and Boyd 1959] [Milz et al. 2024b] [Milz et al. 2025] [Milz et al. 2026a] [Milz et al. 2026c] [Miner and Gloss 1975] [Mitchell and Vogel 2003] [Modelling Helicopter Flight Dynamics 2007b, Modelling Helicopter Flight Dynam 2] [Modelling Helicopter Flight Dynamics 2018b, Modelling Helicopter Flight Dynam] [Mohd. Nasir 2026] [Morishita 2016] [Mortara and Maughmer 1993] [Nasir and Kuntjoro 2013] [Nasir et al. 2012a] [Nasir et al. 2012b] [Nasir et al. 2014] [Nasuhbeyoglu and Akça 2024] [Nathman 2005] [Newsom 1963] [Nicholas et al. 1984] [Nixon 2003] [Oelker and Hummel 1989] [Okulski and Ławryńczuk 2022] [Osder] [Ossyra et al. 2025] [Ott et al. 2026] [Panayotov et al. 2017] [Pandya and Aftosmis 2001] [Pate 2013] [Paulson et al. 1979] [Peigin and Epstein 2007] [Li et al. 2015] [Pfeiffer 1988b] [Pham 2026] [Phillips and Snyder 2000] [Phillips et al. 2019] [Pierson and Unger 1982] [Poggi et al. 2024] [Pomeroy and Visser 2010] [Posada and Loth 2007] [Pradeep and Wei 2018] [Re and Capone 1977] [Re and Capone 1978] [Ren and Zha 2025] [Кривохатько 2013] [Research on Combination 2019] [Reubush 1977] [Revell 1975] [Riccius 1984] [Rizzi et al. 2010] [Rom et al. 1989] [Roskam 1975] [Jeon 2008] [Rudresh et al. 2024] [Rutherford et al. 1993] [Sagan et al. 2021] [Sagan et al. 2025] [Sajjad et al. 2021] [Sanders 1965] [Santos 1994] [Satrianto and Firmanto 2023] [Schirra et al. 2014] [Schirra et al. 2021] [Schmidt and Duren 2002] [Scott 2022] [Sears 1974] [Secchi and Mestriner 2026] [Seckel 1964d] [Seckel and Graziani 1956] [Seginer and Wasserstrom 1983] [Seibel 1963] [Selberg 1983] [Selberg and Rokhsaz 1985] [Seraj and Martins 2023] [Seraj and Martins 2025] [Shah and Ahmed 2023] [Shah and Ahmed 2024] [Shahjahan and Ahuja 2026b] [Shankar and Goebel 1983] [Shankar and Goebel 1985] [Shankar and Malmuth 1982] [Shankar and Malmuth 1983] [Shankar et al. 1979] [Shankar et al. 1981] [Shinozuka et al. 2024] [Sigal 1999] [Sigal 2000] [Sigal et al. 1997] [Simpkin 1982] [Sirbaugh 1983] [Sleeman 1957] [Smeltzer et al. 1983] [Smith and Kroo 1990] [Spallino and Rizzo] [Spencer 1961] [Stengel et al. 1977] [Geuther et al. 2020] [Sears 1990] [Stewart 1981a] [Stewart 1985] [Stewart and Paulson 1984] [Stoll and Koenig 1983] [Stone 2002b] [Streit et al. 2010] [Su et al. 2026] [Summey and Smetana 1977] [Syrovy and Yassini 2005] [Tengfei Guo et al. 2011] [The Boeing Canard Rotor/wing 2004] [The Farman Biplane 1909] [The Voisin “Canard” Biplane 1911] [Thomas et al. 1977] [Thompson 1992] [Thompson 2022] [Transition Aerodynamics for Close-Coupled 1979] [Traub 2024] [Trim and Longitudinal Static 2017] [Trim Drag and Maneuvering 2010] [Tu] [Tu 1991] [Tu 1992a] [Tu 1992b] [Tu 1992c] [Tu 1994a] [Tu 1994b] [Tu 1996] [Tu and VanDalsem 1996] [Tu et al. 1993] [Tuncer and Platzer 1996] [Tuncer and Platzer 1998] [Ueno et al. 2010] [Ulrich et al. 2001] [Valenti and Yukish 2020] [Van Tuyl 1959] [Varun and Dwivedi 2022] [Vinogradov et al. 2011] [Vogler 1970a] [Wang et al. 2019c] [Wang et al. 2020g] [Warzecha and Horng 1992] [Watanabe and Muraoka 2026] [Wei et al. 2019] [Weihs and Katz 1986] [Wen et al. 2022] [Wendong Gai et al. 2011] [Whiting 1996] [Wibowo et al. 2019] [Williams and Ybarra 1981b] [Wolkovitch 1979] [Wolkovitch 1984] [Wolkovitch 1985] [Wolkovitch and Fortenbaugh 1978] [Wolkovitch and Hoffman 1971] [Wu et al. 2025a] [Xiang et al. 2025] [Yangping and Honggang 2018] [Yen et al. 1981] [Yeo et al. 2016a] [Yi et al. 2027] [Yip 1985] [Yip and Coy 1982] [Yip and Paulson 1977] [Yutuk et al. 2021] [Yılmaz and German 2024] [Zafirov 2013] [Zala and Greenwood 2026] [Zeiler and Weisshaar 1986] [Zhang and Yu 2012] [Zhang and Yuan 2019] [Zhang et al. 2013a] [Zhang et al. 2023b] [Zhang et al. 2024i] [Zhou and Chen 2014] [Zhu et al. 2025b] [Zola et al. 1984] [Zurriati et al. 2011]

Transmissions, gears and the drive system

The drive the electric aircraft deleted. Helicopter and tilt-rotor transmissions, spiral bevel, planetary and split-torque gearing, bearings, lubrication, gear fatigue and fault diagnosis, and the shafting of multi-engine vertical take-off aircraft. 179 of its 356 titles name a helicopter or rotorcraft and 27 name split-torque gearing.

356 records. [A Carnot Theorem 1968] [Alcedo 1980] [Alpman et al. 2003] [Amri et al. 2021] [Analog Nueral Network-Based Helicopter 1997] [Anderson and Loewenthal 1983] [Anderson and Wagner 1989] [Anderson et al. 1984] [Anderson et al. 1985] [Auclair and Seminski 1971] [August et al. 1984] [Aydoğan et al. 2023] [Badgley and Laskin 1970] [Bandoh and Niwa 1998] [Battezzato and Pias 1989] [Battles 1975] [Battles 1979] [Bechhoefer et al. 2009] [Bechhoefer et al. 2010] [Becker] [Belben 2016] [Bellocq et al. 2015] [Bhaumik et al. 2007] [Bill 1990] [Bill 1992] [Binney et al. 2021] [Blachowski and Ostrowski 2001] [Bloch and Schneider 1960] [Bloomfield 1959] [Bolander et al. 2010] [Bossler and Heath 1991] [Bossler and Heath 1992] [Bossler et al. 1978] [Bowen 1967] [Bowen 1970] [Bowen and Walker 1972] [Bowen et al. 1969] [Braddock 1982] [Braddock and Battles 1983] [Brennan et al. 1994] [Brennan et al. 1998] [Burger and Hartfield 2007] [Burroughs and Lastine 1965] [Bělík 2022] [Cai et al. 2024b] [Robb et al] [Cass and Echols 2003] [Chaiko 1990] [Chase 1973] [Chen 1991] [Chen and Bossler 1995] [Cheng et al. 2020] [Choy and Qian 1993] [Choy et al. 1988] [Choy et al. 1997] [Coe 1989] [Cormier 1979] [Coy 1987] [Coy and Bill 1988] [Coy et al. 1984] [Coy et al. 1987] [Coy et al. 1988c] [Coy et al. 1988a] [Coy et al. 1988b] [Daniel 1964] [Darlow and Creonte 1995] [Das 2011] [Dawson 1982] [Dean 1979] [Deazley 1964] [Delgado and Hurrell 2017] [Dellomo 1999] [Deming 1940] [Dempsey et al. 2003] [Dempsey et al. 2004] [Dempsey et al. 2007] [Dempsey et al. 2008] [Dempsey et al. 2009] [Dent et al. 1970] [DeSmidt et al. 2012] [Ding 2011] [Ding and Jin 2026] [Ding et al. 2025b] [Dong et al. 2020] [Dong et al. 2021b] [Douglas 1991] [Drago and Lenski 1982] [Drago and Lenski 1990] [Duan et al. 2016a] [Duan et al. 2016b] [Duan et al. 2017] [Dubrow et al. 1992] [Dudnik 2024] [Dutton 1967] [Ehinger and Kilmain 2007] [El-Sayed 2016] [Elasha et al. 2015] [Elasha et al. 2017] [Litvin et al. 1990] [Face Gear Technology 2005] [Fagan 1967] [Fagan 1973] [Farides 2025a] [Faruque 2014] [Figge et al. 1974] [Filler et al. 2002] [Fischer 1983] [Folenta 1983] [Folenta 1986a] [Folenta 1986b] [Folenta and Lebo 1988] [Fournis et al. 2026] [Chandrasekaran and Krishnan 2025] [Gaudette 1980] [Gilman 1944] [Gmirya and Vinayak 2003] [Goi et al. 1999] [Goldring 1977] [Goodall 1977] [Gouda et al. 2014] [Grana 1985] [Gregoire 2023] [Gu and Chu 2014] [Guerrero and Corliss 1991a] [Guerrero and Corliss 1991b] [Guglieri 2001] [Guida 2023a] [Guo and Horn 2009a] [Guo et al. 2011] [Haidar et al. 2021] [Haiwei et al. 2013] [Hall et al. 2024] [Han et al. 2014a] [Han et al. 2026b] [Hanachi 1990] [Handschuh and Rohn 1988] [Handschuh and Rohn 1989] [Handschuh et al. 2009] [Handschuh et al. 2010] [Harding and Mack 1970] [Harmon 1941] [Hartman 1934] [Hassan et al. 2016] [Hawkins 1999] [Hayden and Keller 1973] [Hayden and Keller 1974] [He and Lu 2011] [He et al. 2025b] [He et al. 2026c] [Heath and Bossler 1993] [Heath et al. 2002] [Henry 1990] [Henry 1992] [Henry 1995] [Hetherington et al. 1990] [Hoffmann et al. 2006] [Hofmeister et al. 2018] [Houser and Bassett 1985] [Huang et al. 2014] [Hudson 1977] [Hudson and Gee 1977] [Hutchinson 2019a] [Jacob Boby and Raj Kumar 2016] [Jacobson et al. 1985] [Jambunathan and Murthy 1993] [Jin et al. 2023b] [Johnson 1990] [Kahraman and Singh 1990] [Kaul and Huff 2002] [Kazlas et al] [Kelley et al. 1984] [Kiddy et al. 2011] [Krantz 1994a] [Krantz 1994b] [Krantz and Handschuh 1990] [Krstic et al. 2016] [LaBerge et al. 2016] [Laberge et al. 2017] [Lafever 1984] [Laskin et al. 1968] [Le Hen et al. 2005] [Leishman 1966] [Lemanski 1976] [Lenski and Valco 1991] [Lewicki 1990] [Lewicki and Coy 1987a] [Lewicki and Townsend 1989] [Lewicki et al. 1992a] [Lewicki et al. 1992b] [Lewicki et al. 1992c] [Lewicki et al. 1993] [Lewicki et al. 2015] [Li et al. 2024g] [Liao et al. 2011] [Lin et al. 1987] [Lin et al. 1989] [Litvin and Coy 1983] [Litvin et al. 1982] [Litvin et al. 1983] [Litvin et al. 1992a] [Litvin et al. 1992b] [Litvin et al. 1996] [Litvin et al. 2005a] [Litvin et al. 2005b] [Liu et al. 2026b] [Logan 1976] [Luculescu 2021] [Luo et al. 2026c] [Ly 2011] [Mack 1965] [Mahapatra et al. 2001] [Maier et al. 1998] [Mallikarjuna et al. 2020] [Mancini 1983] [Marjadi et al. 2020] [Marjadi et al. 2021] [Mark 1987a] [Mark 1987b] [Materials for Helicopter Gears 1979] [Meheut 2013] [Mermoz et al. 2011] [Miller et al. 1990] [Misté and Benini 2012] [Misté and Benini 2016] [Mitchell 1991] [Mitchell and Coy 1982] [Mitchell et al. 1986a] [Mitchell et al. 1986b] [Mixson et al. 1979] [Moellmann and O’Connor 1967] [Molland and Turnock 2002] [Monsen et al] [Monsen et al. 1995] [Munter 1954] [Nacib et al. 2024] [Naskar 2012] [Nasvytis and White 1983] [Nguyen et al. 2002] [Ohgawara et al. 2020] [Onishi and Oyama 2026] [Ortamevzi 2023] [Oswald 2001] [Oswald 2002] [Overfield and Crawford 1967] [Padula and Block 1984b] [Panontin 1993] [Park and Schlaich 2019] [Phillips and Niewoehner 2006] [Podlaski et al. 2023] [Prause et al. 1967] [Radzevich 2018] [Rahman .A and Basha .A. M 2007] [Rashidi and Krantz 1992] [Reader 1980] [Reis 1976] [Reis et al. 1977] [Rodriguez et al. 2014] [Saidi and Bechhoefer 2026] [Saidi et al. 2025] [Samuel and Pines 1999] [Samuel and Pines 2001] [Saraçyakupoğlu 2020] [Savage and Brikmanis 1986] [Savage and Lewicki 1991] [Savage et al. 1982] [Savage et al. 1996] [Sawalhi and Randall] [Schairer 1944] [Schmidt 2026] [Schwartz and Jones 2000] [Segade-Robleda et al. 2012] [Sellers et al. 1977] [Shankin et al. 2013] [Shen et al. 2016] [Shi et al. 2014] [Silva-Martinez et al. 2015] [Solid Lubricant for Helicopter 1968] [Spencer et al. 1991] [Stevens et al. 2012] [Stevens et al. 2014] [Stevens et al. 2015] [Stevens et al. 2018] [Strom and Ludwig 1975] [Sulkoske et al. 1977] [Sun and Yuan 1994] [Szefi et al. 2003] [Szefi et al. 2004] [Theys and De Schutter 2021] [Tho and Wang 2007] [Toms and Cassidy 2008] [Toraason and Broman 1984] [Townsend 1986] [Townsend 1997] [Townsend and Akin 1983] [Townsend et al. 1976] [Tracy and Chopra 1993] [Tronconi et al. 2025] [Trustee 1976] [Tryon et al. 2009] [Tucker and Dempsey 2016] [Turulin 2025] [Two-Speed Propeller Reduction Gear] [Unruh 1989b] [Unruh 1990] [Uppoor and Chopra 2026] [Vahabzadeh and Linzell 1991] [Vaicaitis 1979] [van Gerwen et al. 2007] [Vilán Vilán et al. 2010] [Vranish 2003] [Vranish 2007] [Vranish 2009] [Wang and Li 2020a] [Wang et al. 1998] [Wang et al. 1999b] [Wang et al. 2018c] [Wang et al. 2020e] [Wang et al. 2024b] [Ward 1970] [Warsett 1953] [Watson 1949] [Wattananaphakaseam et al. 2021] [Wei et al. 2025a] [Weller and Warmbrodt 1983] [Wenyi Wang] [Whelchel et al. 2022] [White 1982] [White 1983a] [White 1983b] [White 1985] [White 1998] [Willis 1980a] [Willis 1981b] [Xiang et al. 2026] [Xu et al] [Yang 2008] [Yang et al. 2024c] [Yang et al. 2024d] [Yi et al. 2026] [Yin et al. 2011] [Yu et al. 2025c] [Yuan and Cai 2017] [Zachary and Stapper 1998] [Zamponi et al. 2011] [Zaretsky 1983] [Zaretsky et al. 1979a] [Zaretsky et al. 1979b] [Zaretsky et al. 1983] [Zaretsky et al. 1984] [Zhang 2010] [Zhang et al. 2010b] [Zhao et al. 2017] [Zhao et al. 2025f] [Zheng et al. 2026] [Zhou et al. 2019b] [Zhu et al. 2026]

Computational methods, wind tunnel testing and flight test

The methods that replaced the hand estimate. Computational aerodynamics, wind tunnel testing and its technique, flight test, system identification, and the measurement of aircraft and rotor characteristics.

345 records. [Jacob da Motta 2020] [Abdessameud and Tayebi 2010a] [Abdessameud and Tayebi 2010b] [Ахрамеев et al. 2019] [Air Force Flight Test Center Edwards AFB CA 1974a] [Air Force Flight Test Center Edwards AFB CA 1974b] [Akturk and Camci 2011a] [Akturk and Camci 2011b] [Akturk and Camci 2011c] [Akturk and Camci 2013] [Alexander 2024] [Allen et al. 1945] [Ammer and Kutney 1977] [Aoyagi 1979] [Aoyagi et al. 1961] [Arent and Falatko 1992] [Army Aviation Board Fort Rucker Al 1964] [Army Materiel Command Alexandria VA 1974a] [Army War Coll Carlisle Barracks Pa 2006] [Arnold 1968] [Atte and Rauleder 2026] [Atzhorn and Stengel 1981] [Avco Lycoming Div Stratford Ct 1970] [Bach and McNally 1988] [Bach and McNally 1989] [Baker et al. 1980] [Barberie et al. 2013] [Barbosa et al. 2022] [Becker and Frounfelker 1992] [Simmons et al] [Simmons] [Simmons] [Simmons 2023a] [Berenger et al. 1996] [Bhattarai et al. 2026] [Bigler 1986] [Binion 1970] [Binion 1975] [Bobula et al. 2019] [Boschetti et al. 2010] [Bouffard 2012] [Bowden and Shockey 1970] [Brand et al. 1986] [Brand et al. 1989] [Briassulis and Andreopoulos 1991] [Brown et al. 2007] [Burstadt and Johns 1983] [Callan 2012] [Campbell and Quinn 1973] [Russell and Conley] [Catană et al. 2022] [Chambers and Kirby 1966] [Charla et al. 2024a] [Chebbi and Briere 2021] [Chen 1982a] [Chen et al. 2023a] [Chowdhary and Lorenz 2005] [Churchill and Harrington 1959] [Clough et al. 1971] [Coleman 1997] [Colman et al. 2011] [Cook and Hickey 1965] [Cotton 1974] [Cowgill 1957] [Crispin 1982] [Curtiss et al. 1961] [Czarnecki and Donlan 1976] [Danis] [Dantsker et al. 2018] [De Divitiis 2003] [Zahn et al. 2024] [Davis 1987] [Davis and Mertens 1958] [deGarcia and Perisho 1962] [Dehghan Manshadi and Saghafi 2021] [Deng and Mi 2025] [Deore and Coder 2024] [Deore et al. 2023] [Desai et al. 2009] [Design Development and Open-Loop 2013] [Desopper 1985] [Diedrich 1971] [Diedrich 1975] [Ding et al. 2025a] [Dong et al. 2014a] [Dooley and Yeary 1979] [Dos Santos et al. 2024] [Downing and Bryant 1979] [Drinkwater and Rolls 1963b] [Duran 2026] [Duyar et al. 1992] [Dybvad 1973] [Dynamic Lateral-Directional Stability Theory 2003] [Ellerbroek et al. 2007] [ERC V/STOL Program Flight 1968] [Erhard and Alonso 2024] [Eulrich and Mesiah 1974] [Experimental Development and Evaluation 2006] [Experimental Development 1981] [Falarski 1979] [Fay and Johnstone 1960] [Feistel and Morelli 1980] [Fenwick 1966] [Ferrand et al. 2020] [Ferrier et al. 2025] [Figueira et al. 2025] [Flight Test 1979] [Flight Tests of Multirotor 2017] [Fosdick 1970] [Freeman and Aboelezz 2026] [Fuchs et al. 2018] [Garland 1980] [Garland and Harris 1980] [Asper and Simmons 2022] [Garrow and Kim 2024] [Gerdes 1981] [Golovkin et al. 2018] [Gopejenko et al. 2026] [Goud and Dwivedi 2022] [Grauer and Morelli 2013] [Guryansky and Silverstein 1941] [Gustafson et al. 1960] [Hall 1965] [Hall 1968a] [Hall 1970a] [Hall 1971] [Hall 1972] [Hall et al. 1967b] [Hanks 1979] [Hardy and Matthews 1968] [Harno and Kim 2020] [Harrington 1951] [Hart 1992] [Harvey et al. 2024] [Healy et al. 2019] [Healy et al. 2021] [Heimerl et al. 2021] [Hepler and Free 1974] [Hermyt and Pastucha 2024] [Heyson 1969a] [Heyson 1970] [Heyson 1973] [Heyson 1978] [Hollingsworth et al. 1977] [Hughes and Wernicke 1974] [Huston and Winston 1969] [Hyodo and Lei 2024] [Hüllmann et al. 2018] [Ing and Zhang 1993] [Putnam et al] [Jang 2025] [Jardin and Mueller 2009] [Jenkins et al. 2009] [Jiang et al. 2015] [Joppa 1966] [Joppa 1968a] [Joppa and Shindo 1965] [Jou and Metcalfe 1984] [Karabacak and Turan 2026] [Karli et al. 2024] [Keller et al. 2026a] [Kelly 1972] [Kelly 1988] [Kelly and Smaus 1952] [Kerler et al. 2016] [Kidwell and Wray 1964] [Kim et al. 2024e] [Kim et al. 2026b] [Kirby 1964] [Kirby and Parlett 1964] [Klann et al. 1984] [Klimchenko et al. 2017] [Knott 1977] [Knott 1978] [Koenig 1984] [Koenig et al. 1977] [Kolwey 1977] [Koning 2018] [Koning et al. 2018] [Kozol and Tankins 1993] [Krebs 1978] [Kuppuswamy and Kiran 1981] [Lange 1947] [Lange et al. 1946] [Lateral-Directional Stability Theory 2003] [Lavi 1966] [Lavi 1967a] [Lebacqz and Chen 1977] [Lechniak et al. 2018] [Lee 1952] [Lee and Yoon 2008] [Lee et al. 2022b] [Lee et al. 2026e] [Lewis et al. 1978] [Lim et al. 2024] [Liu 2023] [Liu and Liao 2019] [Livingston 1965] [Lo 1970] [Lockheed-California Co Burbank 1964] [Lopez and Biancolini 2025] [Loughran et al. 2024] [Lovell 1954] [Lu et al. 2023] [Luu and Ochi 2023] [Ma et al. 2020] [Macdonald] [Mahalingam and Komerath 1998] [Marcos] [Margason and Hoad 1979] [Margason et al. 1972] [Maricic 2006] [Martin and Tung 2004] [Mayerjak 1978] [McCloud et al. 1960] [McKillip(Jr.) 2022] [McNally and Bach 1988] [McSwain et al. 2017] [Melton and Hall 1968] [Merceruio] [Milne and Arthur 2006] [Mineck 1977] [Misiorowski et al. 2019] [Mobley and Coder 2022] [Mobley et al. 2021] [Monteil 2024] [Moore and Newsom 1970] [Moraru 2024] [Morelli 2021] [Morelli 2022] [Mortimer et al. 2020] [Mumford et al. 2023] [Munasinghe 2022] [Murphy 1956] [Newsom 1970] [Nobahari et al. 2022] [Ogren et al. 1974] [Oliinyk and Zylevich 2026] [Olstad 1960a] [Olstad 1960b] [Ostowari and Naik 1986] [Ottesen and Dickson 1979] [Owen et al. 1996] [Padfield and Duval 1982] [Park et al. 2025a] [Parlett 1961b] [Passe et al. 2015] [Paulson et al. 1988] [Payne and Henry E. 1961] [Piccinini et al. 2020] [Porter et al. 2015] [Pour Razzaghi et al. 2025] [Prasad et al. 2014] [Prasad Rao et al. 2022] [Purser and Spear 1947] [Qi et al. 2020] [Quackenbush 1987] [Queijo et al. 1953] [Rae and Shindo 1969] [Rahnamai 2016] [Rao and Chimata 2024] [Ratvasky and Ranaudo 1993] [Reader 1976] [Reason 1999] [Reilly 1970] [Rich] [Rising 1982] [Rizk and Menon 1987] [Roberts and Tayebi 2011b] [Roberts et al. 1966] [Rolls 1965a] [Rolls and Aoyagi 1977] [Roth 1991] [Roth 1993a] [Rothaupt et al. 2026] [Rush 1966] [Russell et al. 2018] [Sastre et al. 2025] [Schneider 1963] [Schumacher 1952] [Seaver et al. 2023] [Seren and Hornung 2023] [Shanmugam et al. 2025] [Sharma et al. 2026] [Shen et al. 2026a] [Sheng and Zhao 2025a] [Shim et al. 2023] [Shivers 1970] [Sigl and Strawn 1989] [Simmons and Busan 2024] [Simmons et al. 2023b] [Simmons et al. 2023c] [Simon and Savage 1975] [Sirca et al. 2020] [Smith 1959] [Smith 1961a] [Smith and Parsons 1970] [Stange 1959] [Stoll and Minter 1981] [Stroub 1985] [Su] [Su and Lin 2011] [Sullivan 1973] [Tangler 1979] [Thibault 1964] [Thomas 1967] [Tierney et al. 2021] [Tomaine et al. 1978] [Turnbow 1961] [Turner 1975] [Ueno et al. 2021] [Vagianos and Rooney 1964] [van der Maas 1959] [VanZante 2011] [Vogler 1970b] [Wadcock et al. 2011] [Wang 2026] [Wang et al. 2014c] [Wang et al. 2016] [Wang] [Warner and Rogers 2019] [Warner et al. 2016] [Watts et al. 1971] [Weber and Gay 1975] [Wei et al. 2026a] [Wendel et al. 1991] [Wenzinger and Sivells 1942] [Whittley and Koenig 1980] [Williams and Ybarra 1981a] [Wilson and Mineck 1974] [Wilson et al. 1981b] [Winston 1969a] [Winston 1969b] [Winter 1936] [Wood 1972] [Ye et al. 2020b] [Yepifanov and Bondarenko 2022] [Yuska and Diedrich 1972] [Zahn et al. 2025] [Zeising and Gerhardt 1993] [Zhou et al. 2019a] [Zierten and Rettie 1977] [Zikyamov et al. 2026] [Zori] [Öznalbant and Kavsaoglu 2015]

Electric propulsion, motors and energy

What removed the transmission. Electric and hybrid-electric propulsion of vertical take-off and other aircraft, motors and their design, batteries, fuel cells, power electronics, energy management and distributed electric propulsion. 82 titles name hybrid propulsion and 32 a battery, and 267 of its 329 records date from 2015 or later.

329 records. [Adesh and Arun 2024] [Ahmed et al. 2024] [Alfares 2026] [Alvarez] [Anderson et al. 2024] [Bacchini and Cestino 2019] [Baris and Landman 2017] [Woodworth] [Datta 2021] [Barbosa Marques and Silva 2021] [Battery Testing 2023] [Bazin et al. 2016] [Benjamin et al. 2025] [Bianco 2020] [Bills et al. 2023] [Binkley 1986] [Bonnin et al. 2023] [Borer et al. 2016] [Brauer et al. 2015] [Le Bris and Nguyen 2023a] [Brito] [Buvarp and Leijon 2024] [Cai et al. 2026] [Carlson 2014] [Chan 2019] [Chandrashekhar et al. 2025] [Chelemen et al. 2023] [Chen et al. 2025b] [Chen et al. 2026b] [Christie et al. 2016] [Christie et al. 2017] [Snyder] [Clarke 2015] [Coelho et al. 2022] [Cole et al. 2021a] [Comunian et al. 2025] [Cornes 2019] [Courtin and Hansman 2019] [Cui et al. 2027] [Cunningham et al. 2022] [Cusati et al. 2023] [Czyba et al. 2018] [Dai et al. 2026a] [North et al] [North] [Davis et al. 2025] [de Vries and Vos 2022] [de Vries et al. 2019b] [Deckert and Rolls 1974] [Deere et al. 2017a] [Deere et al. 2017b] [Deere et al. 2017c] [Deere et al. 2018] [Demers Bouchard et al. 2015] [Deng et al. 2026] [Caminero et al. 2024] [Distributed Electric Propulsion 2018] [Donateo and Çinar 2022] [Dorfling and Traub 2023] [Dubois et al. 2016] [Dyson 2018] [Economou et al. 2019] [Electric and Hybrid-Electric Propulsion] [Ellafrits et al. 2025] [Eqbal et al. 2022] [Eqbal et al. 2023] [Finger et al. 2020] [Hendricks et al] [Farides 2025b] [Felder et al. 2011] [Guo et al. 2024] [Asfoor et al] [Fisler and Datta 2019] [Fredericks et al. 2013a] [Fredericks et al. 2013b] [Gallani et al. 2020] [Gao et al. 2026] [Garg et al. 2025] [Gemin et al. 2015] [Thomas et al] [Gholamian and Beik 2026] [Giernacki 2016] [Giernacki et al. 2016] [Ginn 2014] [Ginn 2015] [Ginn and Clarke 2016] [Glover et al. 2024] [Goebel and Saha 2013] [Goericke et al. 2024b] [Golovanov et al. 2019] [Gorospe and Kulkarni 2017] [Goshtasbi et al. 2024] [Govindarajan and Sridharan 2021] [Grady and Lindenbaum 2000] [Gunnarson 2014] [Dabaghian et al. 2025] [Goldschmidt et al. 2024] [Hakansson et al. 2025] [Haller 2015] [Hamilton] [Hao and Christopher 2025] [He et al. 2023d] [He et al. 2026a] [Head 2025] [Hennessy 2014] [Herzog et al. 2021] [Hess 2019] [Hirschberg 2023] [Hong et al. 2023] [Hu and Agyei-Owusu] [Hu et al. 2022] [Huang 2023] [Huangfu et al. 2024] [Hybrid and Electric Propulsion 2025] [Kim et al. 2020c] [Islam et al. 2026] [Ito 2018] [Putnam et al. 2026] [Putnam] [Putnam et al] [Jahn 1985] [Jarrad et al. 2025] [Jeong et al. 2024] [Jexembaeyva and Alexander 2025] [Jiang and Pakmehr 2022] [Jiao and Yang 2026] [Doo et al. 2021] [Johnson 1935] [Litt et al. 2023] [Litt et al. 2026] [Litt et al] [Litt et al] [Litt et al] [Litt et al. 2024] [Anibal and Duensing] [Littell et al] [Littell et al] [Kang et al. 2023b] [Kang et al. 2025c] [Deere et al. 2022] [Keijzer et al. 2024] [Khan 2011] [Khan et al. 2025] [Kim et al. 2008b] [Kim et al. 2013a] [Kim et al. 2018] [Kishi et al. 2021] [Klunk and Freeman 2018] [Kou et al. 2023] [Papathakis 2021] [Koch et al] [Lawhorn et al. 2018] [Le Bris and Nguyen 2023b] [Lee 2026] [Lee and Yee 2024] [Lee et al. 2018a] [Lee et al. 2022a] [Lefebvre and Zha 2015] [Lei and Zhao 2023] [Li and Rodrigues 2026] [Machado et al] [Li 2024b] [Li et al. 2023c] [Li et al. 2023e] [Li et al. 2025a] [Li et al. 2025d] [Li et al. 2025f] [Li et al. 2025c] [Li et al. 2026f] [Li et al. 2026i] [Li et al. 2026j] [Littell et al. 2019] [Littell et al. 2025] [Liu and Hupy 2025] [Haworth et al] [Love 2022] [Lympany and Page 2024] [Ma et al. 2022a] [Ma et al. 2024] [Ma et al. 2026] [Machado et al. 2025] [Madavan et al. 2015] [Mao et al. 2022] [Moore] [Moore] [Marzooqi et al. 2024] [Marzougui et al. 2022] [Melo] [Mieloszyk and Tarnowski 2019] [Miyairi et al. 2015] [Mo et al. 2026] [Models of Electric and] [Mohamed et al. 2025] [Mohammadi et al. 2026] [Mosca et al. 2021] [Nasoulis et al. 2022] [Neogi et al] [Nathan 2026] [Ng and Datta 2018] [Ni and Lee 2025] [Ogden and Patterson 2023] [Borer] [Borer et al] [Ng and Datta 2019] [Nishikawa and Rinoie 2024] [North et al. 2021] [null] [Obertino et al. 2023] [Orefice et al. 2020] [Orsag and Bogdan 2009] [Palumbo et al. 2016] [Papathakis] [Papathakis 2017a] [Papathakis et al. 2016a] [Papathakis et al. 2016b] [Park and Park 2026] [Park and Yee 2025] [Park and Yee 2026] [Park et al. 2022] [Park et al. 2024] [Park et al. 2025b] [Park et al. 2026b] [Pavel 2022] [Pengfei et al. 2025] [Perry et al. 2019] [Pettes-Duler et al. 2021] [Pham et al. 2022] [Pieper et al. 2018] [Prabhakar et al. 2026] [Rao et al. 2022] [Primary Flight Controls by] [Pradeep et al. 2021] [Prasetia et al. 2019] [Putnam and Littell 2019] [Qian et al. 2023] [Qiao and Zhou 2026] [Rahn et al. 2024] [Ranasinghe and Don Lakitha Gunawardana 2021] [Rizzi et al. 2017] [Russo et al. 2023] [Smith and Moushegian 2021] [Stoll 2015] [Taghbalout 2024] [Wang et al. 2023b] [Weinstein et al. 2026] [Sadalla et al. 2017] [Safwat et al. 2026] [Sasa et al. 2026] [Sawata and Dinu 2025] [Schaefer and Lutze 1991] [Schiltgen and Freeman 2019] [Schiltgen et al. 2012] [Schiltgen et al. 2013] [Schmidt et al. 2025] [Schnulo et al. 2017] [Schrage et al. 2018a] [Scott 2025] [Senkans et al. 2020] [Seren and Hornung 2020] [Serrano 2018] [Shane 1985b] [Shang et al. 2025] [Shi et al. 2023] [Siddavatam et al. 2023] [Siddavatam et al. 2024] [Sinha 2026] [Sirigireddy and Ahner 2026] [Snyder 2017] [Snyder 2020] [Sorensen et al. 2025] [Spada et al. 2025] [Stahl et al. 2020] [Stein and Vichness 1971] [Rizzi] [Silva et al. 2021] [Stoll et al. 2014] [Suiçmez and Kutay 2023] [Sumption 2026] [Swanson et al. 2021] [Synodinos et al. 2018] [Tallerico 2021] [Chau et al] [Tomimoto et al. 2024] [Trainelli 2026] [Tripaldi and Bianchi 2025] [Tu et al. 2025] [Valencia et al. 2019] [Vertiports - Infrastructure and] [Vos 2019] [Wahler et al. 2025] [Wang and Zhou 2026] [Wang et al. 2026e] [Wang et al. 2026j] [Wang et al. 2026h] [Wang et al. 2026k] [Wei et al. 2026c] [Weng et al. 2021] [Westcott et al. 2023b] [Wiston and Yan 2025] [Wood and Livingston 1971] [Wu et al. 2023b] [Xia et al. 2013] [Xu et al. 2026a] [Yan and Wiston 2026] [Yan et al. 2021] [Yang and Huang 2023] [Yilmaz et al. 2019] [Ayalew et al] [Yu et al. 2021a] [Yu et al. 2025a] [Yu et al. 2026b] [Yu et al. 2026c] [Yu et al. 2026e] [Yunus and Habing 2026] [Zaidi 2025] [Zatorski 2025] [Zhang and Zhang 2021] [Zhang et al. 2023a] [Zhao et al. 2023b] [Zhao et al. 2024c] [Zhao et al. 2024e] [Zhao et al. 2025b] [Zhao et al. 2025e] [Zhao et al. 2026b] [Zheng et al. 2025c] [Zhu et al. 2022] [Zong et al. 2021] [Çelik et al. 2023] [鲁 2020]

High-speed propellers, compressibility and the propfan

The cruise end of the propeller. High-speed and transonic propellers, compressibility, the propfan and the open rotor, counter-rotating propellers and the turboprop. 126 titles name the propfan, the advanced or unducted propeller or the open rotor, with a median year of 1987.

285 records. [Aerodynamics in the Age 1997] [Alexiou et al. 2016] [Aljabri 1983] [Aljabri 1987] [Aljabri 1988] [Allen and Korkan 1991] [Anderson et al. 1983] [Applin and Coe 1986] [Awker 1986] [Bacchini et al. 2021] [Balombin and Loeffler 1982] [Balombin and Loeffler 1983] [Barnes 2017] [Bartel and Swift 1989] [Bartlett 1985] [Barton et al. 1985] [Bauer 1983] [Bencze et al. 1986] [Bennett et al. 1983] [Bertke and Edinger 1984] [Biber 2000a] [Black et al. 2006] [Block et al. 1986] [Bober 1980] [Bober and Chang 1981] [Bober and Mitchell 1980] [Bober et al. 1983] [Boulkeraa et al. 2022] [Bousquet and Gardarein 2003] [Boyle et al. 1999] [Bradlaugh-Dredge 1986] [Bradley 1986] [Brooks and Mackall 1984] [Burrin and Salikuddin 1983] [Cai et al. 2022] [Capitao Patrao et al. 2018] [Carlson and Pendergraft 1987] [Carlson et al. 1985] [Chambers et al. 1989] [Chandrasekaran 1986] [Chandrasekaran 1987] [Chandrasekaran and Bartlett 1983] [Chapman et al. 1987] [Chapman et al. 1988] [Chapman et al. 1989] [Chen 1989] [Chi 1984] [Chung et al. 1991] [Ciliberti and Nicolosi 2022] [Clark 1953] [Claro et al. 2026] [Cleary 1945] [Codon and Bowles 1979] [Coe and Perkins 1990] [Coe and Perkins 1991] [Coe et al. 1984] [Conlon and Bowles 1978] [Corson and Maynard 1952] [Cox and Reed 1988] [Crighton and Parry 1991] [Davenport 1978] [Davy 1983] [Degeorge et al. 1987] [Delano 1951] [Denner 1989] [Denner and Korkan 1989] [Diehl et al. 2026] [Dittmar 1985] [Dittmar 1986b] [Dittmar 1987] [Dittmar 1989a] [Dittmar and Hall 1990] [Dittmar and Stang 1987a] [Dittmar and Stang 1987c] [Dittmar and Stang 1987b] [Dittmar et al. 1984] [Dittmar et al. 1988] [Dorfling and Rokhsaz 2016] [Dowell 1979] [Dubosc et al. 2014] [Dugan et al. 1977] [Dugan et al. 1980a] [Dunn and Farassat 1990] [Dunn and Farassat 1992] [Dunn and Tarkenton 1989] [Ehrich 1961] [Ehrich and Glessner 1964] [Energy Consumption Characteristics 1976] [Envia 1991] [Farassat 1984] [Farassat et al. 1987] [Farassat et al. 1989] [Farassat et al. 1990] [Farassat et al. 1992] [Fejtek et al. 1996] [Fuentes et al. 2013] [Gazzaniga and Rose 1992] [Gearhart 1983] [Gee and Novick 1988] [Ghenaiet and Halimi 2014] [Gilchrist 1983] [Glatt et al. 1983] [Glover et al. 1984] [Graber 1987] [Graber 1990] [Grieb and Eckardt 1986] [Groeneweg and Bober 1987] [Groeneweg and Bober 1990] [Grosveld 1987] [Grosveld 1988] [Hall and Delaney 1990] [Hambrey et al. 2017a] [Hambrey et al. 2017b] [Hanson 1982] [Hanson 1983a] [Hanson 1985] [Hazeri et al. 2024] [Heidelberg and Nallasamy 1990] [Heidelberg and Woodward 1987] [Helming 1994] [Hirschkron and Davis 1982] [Hirschkron and Russo 1986] [Huang et al. 2020a] [Ibrahim 2004] [Imray] [Janus et al. 1996] [Jeracki and Mitchell 1981] [Jeracki et al. 1979] [Jerominek 2026] [Jiang 2003] [Johnson 1983] [Juola et al. 1984] [Keck et al. 1968] [Keiter 1982] [Kim 1990] [Kingan and Parry 2020] [Kirker 1990] [Kong and Lee 2013] [Kong et al. 2012] [Kordan et al. 1985] [Korkan and Gazzaniga 1987] [Korkan et al. 1991] [Kuznetsov 1993] [Lange 1986] [Laur et al. 1992] [Lefevre et al. 2022a] [Lefevre et al. 2022c] [Lesieutre and Sullivan 1986] [Leth et al. 1998] [Levin et al. 1985] [Levin et al. 1986] [Lewis et al. 2023] [Lim and Sankar 1993] [Lindblad 1989] [Loeffler 1987] [Lopez and Dickson 1953] [Lopez and Dickson 1956] [Low Cost Cargo Aircraft 1960] [Lyman and Hancock 1986] [Boctor et al. 1978] [Maass 1995] [Mackall et al. 1982] [Magliozzi 1984] [Magliozzi and Hanson 1991] [Marinus 2012] [Marinus 2014] [Marinus et al. 2009] [Martinez 1989] [Matsuo et al. 1988] [McAninch and Rawls 1984] [McCurdy 1983] [McCurdy 1984] [McCurdy 1985] [McCurdy 1988] [McCurdy 1989] [McCurdy 1991] [McCurdy et al. 1986] [Melake 1992] [Mikkelson and Mitchell 1980] [Miller 1988] [Miller and Podboy 1990] [Mitchell and Mikkelson 1982] [Mixson et al. 1982] [Morizawa et al. 2016] [Muehlbauer and Morris 1981] [Muehlbauer and Morris 1983] [Nagel and Patrick 1988] [Naik 1990] [Nallasamy 1992] [Nallasamy and Groeneweg 1990b] [Nallasamy and Groeneweg 1990c] [Nallasamy et al. 1987a] [Nallasamy et al. 1987b] [Nallasamy et al. 1987c] [Nallasamy et al. 1988] [Nallasamy et al. 1989a] [Nallasamy et al. 1989b] [Neate 1972] [Neumann et al. 1983] [Nicolosi et al. 2018] [Bentrad et al. 2025] [Ohman and Nguyen 1995] [Padula and Block 1984a] [Park 2016] [Park and Sankar 1993] [Patrao et al. 2019] [Patrick and Nagel 1989] [Patterson and Bartlett 1985] [Patterson and Bartlett 1987] [Peacock 1987] [Pegors 1987] [Pham et al. 2023] [Polacsek et al. 2000] [Ponomariov 1990] [Popa et al. 2025] [Propeller/Propfan In-Flight Thrust Determination] [Ramachandra and Bober 1986] [Rasmussen 1960] [Reddy et al. 1989] [Ren and Zha 2020] [Ren et al. 2020] [Rennison et al. 1979] [Rennison et al. 1980] [Revell et al. 1980b] [Revell et al. 1982a] [Revell et al. 1982b] [Reynolds et al. 1987] [Rhodes 1990] [Ristea et al. 2025] [Rizk 1988] [Rizk 1989] [Platt and Gilman 1949] [Rosen 1965] [Sagerser and Gatzen 1986] [Sagerser and Ludemann 1985] [Saito et al. 1987] [Saito et al. 1988] [Samant et al. 1983] [Sanapo et al. 2024] [Schmidt 1985] [Serafini et al. 1981] [Shattuck and Young 1993] [Shimamoto et al. 2011] [Sim and George 1993] [Smith 1963] [Smith 1981] [Smith and Levin 1981] [Soule 1986] [Squires 1993] [Stack et al. 1950] [Stefko and Jeracki 1985] [Stolp 1979a] [Stolp 1979b] [Stolp and Baum 1977] [Stoten 1983] [Strack et al. 2017] [Su et al. 2025b] [Taylor and Tangudu 2026] [Thamke et al. 2025] [Turbofan & Turboprop Engines 2022] [Turboprop/Turboshaft Engine 2018] [van Gunsteren 1971] [Veldhuis and Luursema 2000] [Violette et al. 1984] [Vogeley 1942] [Vogeley 1943] [Vogt and Sehra 1993] [Wandini et al. 2016] [Wells 1990] [Weslet and Sutherland 1987] [Whitfield et al. 1990] [Whitlow and Sievers 1988] [Wilby and Wilby 1987] [Wilby and Wilby 1989] [Woodward 1987a] [Wynn 1982] [Xu et al. 2024a] [Yamamoto et al. 1986] [Ye et al. 2024] [Yoon and Schetz 1986] [Zhang et al. 2024e] [Zhao and Shkarayev 2019] [Zickwolf and Cole 1988] [Ziemianski and Whitlow 1988] [Štorch and Nožička 2017]

Certification, urban air mobility and the vertiport

Where the modern constraint lives. Airworthiness and certification of aircraft and their engines, the regulation of powered-lift and urban air mobility aircraft, and vertiport design, siting, capacity and operation. 119 titles name a vertiport or heliport and 33 airworthiness or certification.

272 records. [Abraham et al. 2026] [Al labbad] [Al-Rubaye et al. 2023] [Alabdali et al. 2025] [Alkaabneh et al. 2025] [Almasabi and Zhang 2026] [Antcliff et al. 2016] [Antcliff et al. 2019] [Arco et al. 2023] [Ariante and Papa 2024] [Babu and Ramamoorthy 2026] [Bae et al. 2022] [Bagan 1967] [Baltazar et al. 2026] [Bassey 2025] [Bernyk et al. 2023] [Bhandari and Chakraborty 2025] [Blackwell 1970] [Brignardello 2023] [Cacciavillani and Ielmini 2019] [Caldwell and Lafavor 1980] [Carlucci et al. 2026] [Cayot et al. 1972] [Cha et al. 2025] [Chae et al. 2023] [Chamberlain et al. 2026] [Chang et al. 2026] [Chati et al. 2026] [Chen et al. 2022b] [Cheyno 1967] [Choi et al. 2021] [Choi et al. 2026b] [Ci̇zreli̇oğullari et al 2022] [Cohen 1996] [Cohen and Shaheen 2021] [Comer 2026] [Comer and Chakraborty 2023a] [Conrad et al. 2023] [Corliss 1982] [Cornelius et al. 2024] [Cureton 2020] [Das Biswas et al. 2026] [De Florio 2011b] [De Florio 2016b] [De Maio 1971] [Deniz et al. 2025] [Denza 1982] [Dong et al. 2024] [Dudziak et al. 2020] [Farooqui 2025] [Feng 2022] [Ferreira Filho and Cardoso Júnior 2024] [Fujisawa et al. 2022] [Furlan et al. 2026] [Garren et al. 1970a] [Price et al. 2020] [Gerbeth et al. 2023] [Gertz and Manderscheid 2025] [Gilmore 2025] [Aviation et al. 2025b] [Gottschalg et al. 2025] [Guida 2023b] [Guo et al. 2025a] [Guo et al. 2025b] [Ha et al. 2019] [Ha et al. 2026] [Hakim 2024] [Han et al. 2026a] [Lee et al] [Harris 1992] [Hascaryo and Merret 2020] [Hasselmann 2026] [He et al. 2023b] [Heilein and Crespillo 2024] [Heo and Lee 2024] [Heo et al. 2026] [Hess et al. 2024] [Hoffman and Hollister 1975] [Hoffman and Hollister 1976] [Hollister 1969] [Hollister et al. 1970] [Homola and Tiwari 2023] [Huh et al. 2026] [Huynh et al. 2025] [Ito and Tsuge 2022] [Janetzko et al. 2024] [Janetzko et al. 2026] [Jang et al. 2024] [Janić 2025] [Jensen 1990] [Jin and Ma 2025] [Johnson and Silva 2018] [Johnson et al. 2018] [Baculi et al] [Baculi et al] [García et al. 2023] [Junjie et al. 2026] [Jusko et al. 2022] [Kadhiresan and Duffy 2019] [Kai et al. 2022] [Kaliappan et al. 2024] [Karimli and Marano 2025] [Kawamura et al. 2024] [Kawamura et al. 2025] [Goodrich and Theodore 2021] [남서울대학교 대학원 빅테이터콘텐츠융합학과 교수 and Kim 2025] [Kim and Hong 2024] [Kim and Park 2022] [Kim et al. 2024a] [Kim et al. 2024b] [Kim et al. 2024c] [Kim et al. 2024d] [Wasson et al. 2022] [Kopardekar 2017] [Kopardekar 2020] [Krois et al. 2024] [Kunchulia et al. 2019] [Köse and Özuysal 2023] [Laghrib et al. 2024] [Lalli and Sergio 1972] [Laplante et al. 2026] [Lee and Bang 2025] [Lee and Ko 2025] [Lee et al. 2024e] [Lee et al. 2025b] [Lerro 2020] [Letica and Rizzi 2024] [Li et al. 2025g] [Li et al. 2026k] [Lim et al. 2023] [Lin 2023] [Lippoldt et al. 2023] [Liu et al. 2026e] [Lombaerts et al. 2020b] [Louis-Ferdinand et al. 2025] [Lu et al. 2025] [Luo and Chen 2026] [Lv et al. 2026] [Lyu and Feng 2026] [Ma and Xiao 2026] [Maksoud et al. 2025] [Maleki et al. 2024] [Maleki et al. 2025] [Mannan and Hassanalian 2024] [Marzouk 2025] [McGee et al. 1978] [McKercher] [McKillip 2022] [McQueen 2021] [Meiklem 1969] [Mendonca et al. 2022] [Merrick and Gerdes 1977] [Merrick and Gerdes 1983] [Miccio et al. 2024] [MirkoviĆ and Sindik 2024] [Mirković et al. 2026] [Mishra and Chakraborty 2024a] [Mishra and Chakraborty 2024b] [Moore and Hassanalian 2025] [Morscheck 2021] [Mpala and Chakraborty 2025] [Sarkar et al] [Nagrare and Lieb 2026] [Nekoo et al. 2022] [Campbell et al] [Craven et al] [Oh et al. 2026b] [Omorodion 2023] [Osaka and Tsujii 2025] [Park and Kim 2022] [Park and Kim 2026] [Park et al. 2023] [Murphy et al] [Murphy et al] [Patterson 2025] [Peisen and Ferguson 1996] [Peksa et al. 2023] [Peng et al. 2022] [Petit and Ribeiro 2025] [Phadke and Majumdar 2025] [Pleffken et al. 2024] [Pleffken et al. 2026] [Preis 2021] [Preis 2023] [Preis and Hornung 2022b] [Puvrez 1965] [Qiao et al. 2026] [Rakas 2022] [Rakas et al. 2021] [Reeder 1964] [Reid et al. 1973] [Representative Operations of V/STOL 2002] [Rimjha and Trani 2021] [Rohrmeier et al. 2025] [Rudolph 1972] [Santhosh 2023] [Savane et al. 2022] [Schade 1968] [Schneider 1989] [Schweiger and Knabe 2023] [Schweiger and Preis 2022] [Schweiger et al. 2021] [Schweiger et al. 2023] [Ccdc et al. 2020] [Scroger et al. 2020] [Shah 2025] [Shaik 2026] [Shao et al. 2021] [Sherman 2019] [Sharma and Murphy] [Consulting et al. 2025] [Shubert et al. 2026] [Krishnamurthy et al] [Silva et al. 2018b] [Smith 2025] [Smith and Vickers 1970] [Das Biswas et al. 2025] [Shin et al. 2022] [Song 2022] [Song et al. 2021] [Stanzione et al. 2019] [Stefana et al. 2024] [Barrett et al. 2023] [Tan and Low 2021] [Tang et al. 2026] [Taylor et al. 2020] [Nguyen 2025] [Tuck 1970] [Uppoor 2023] [Semanjski et al. 2023] [Vandy 2026] [Vascik and Hansman 2019] [Vascik et al. 2018] [Veneruso et al. 2023] [Ventura Diaz and Yoon 2018] [Ventura Diaz and Yoon 2019] [Volakakis and Mahmassani 2025] [Johnson and Silva 2022] [Wang et al. 2021d] [Wang et al. 2025m] [Welsch and Fichter 2023] [Wing et al. 2020] [Winter et al. 2025] [Wu et al. 2025b] [Xiong et al. 2023] [Xu 2023] [Xu et al. 2022c] [Yan et al. 2024a] [Yan et al. 2026] [Ye et al. 2020c] [Yilmaz et al. 2024] [Yoon et al. 2024] [Yoon et al. 2025] [Zare et al. 2026] [Zelinski 2020] [Zhang and Hwang 2025] [Zhang and Wang 2026] [Zhang and Zhou 2024] [Zhang et al. 2021c] [Zhang et al. 2022b] [Zhang et al. 2024f] [Zhang et al. 2025d] [Zhao and Feng 2024] [Zhao and Han 2026] [Zhao et al. 2025g] [Zhou 2022] [Zhou et al. 2026b] [Zhou et al. 2026c] [Ziakkas 2026] [Ziakkas et al. 2026] [Čečrdle 2015b] [čečrdle 2023]

Transition, conversion and the corridor

The conversion as the field now names it. Transition and conversion between hover and wingborne flight, its corridors, trajectories and control, for tilt-rotor, tilt-wing, tail-sitter and lift-plus-cruise aircraft. 139 of its 267 titles name a tilting configuration, 16 name a corridor, and 207 of its records date from 2015 or later.

267 records. [Amargianitakis et al. 2022] [Angelov and Holzapfel 2022] [Ansari et al. 2018] [Appleton et al. 2021] [Aroussi 2026] [Bai et al. 2025] [Baêsso et al. 2026] [Bhardwaj et al. 2018] [Bhardwaj et al. 2019] [Boekfah 2017] [Bullock et al. 2024] [Burton et al. 2026] [Carnes and Coder 2019a] [Carter 1970] [Casau et al. 2011] [Chen 2023] [Chen et al. 2021] [Chen et al. 2026h] [Cheng and Pei 2022] [Cheng et al. 2022] [Choi et al. 2025] [Chou et al. 1984] [Chu et al. 2009] [Chu et al. 2010] [Comer et al. 2026b] [Cong et al. 2024b] [Cong et al. 2024a] [Costa e Silva et al 2025] [Dai Chao et al. 2016] [Daud Filho and Belo 2023] [Perez et al] [Dawe et al. 2025] [de Paula et al. 2025] [Deng et al. 2025b] [DiMaggio et al. 2025] [Doff-Sotta et al. 2023] [Dollinger et al. 2021a] [Dollinger et al. 2021b] [Dony and Islam 2026] [Dorr et al. 1992] [Dorr et al. 1994] [Dragos Daniel et al. 2026] [Drinkwater 1960] [Drinkwater 1961] [Du and Zha 2024] [Duvivier and McCallum 1960] [Elahi Kahooker and Liu 2026] [Elanchezhian and Anitha 2023] [J. Victor Lebacqz; Edwin W. Aiken 1978] [Fan et al. 2022] [Fang et al. 2012] [Favaro et al. 2025a] [Favaro et al. 2025b] [Fearn and Margason 1969] [Flores and Lozano 2013] [LaForge et al. 1990] [Foster et al. 1987] [Foster et al. 1988] [Franklin et al. 1996] [Fu et al. 2018] [Fu et al. 2020] [Fu et al. 2025a] [Fu et al. 2025d] [Gao et al. 2024d] [Gao et al. 2025c] [Gao et al. 2025d] [Gardner et al. 2019] [Gardner et al. 2021] [Garg et al. 1990] [Gentry and Margason 1968a] [Gilmer et al. 1983] [Girard 1959] [Grafton and Anglin 1975] [Gress 2024] [Guan et al. 2025b] [Górska et al. 2024] [Hadytama and Sasongko 2016] [Hadytama and Sasongko 2017] [Hartmann et al. 2016] [Hartmann et al. 2017b] [Harvey and Bobbitt 1981] [Hatori and Uchiyama 2015] [Hegde et al. 2021] [Heister 2013] [Heister 2016] [Hernandez-Garcia and Rodriguez-Cortes 2015] [Hernández-García and Rodríguez-Cortés 2013] [Hong et al. 2025] [Hsu et al. 2023] [Hsu et al. 2024] [Hu et al. 2024a] [Huang and German 2025] [Huang et al. 2024b] [Huntley 1972] [INAV-Based Adaptive Transition Control 2025] [Isgandarov and Hajizada 2026] [Jeaong et al. 2022] [Ji et al. 2016] [jian-jian et al 2019] [Jiang et al. 2025c] [Jin and Zhao 2025] [Johnson and Craig 1974] [Junquan et al. 2017] [Yokesh et al. 2025] [Kang et al. 2025b] [Kang et al. 2026b] [Key 1970] [Kim et al. 2025f] [Kjerstad and Paulson 1993] [Kubo and Suzuki 2008] [Kuhn 1981] [Kuhn and Vogler 1965] [Kulhánek et al. 2023] [Vu et al. 2025] [Lee and Kim 2024a] [Lee and Lee 2026] [Lee et al. 2024a] [Lee et al. 2025d] [Lee et al. 2025e] [Lee et al. 2026b] [Li et al. 2020b] [Li et al. 2024h] [Li et al. 2025h] [Li et al. 2025j] [Li et al. 2026b] [Li et al. 2026d] [Li et al. 2026h] [Liang et al. 2025b] [Liang et al. 2026] [Lin et al. 2023b] [Liu et al. 2017] [Liu et al. 2018a] [Liu et al. 2018b] [Liu et al. 2024a] [Liu et al. 2025b] [Lou et al. 2021] [Lou et al. 2024] [Ma et al. 2022d] [Magariyama and Abiko 2020] [Magee and Taylor 1971] [mao et al 2026] [Margason 1966] [Marvakov and Holzapfel 2021] [May et al. 2024b] [May et al. 2025a] [May et al. 2025b] [May et al. 2026a] [May et al. 2026c] [McCormick 1956a] [Mineck and Margason 1974] [Mineck and Schwendemann 1973] [Morino et al. 2000] [Mukherjee et al. 2023] [Muraoka et al. 2024] [Newsom and Anglin 1975] [Nie et al. 2024b] [North et al. 2018] [Omar et al. 2007] [Orndorff and Hwang 2022] [Orndorff et al. 2023] [Overmeyer et al. 2018] [Panish and Bacic 2022] [Panish and Bacic 2023] [Panish and Bacic 2025] [Park et al. 2026a] [Peng et al. 2014] [Pobikrowska and Goetzendorf-Grabowski 2025] [Prabhakar et al. 2025] [Qing et al. 2023a] [Qing et al. 2023b] [Qu et al. 2023] [Rae 1973] [Ramnath 1969] [Ramnath 1970] [Reiss et al. 2021] [Ren et al. 2025] [Roth 1993b] [Saetti 2025] [Safi’i et al. 2021] [Sakai and Abiko 2020] [Salahudden et al. 2023] [Salahudden et al. 2024] [Sanchez-Rivera et al. 2020b] [Schoen et al. 1977] [Setiawarman and Sasongko 2026] [Sharma et al. 2025] [Shimizu and Miwa 2018] [Shimizu and Miwa 2019b] [Sim et al. 2022] [Son et al. 2025] [Song et al. 2024a] [Spadão et al. 2026] [Sun et al. 2022c] [Sunkara et al. 2013] [Sunkara et al. 2014] [Takii et al. 2020a] [Tapscott and Kelley 1960] [Theys et al. 2016] [Thirumaleshwar Hegde et al. 2020] [Thirumaleshwar Hegde et al. 2021] [Tian et al. 2026] [Tran et al. 2019] [Transition Dynamics of VTOL 2010] [Van Dam and Holmes 1986] [van Dam and Holmes 1988] [Verling et al. 2017] [Verma and Junkins 2000] [Vorsin and Arogeti 2017] [Wang and Fang 2023] [Wang and Li 2020b] [Wang et al. 2017b] [Wang et al. 2018d] [Wang et al. 2019e] [Wang et al. 2019g] [Wang et al. 2026f] [Wang et al. 2026l] [Wang et al. 2026a] [Wei et al. 2025b] [Wen et al. 2020a] [Westcott et al. 2025a] [Wu and Hu 2014] [Wu et al. 2019] [Wu et al. 2024a] [Wu et al. 2026a] [Xi et al. 2021] [Xi et al. 2025c] [Xi et al. 2025b] [Xu et al. 2024b] [Xu et al. 2027] [Xue et al. 2025] [Xue et al. 2026a] [Yan et al. 2023a] [Yang et al. 2022c] [Yang et al. 2023c] [Yang et al. 2024a] [Yang et al. 2024e] [Yang et al. 2024f] [Yang et al. 2026a] [Yang et al. 2026f] [Yang et al. 2026j] [Ye and Zong 2025] [Ye et al. 2026] [Yeo and Liu 2018] [AvMC et al. 2020b] [Yeo and Saberi 2021] [Ying and Liang 2013] [Yu et al. 2017] [Yuan et al. 2015] [Yue and Xia 2009] [Yue et al. 2026] [Yuksek and Inalhan 2022] [Yuksek et al. 2016] [Zaludin and Gires 2019] [Zhang et al. 2015] [Zhang et al. 2018] [Zhang et al. 2019b] [Zhang et al. 2019d] [Zhang et al. 2023f] [Zhao and Underwood 2014] [Zhao et al. 2023a] [Zhao et al. 2024d] [Zhao et al. 2026d] [Zheng et al. 2011b] [Zheng et al. 2020b] [Zhou et al. 2025] [Zuo et al. 2025] [6ttl and Willinger 2021]

Ejection and crew escape

How the crew survived. Ejection seats, their aerodynamics, propulsion and testing, escape capsules and through-canopy egress, injury in ejection, and the crew escape systems of research and combat aircraft. 114 of its 214 titles name a seat, and the five that name a low altitude or an adverse attitude all date from 2018 or later, so the case the X-19’s crew met, an ejection at about 400 feet and 120 knots, is named in titles only recently.

214 records. [Acanfora et al. 2021] [Aircraft Crew Escape System 2014] [Anthony 2005] [Bader and Coleman 1967] [Bao et al. 2021] [Baodong 2011] [Baum and Loehner 1993] [Bement 1978] [Bement 1979a] [Bement 1979b] [Bement 2000] [Bierman 1959] [Billings et al. 1971] [Bonsi 1988] [Bowen et al. 2025] [Bozack 1970] [Bradfield and Thomasson 1966] [Brinkley et al. 1981] [Brinkman 1992] [Budd CO Fort Washington PA Technical Center 1978] [Buller 2017] [Burk 1970] [Chen et al. 2007] [Cheng and Pellettiere 2005] [Cheng et al. 2003] [Chiang 1980] [Chu et al. 1983] [Chuan Chen et al. 2018] [Clark 1961] [Computational Aerodynamic Analysis 1994] [Connors and Sachs 1957] [Corsiglia et al. 1989] [Crew Escape Certification Test 1988] [Crew Escape Propulsion System 2003] [Crew Escape System 1984] [Crew Restraint System] [Cummings 1982] [Dehua et al. 2006] [DeStefano 1965] [Dillon et al. 1990] [Disselkoen et al. 1989] [Douglas Aircraft Co Long Beach Ca 1983] [Downwards Escape from Jet 1956] [Dressel 1958] [Dufour and McGillivary 2007] [Ejection Seat 2003] [Ejection Seat 2015] [Ejection Seat Testing 2021] [Elson et al. 1997] [Ewing 1972] [Flight Deck Escape Provisions] [Ford 1979] [Ford 1985] [Frazier and McElreath 1976] [French 1988] [Fullerton et al. 1991] [Georghiou et al. 1986] [Gilewicz 1978] [Gragg et al. 1982] [Green et al. 2019] [Griffin 1975b] [Gross and Mawhinney 1970] [Guan et al. 2013] [Głowiński and Krzyżyński 2011] [Habchi and Hufford 1995] [Habchi et al. 1992] [Habchi et al. 1998] [Hackenberger and Mattenson 1965] [Hasbrook 1957] [Hawker and Payne 1979] [Hearon et al. 1981] [Hegenwald 1958] [Helicopter Escape Compartment 2002] [Hellyer and Sherhod] [Henzel 1967] [Hickey and Kirk 1966] [Hirsch 1986] [Hodell and Rosner 1957] [Hoffman 1996] [Hollinger 1965] [Hollrock and Barzda 1972] [Howland 1979] [Huffman et al. 1977] [Hufford and Habchi 1994] [Jia-Lin et al. 2014] [Jines 1980] [Jines 1983] [Jines 1987] [Johnson 1986] [Johnson 1989] [Jones 1966] [Karunakaran 2018] [Kazarian 1980] [Keller and Plaga 2008] [Kennedy 1999] [Kenzakowski et al. 1997] [Kinzler and McCraw 1970] [Kowaleczko et al. 2018] [Kowaleczko et al. 2025] [Latham 1957] [Launch Escape 2 2009] [Lewis 2025] [Li et al. 2011] [Lin et al. 2013] [Littell et al. 1967] [Liu et al. 2022b] [Loka et al. 2000] [Lorch 1981a] [Lorch 1981b] [Lorch and Schultz 1984] [Lowry 1979] [Lowry et al. 1994] [Maldonado and Stork 1983] [Manzuk 1970] [Mao and Liang 2019] [Mao et al. 2011] [Martin 1956] [Matsuo and Butler 1983] [Mazelsky 1974] [McCarty and Smith 1982] [McCormack and Poteate 1965] [Meyerson 1992] [Miller and Morelli 1993] [Ming et al. 2016] [Moiseev and Lozbin 2022] [Murtaza and Indluru 2026] [Murugan et al. 2014] [Mussett 1967] [Naumowicz and Smith 1992] [Naveen Raj and Shankar 2018] [Naveen Raj and Shankar 2021] [Nichols 1998] [Obergefell and Kaleps 1988] [Offik 1966] [Ojetola et al. 2011] [Opazo and Langelaan 2020] [Parate 2020] [Parate 2022] [Parate 2025] [Parate 2026] [Pauer 2018] [Payne 1969] [Perry 2007] [Peterson and Roberts 1973] [Piacentino et al. 1978] [Pilot Escape Capsule 1961] [Pint et al. 2003] [Poteate and Solomonides 1964] [Price and Earl A. 1970] [Qiu et al. 2012] [Rahman et al. 2025] [Rahman et al. 2026] [Raj and Shankar 2020] [Reilly 1975] [Restraint Systems and Escape 2006] [Restraint Systems and Escape 2016] [Robert 1988] [Rock and Habchi 1997] [Rock and Habchi 1998] [Rock et al. 1999] [Rothe et al. 1963] [Rothwell and Sperry 1952] [Ryack et al. 1984] [Salter 1975] [Savkovic 2008] [Scherberg and Ferguson 1952] [Schultz et al. 2022] [Schwartz et al. 1999] [Shaffer and Brinkley 1974] [Shane 1985a] [Shannon 1973] [Shi et al. 2025c] [Sommer et al. 2023] [Song et al. 2013] [Stech 1977] [Stein 1965] [Stewart 1981b] [Streiff and Henderson 1974] [Strickland 1989] [Strietzel and Shefler 1963] [Swingle 1995] [Tauby 1979] [The Advanced Stabilised Ejection 1974] [Thompson and Harper 1964] [Tian and Chen 2012] [Wang et al. 2014e] [Wang et al. 2014b] [Wang et al. 2019i] [Wang et al. 2020f] [Wang et al. 2021c] [Wang et al. 2024f] [Watts et al. 1947] [Weinberg 1963] [Wen and Chen 2010] [Wen and Guan 2025] [West et al. 1980] [Winkler and Johnson 1982] [Wolf 2002] [Wolf 2019] [Wong and Mastroianni 1999] [Wood 1990] [Wu et al. 2023d] [Xiaodong et al. 2010] [Xu et al. 2011] [Yang et al. 2011a] [Yang et al. 2025e] [Yipton and Blachowski 1996] [Zenobi 1977] [Zenobi 1978] [Zhang and Yi 2011] [Zhang et al. 2017] [Zhao et al. 2015] [Zhu et al. 2012] [Zivkovic et al. 2024]

Noise of propellers, rotors and vertical take-off aircraft

A constraint the X-19 never faced. The noise of propellers, rotors and electric vertical take-off aircraft, its prediction and measurement, and its perception and annoyance in the community. 135 of its 207 records date from 2015 or later.

207 records. [Aalmoes and Sieben 2021] [Aalmoes et al. 2025] [Abergo et al. 2025b] [Aircraft Noise Research Needs] [Amargianitakis et al. 2026] [Araghizadeh et al. 2025] [Arndt and Borgman 1970] [Arndt and Borgman 1971] [Baeder 1996] [Bain et al. 2026] [Barakos 2024] [Barry et al. 2026] [Bauer 2021] [Bauer 2023a] [Bausch et al. 1971] [Bezuidenhout et al. 2026b] [Blacodon and Lewy 1990] [Blacodon and Lewy 1992] [Boucher 2025] [Boucher et al. 2023] [Boucher et al. 2024] [Bragg 1968] [Buǧday and Saetti 2024] [Caillet et al. 2025] [Caillet et al. 2026] [Chen et al. 2026a] [Chen et al. 2026d] [Cho et al. 2024a] [Clark et al. 1973] [Cole and England 1967] [Colli et al. 2026b] [Boyd] [Janakiram 1982] [Di Verniere et al. 2026] [Begault] [Candeloro et al. 2022] [Edwards and Cox 1978] [Falck et al. 2018] [Feng 2026] [Feng et al. 2026b] [Fletcher et al. 2009] [Gandhi et al. 2026] [Garrelick et al. 1986] [Gasaway 1969] [George 1978] [Georgiou et al. 2026] [Gill and Lee 2024] [Gnemmi et al. 1991] [Goldschmidt and Ukeiley 2023] [Goldschmidt and Ukeiley 2025] [Gounet and Lewy 2012] [Greenwood and Schmitz 2014] [Guedel and Farrando 1986] [Guerrero et al. 2025] [Halwes 1970] [Ham 2024] [Hanson et al. 2024] [Hanson et al. 2025] [Hubbard 1991] [He et al. 2021] [Helicopter and V/Stol Aircraft] [Heller and Splettstoesser 1983] [Henschel et al. 1974] [Hilton et al. 1960] [Hinterkeuser and Sternfeld 1968] [Hoad and Green 1978] [Homans et al. 1978] [Hua and Mankbadi 2024] [Kekus-Kumor and Sieradzki 2025] [Konzel et al. 2023] [Stephenson et al] [Jayasundara et al. 2023] [Jeong et al. 2021] [Jeong et al. 2023] [Jia and Lee 2021] [Jia and Li 2025] [Li et al] [Li et al. 2021c] [Li et al. 2021e] [Johnson 1973] [Josephson 2020] [Kekus-Kumor and Sieradzki 2023] [Kenyon 1968] [Li and Lee 2021] [Kim 2022] [Kim and Lee 2024] [Kim et al. 2025e] [Ko et al. 2024b] [Ko et al. 2026] [Koehler et al. 2021] [Kopyt and Ogrodnik 2026] [Krishnamurthy and Rizzi 2022] [Weist et al. 2026] [Lee and Haan 2025] [Lee and Lee 2020] [Lee et al. 2024d] [Lee et al. 2025c] [Lee et al. 2026c] [Li and Lee 2024] [Li et al. 2021a] [Li et al. 2021d] [Li et al. 2023b] [Li et al. 2024d] [Lieser et al. 1994] [Lima Pereira et al. 2024] [Lince 1973] [Little et al. 2022] [Liu 2011] [Loeffler et al. 1980] [Loewy and Sutton 1966] [Lowson 1972] [Macaluso 1971] [Maglieri et al. 1961] [Groom et al] [Marze and Dambra 1978] [Casanova et al. 2025] [Miranda and Lee 2023] [Murray and Wilby 1978] [Musser et al. 2023] [Ng 2022] [Nguyen et al. 2021] [Page et al. 2021] [Page et al. 2026] [Park et al. 2026c] [Paswan et al. 2026] [Pegg 1976] [Perusek 1994] [Pinto et al. 2022] [Preis et al. 2025] [Raza and Stansbury 2025] [Richards 1955] [Rimjha et al. 2021] [Rinaldi et al. 2026] [Rizzi 2020b] [Rizzi and Rafaelof 2021] [Rizzi and Scata 2022] [Rizzi et al. 2022] [Rizzi et al. 2024] [Rizzi et al. 2026a] [Rizzi et al. 2026b] [Rotor Noise 1976a] [Rotor Noise 1976b] [Rotor Noise 1976c] [Rotor Noise 1976e] [Rozman and Grace 2025] [Schlegel et al. 1966] [Schmitz and Stepniewski 1971] [Schmitz and Stepniewski 1973] [Schmähl et al. 2021] [Sessini et al. 2026] [Shapiro and Healy 1968] [Krishnamurthy] [Lotinga et al. 2025] [Pereira et al. 2025a] [Pereira et al. 2025b] [Smith et al. 2023] [Sorensen and Cuppoletti 2022] [Standard Indoor Method of] [Rizzi 2020a] [Rizzi and Scata] [Rizzi et al] [Rizzi] [Rizzi] [Rizzi et al] [Rizzi et al. 2023] [Sternfeld 1972] [Sternfeld and Hinterkeuser 1970] [Sternfeld et al. 1957] [Strawn and Biswas 1995] [Sureshkumar et al. 2019] [Valente et al. 2024] [Tan et al. 2023] [Tangler 1977] [Tinney et al. 2025] [Tinney et al. 2026] [Tokarev and Makarenko 2021] [Tracy et al. 2024] [Vaicaitis 1980] [Vaicaitis et al. 1985] [Valente et al. 2023] [Valente et al. 2025] [Vardanyan et al. 2026] [Vascik and Hansman 2018] [Vaughn and Christian 2024a] [Vaughn and Christian 2024b] [Vella et al. 2026] [Vieira et al. 2026] [Bauer 2025] [Wachspress et al. 2019] [Walker and Cuppoletti 2022] [Wall et al. 2017] [Wei et al. 2026b] [Weitsman and Greenwood 2021] [Wu et al. 2023a] [Yang et al. 2023b] [Yin 2019] [Yin and Ahmed 1999] [Yu et al. 2024a] [Yuan et al. 2024] [Yuk et al. 2024] [Yuk et al. 2025] [Yunus et al. 2023] [Yunus et al. 2024] [Zeng et al. 2027] [Zhang et al. 2023c] [Zhao et al. 2026c] [Zheng et al. 2018a]

Fault tolerance, redundancy and control allocation

The engine-out case after the cross-shaft. Fault detection, fault-tolerant control, redundancy, reconfiguration and control allocation for multirotor, electric and conventional aircraft, motor and rotor failure, and the one engine inoperative case. 49 titles name control allocation and nine the one engine inoperative or engine-out case.

207 records. [Abouselima] [Adeline et al. 2023] [Al Younes] [Ambroziak et al. 2023] [asadi 2022] [Asper et al. 2026] [Atmaca et al. 2025] [Ayati et al. 2022] [Bai et al. 2022] [Baldini et al. 2023] [Ban Wang and Youmin Zhang 2020] [Barrett-Gonzalez et al. 2023] [Barton 1966] [Bauer 1987] [Belapurkar et al. 2011] [Bezerra and Antônio dos Santos 2021] [Bezerra and Santos 2022a] [Bezerra and Santos 2022b] [Bodson 2000] [Bosch et al. 2025] [Boskovic et al. 2007] [Brotherton and Pollard 1993] [Franciscone and Fernandes 2023] [Buffington 1997] [Buğday and Saetti 2023] [Buzzatto and Liarokapis 2022] [Carithers et al. 2019] [Castaldi et al. 2020] [Charnsethikul et al. 2025] [Chaudhari 1993] [Chen et al. 1995] [Chen et al. 2020a] [Chen et al. 2025d] [Cheng et al. 2024] [Chi et al. 2019] [Choi and Suk 2026] [Cokorilo 2020] [Control Allocation and Flight 2016] [Cooper et al. 1966] [Davi Antônio dos Santos et al. 2024] [Dehkordi and Danesh 2024] [Delisle and Takahashi 2018] [Deng et al. 2021] [DeVore et al. 2022] [Devytkovsky and Trefilov 2023] [Diget et al. 2022] [Dixit 2023] [Du et al. 2015] [Du et al. 2024] [Elif and Tekinalp 2025] [Ellis et al. 2023] [Eltrabyly] [Engine Failure in Light 1980] [Eskandarzadeh et al. 2024] [Failure of a Helicopter 2019] [Falconì et al. 2018] [Fong and Gandhi 2025] [Frank and Rempe 2026] [Gappa 1964] [Garcia et al. 2007] [Thomas and Malone] [Goshtasbi et al. 2025] [Gu et al. 2022] [Gu et al. 2025] [Guan and Shi 2019] [Haglage and Brown 2020] [Hamadi] [Han and Pei 2026] [Han et al. 2024] [Hannan et al. 2016] [Harish et al. 2018] [He et al. 2023c] [Hoogreef and Soikkeli 2022] [Hou et al. 2020] [Hu et al. 2021a] [Iijima et al. 2021] [Ismail et al. 2024b] [Jamil et al. 2010] [Jebelli et al. 2023] [Jiang et al. 2026] [Jing and Ma 2025] [Jing and Pebrianti 2016] [Karahan et al. 2023] [Keith-Lucas 1959] [Litt] [Litt] [Jothiraj et al. 2020] [Kawauchi 2026] [Khattab et al. 2019a] [Khattab et al. 2019b] [Kim et al. 2019a] [Kim et al. 2024f] [Kim et al. 2025a] [Kong and Koo 2011] [Kotarski and Kasać 2018] [Wu and Litt 2023] [Lai et al. 2026] [Lanzon et al. 2014] [Lawati and Akhtar 2026] [Lawrence and Head 2024] [Leelaburanathanakul et al. 2021] [Li et al. 2022c] [Li et al. 2025b] [Liao 2025] [Liao et al. 2023] [Liao et al. 2025] [Lien et al. 2020] [Litt 2024] [Litt 2026] [Littell 2019] [Liu et al. 2024b] [Lombaerts et al. 2011] [Long Lu and Turkoglu 2015] [Lu and Turkoglu 2016] [Lu and Turkoglu 2018] [Lu and van Kampen 2015] [Lu] [Lu] [Lu et al. 2019a] [Ma et al. 2025b] [Ma et al. 2025c] [Malaek and Alipour 2020] [Marks et al. 2012] [Massey et al. 2018] [Michieletto et al. 2019] [Mochida et al. 2023] [Morani et al. 2024] [Nasr et al. 2026b] [Nery and Antônio dos Santos 2025] [Nnamdi-Nwosu and Liscouët 2023] [Orincon Corp La Jolla Ca 1992] [Papathakis 2017b] [Papathakis et al. 2017a] [Papathakis et al. 2017b] [Peterson et al. 2022] [Pose and Giribet 2021] [Qin et al. 2023] [Rathinasamy et al. 2024] [Reddick 1983] [Ruggia 2025] [Saied et al. 2019] [Sajjadi and Ayati 2025] [Sajjadi et al. 2025] [Salvador 2022] [Santos and Bezerra 2022] [Conley et al] [Sarker et al. 2026] [Schrage and Arterburn 2016] [Schrage et al. 2018b] [Seo and Kim 2019] [Seo et al. 2026] [Shen et al. 2022] [Sheng et al. 2019a] [Simha and Ambroziak 2025] [Strampe and Klingauf 2026] [Sun et al. 2022b] [Suzuki et al. 2019] [Tang et al. 2021] [Thomas and Malone 2023] [Tiong and Jones 2009] [Tremblay 2026] [Unal 2021a] [Unal 2021b] [Vachtsevanos et al. 2016] [Venkataraman and Seiler 2019] [Vey and Lunze 2016] [Vidya and Kandath 2026] [Wahba and Hönig 2024] [Wang and Hu 2026] [Wang and Zhang 2018] [Wang et al. 2014f] [Wang et al. 2017d] [Wang et al. 2025j] [Wang et al. 2026i] [Wanhill 2003] [Wanhill 2019] [Ward et al. 1999] [Weaver 1984] [Weiss and Zola 1974] [Wells 2002] [Willis and Beard 2022] [Windolph 1969] [Wood 2012] [Wu and Sreenath 2016] [Xia et al. 2022b] [Xie et al. 2020a] [Xie et al. 2023b] [Xie et al. 2026] [Xu et al. 2023] [Xulin and Yuying 2018] [Yang et al. 2010] [Yang et al. 2026k] [Yoon 2025] [Yuanqing et al. 2014] [Zaludin 2026] [Zare et al. 2025] [Zelina and Prazenica 2024] [Zhang et al. 2024a] [Zhang et al. 2024c] [Zhao et al. 2024a] [Zhao et al. 2026a] [Zhong Liu et al. 2020] [Zou 2017] [Zou and Xia 2020] [Zou et al. 2022] [Zou et al. 2026] [Razvi et al. 2023]

Propellers in yaw, at incidence and in non-axial flow

The keystone’s own literature. Propellers in yaw, in pitch, at incidence and in oblique, edgewise and non-axial flow, and propellers in forward flight with the axis inclined, from the reports of the 1920s to the propellers of electric vertical take-off aircraft, together with the tilt-wing models whose titles name the propeller’s inclination. 97 of its 173 records date from 2015 or later, twelve titles name edgewise flight, none before 2025, and 33 concern the noise of a propeller at incidence.

173 records. [Abbasi et al. 2023] [Alcañiz-Brull et al. 2026b] [Alcañiz-Brull et al. 2026a] [Alcañiz-Brull et al. 2026c] [Allenspach and Ducard 2021] [Aular et al. 2026] [Belák and Hromčík 2023a] [Simmons 2021] [Simmons and Hatke 2021] [Simmons] [Bilyaz et al. 2026] [Boldman et al. 1993a] [Boldman et al. 1993b] [Borck 1921] [Borst 1968] [Burhanuddin et al. 2026] [Bölk et al. 2021] [Cai and Gunasekaran 2022] [Cai and Gunasekaran 2023] [Cai and Gunasekaran 2024] [Cantos et al. 2026] [Cerny and Breitsamter 2020a] [Cerny and Breitsamter 2020b] [Cerny et al. 2021a] [Cerny et al. 2021b] [Chadha et al. 2023] [Chaware et al. 2025] [Cheng et al. 2026a] [Chinwicharnam et al. 2013] [Chinwicharnam et al. 2015] [Colli et al. 2026a] [Crigler and Gilman 1949] [Crigler and Gilman 1952] [Crigler and Gilman 1953] [Culpepper et al. 2022] [Curtiss and Howard C. 1969] [Curtiss et al. 1967] [De Young 1965] [Di et al. 2026] [Dicarlo 1971] [Dittmar 1986a] [Dittmar and Jeracki 1981b] [Dittmar and Stefko 1983] [Hanson and Parzych 1993] [Dong et al. 2026] [Dunham and Gentry 1989] [Durand and Lesley 1923] [Dwyer and McCroskey 1970] [Felli and Falchi 2018] [Fernandez et al. 2023] [Flachsbart and Krober 1930] [Frota et al. 1998] [Fujiwara et al. 2017] [Tamilselvan and Niresh 2022] [Gautam et al. 2025] [Gentry et al. 1991] [Gill and D’Andrea 2017] [Gogidze et al. 2023] [Goodson 1966a] [Goodson 1967b] [Goodson and Grunwald 1962] [Goyal et al. 2023] [Goyal et al. 2025a] [Grava et al. 2024] [Grava et al. 2025] [Gray and Hallissy 1950] [Gray et al. 1954] [Grunwald 1961a] [Hammond et al. 1974] [Hanson 1976] [Hanson 1979] [Hanson 1980b] [Hanson 1990] [Hanson 1995] [Harris 1996] [Heyson 1961a] [Higgins et al. 2020] [Higgins et al. 2022a] [Hirschberger and Jones 1948] [Hua et al. 2025b] [Hua et al. 2025c] [Hua et al. 2026] [Huang et al. 2016] [Tech et al. 2025] [Hwang et al. 1994] [Hysteresis Assumptions for Propeller 2018] [Igoe and Davidson 1952] [Ishaque et al. 2024] [Hassell and Kirby 1966] [Junaidin et al. 2026] [Karimian et al. 2026] [Khan and Nahon 2015b] [Kim et al. 2009] [Kim et al. 2019b] [Kirby and Newsom 1964] [Komizunai et al. 2020] [Krejsa 1990] [Kubo et al. 2010] [Kuhn and Draper 1956] [Lahatte 1946] [Leng et al. 2019a] [Leng et al. 2019b] [Leng et al. 2019c] [Lesley et al. 1937] [Lopes de Moraes Filho et al. 2025] [Lovell and Parlett 1957] [Mani 1990] [Matsuo and Hirano 1985] [Matsuo and Hirano 1986] [Mendoza 1979] [Misztal 1933] [Moreira et al. 2024] [Nallasamy and Groeneweg 1989] [Nallasamy and Groeneweg 1990a] [Nam et al. 2024] [Newsom 1962a] [Newsom 1962b] [Ng 2020] [Nguyen et al. 2018] [Robert and Heath 1954] [Parker and Heltsley 1972] [Parlett et al. 2026] [Paswan et al. 2025] [Patience and Nahon 2024] [von Hardenberg et al] [Pendley 1945] [Polivanov and Sidorenko 2019] [Qaissi et al. 2026] [Report No. 113 Tests 1922] [Report No. 597 Air 1937] [Ribner 1943b] [Ribner 1943a] [Ribner 1945a] [Ribner 1945b] [Rigby and Von Hardenberg 2024] [Rogallo et al. 1956] [Rumph et al. 1942] [Sahwee et al. 2019] [Samad et al. 2026] [Shao et al. 2026] [Sheen et al. 2024] [Sinnige et al. 2016b] [Srivathsan and Rauleder 2024] [Srivathsan et al. 2024] [Stokkermans and Veldhuis 2021] [Stuff 1988] [Takallu and Lessard 1991] [Tang and Chung 2022] [Taubert et al. 2023] [Aviation et al. 2025d] [Theys et al. 2014] [Theys et al. 2017] [Tian et al. 2024a] [Van Bang and Rozehnal 2017] [Van De Vooren and Zandbergen 1963] [Van Treuren and Wisniewski 2022] [Von Hardenberg et al. 2024] [Vrdoljak 2007] [Wang et al. 2025g] [Wang et al. 2027] [Wechtler et al. 2025] [Wróblewski et al. 2025a] [Wu et al. 2026c] [Xu et al. 2026d] [Yang et al. 2018] [Yilmaz et al. 2015] [Yu et al. 2025b] [Yunus et al. 2025] [Zandbergen et al. 1990] [Zarev and Green 2020] [Zhang et al. 2019e] [Zhang et al. 2020a] [Zhu et al. 2025a]

Vertical take-off programmes, applications and the state of the art

The class as a whole. Conferences, programme reports, overviews, operational and transport studies and histories of vertical and short take-off aircraft, and the vertical take-off drones and electric aircraft of the present. Its median year is 1977.

164 records. [Albers and Zuk 1990] [Albers and Zuk 1992] [Alvarez muñoz] [Aláez Gómez] [American Helicopter Society INC Washington DC 1965] [Anderson 1981] [Anderson 1983] [Anderson and Lebacqz 1997] [Androsky et al. 1972] [Axten et al. 2025] [Beebe 1968] [Berlin et al. 2025] [Birckelbaw and Nelson 1992] [Boeing Co Morton Pa Vertol Div 1956] [Bogdanović et al. 2024] [Bondi and Robinson 1971] [Borland 1959] [Bretoi 1968] [Bridgelall 2024] [Camacho 1991] [German et al] [Bright 1966] [Brown and Fisher 1968] [Butler and Thomas 1964] [Campbell 1962] [Campbell 1963] [Campbell 1965] [Campbell 1967] [Campbell 1968] [Campbell 1979] [Chana 2002] [Chichester-Miles 1965] [Choi and Hampton 2020] [Cochrane et al. 1981] [Cotton 1967] [Cowels 2023b] [Dansby et al. 1964] [Deckert 1977] [deDecker 1969] [Defense Science Board Washington Dc 1979] [Deniz et al. 2023] [Scientific and Technical Information Division 1966] [Durbin and McGeer 1982] [Egerton and Fitzpatrick 1967] [eVTOL 2026] [Feary 2018] [Feistel et al. 1972] [Fishbach and Strack 1968] [Flaig 1977] [Fredericks et al. 2016] [Fredericks et al. 2018] [Goto and Miwa 2017] [Gowanlock 2025] [Hafer and Sachs 1982] [Harper 1966] [Hellyar 1970] [Hellyar 1971] [Heyson 1961b] [Hirschberg 1997] [Holzhauser and Innis 1960] [How to Tackle 2022] [Howze 1969] [Hui et al. 2024] [Ito and Adachi 2023] [Jo and Kwon 2019] [Putnam et al] [Welstead] [Johansen 1970] [Campbell 1964] [Kaufman and Quackenbush 2020] [Littell and Pellettiere] [Kalemaris and Cea 1977] [Kelly et al. 1977] [Shish et al] [Kuhn 1967] [Kuhn 1979] [Lewandowski 1980] [Li et al. 2026c] [Lichten 1959] [Lightfoot 1968] [Lightfoot 1981] [MacPhail et al. 1993] [Maggitti 1965] [Marubashi et al. 2014] [Matheis and Norrefeldt 2026] [Mazzitelli 1957] [McCormick 1976] [McElreath 1972] [Merrick 1982] [Vincent] [Miller 1965] [Minsk 1970] [Muse 1961] [NASA Conference on V/STOL 1960] [Conference on V/Stol Aircraft 1960, Conference on V/Stol Aircraft a Co] [A Preliminary Study 1961] [Jones et al] [Niwa and Suzuki 1991] [Novak 1970] [Ogden 2023] [Okpara 2025] [Okpara 2026] [Osterman and Mulley 1977] [Ott 1998] [Pearlman 1968] [Pines 2014] [Rathjen] [Reber 1981] [Reeder 1965] [Reeder 1967] [Research Directed toward Determination 1968] [Rich 1969a] [Kirby 1960b] [Roberts and Anderson 1977] [Roberts et al. 1981] [Salkind 1973] [Sanderson 1973] [Sarames 1967] [Schaefer 2016] [Scott 1970] [Seren and Hornung 2024] [Cody] [Momiyama 1977a] [Papayanopoulos et al. 2019] [Qin 2023] [Simpson 1969] [Sisák and Škultéty 2020] [Smith and Belina 1974] [Solomon 1972] [Statler 1966] [Suppes and Suppes 2026] [Gorton] [Syrovy and Yassini 2003] [Takita and Kashitani 2016] [Takita et al. 2018] [Tanabe et al. 2015] [Telford and Vasiloff 1968] [Terpecz 2023] [Terpecz and Schuster 2024] [Terpecz and Schuster 2025] [Tokuoka et al. 2025] [Turner 1969] [Uehara et al. 2019] [V/STOL Conference Palo Alto 1977] [V/STOL R and D 1971] [V/STOL 1971] [Van Houtte 1970] [Virasak 2021] [VTOL 1971] [VTOL 1969] [VTOL BOOSTER 1961] [Wernicke 1993] [White 1968] [White et al. 1985] [Whitten 1960] [Wilcox and Shovlin 1975] [Willis and Genever-Watling 1977] [Wyzykowski 2025] [Yang and Wang 2017] [Yoeli 2003] [Yoeli 2005] [Zimmerman 1960] [Zimmermann 1963] [МИРНЕНКО 2025]

Helicopter rotors in forward flight, wakes and hubs

The rotor as a helicopter uses it. Helicopter rotors in forward flight, their wakes, inflow and hubs, the interaction of rotor and airframe, and the evaluation and technology of helicopters. 26 titles name forward flight.

112 records. [Abalakin et al. 2020] [Ahmad et al. 2013] [Appendix C 2011] [Application of Transonic Flow 1989] [Artis 1975] [Augustin et al. 2002] [Barbely and Komerath 2016] [Bardera et al. 2020] [Bauer 1963] [Bennett 1932] [Bhagwat and Leishman 2001] [Bi et al. 1991] [Biggers and Linden 1985] [Binias et al. 2016] [Boeing Co Morton Pa Vertol Div 1965] [Boeing Vertol Co Philadelphia Pa 1980] [Boirun and Benoit 1972] [Brandão et al. 2018] [Briardy et al. 1970] [Briassulis and Andreopoulos 1993] [Buckner and McLellon 1984] [Burks 1989] [Campanardi et al. 2026] [Celniker et al. 1964] [Charles and Hassan 1988] [Chen and Prasad 2005] [Chen and Prasad 2007] [Cheney 1969] [Choephel and Maughmer 2014] [Couch 2005] [Crimi 1965] [Csencsitz et al. 1973] [Danai 2004] [Davis and Pounds 2017] [Dayhoum et al. 2020] [Detore and Conway 1991] [Dingeldein 1961] [Dolinar 2000] [Dooley and Ferguson 1978] [Falcone et al. 1974] [Flater 1993] [Foulke 1965] [Free-Wake Computation of Helicopter 1993] [Ganguli 2002] [Gessow 1993] [Ghee and Elliott 1992] [Grendahl 1999] [Hariharan and Sankar 1995] [Heyson 1980b] [Hiller Aircraft Corp Palo Alto Ca 1965a] [Huston 1996] [Itt Systems Rome Ny 1987] [Iwakura et al. 2010] [Jung et al. 2023] [Kato and Yamane 1979] [Kelley 1970] [Kelley 1995] [Klemin 1940] [Kolwey 1999] [Komerath et al. 1985b] [Kong et al. 2020a] [Kuehl 1979] [Lehman 1968] [Leishman and Bagai 1991] [Levenetz 1973] [Linden and Biggers 1987] [Liou et al. 1988] [Loftin 1954] [Magee et al. 1975b] [Sekula] [Mathur] [Mathur and Rajagopalan 1991] [Mathur et al. 1992] [McCloud 1980] [Nagata and Buss 1969] [Ollerhead 1971] [Ott 2019] [Payne 1955] [Peters 1980] [Peters and Nelson 2000] [Peters et al. 2014] [Pickles et al. 2018] [Rajagopalan 1989b] [Rotor Mechanisms for Forward 2011] [Sahani and Horn 2001] [Schneider and Wilkerson 1990] [Schrage and McKeithan 1989] [Scully 1967] [Shanahan 1993] [Sheehy 1976] [Sheehy and Clark 1976] [Smith 1968] [Steinhoff 1990] [Stringer et al. 1972] [Sunada et al. 2003] [Tai and Runyan 1984] [The Quad-rotor Rotorcraft] [Tung and DuWaldt 1970] [Van Zante 2015] [Volodin 2022c] [Wagner 2005] [Werner 1973] [Whitt and Gandhi 2023] [Wilkerson et al. 1991] [Yackle 1969] [Yamakawa et al. 1972a] [Yamakawa et al. 1972b] [Yang et al. 2023a] [Yeates 1964] [Yemenici et al. 2010] [Yu and Peters 2003] [Çiçin and Yavşan 2022]

Power effects on stability and the propeller as a fin

The propeller as a stabilising and destabilising surface. The effect of propeller operation and of the slipstream on the stability and control of aeroplanes and vertical take-off models, the shift of the neutral point with power, propeller torque and its trim, and the stability of the propeller on its mount. Five titles name the neutral point and nine whirl flutter.

88 records. [Abzug and Larrabee] [Ali et al. 2025] [Biber 2017c] [Bland and Bennett 1963] [Boulahbal et al. 2000] [Bouquet and Vos 2017] [Butler et al. 1966] [Böhnisch et al. 2024b] [Chang et al. 2024] [Chen et al. 2016b] [Chompoosri 2024] [Clark et al. 1963] [Custers et al] [Delany 1942] [Dias 2022] [Erturk and Dogan 2015] [Erturk and Dogan 2016] [Gao et al. 2012] [Gao et al. 2024b] [Gentry et al. 1966] [Glessner 1999] [Goett and Delaney 1944] [Goland et al. 1964] [Grunwald 1961b] [Hagerman 1947a] [Hagerman 1947b] [Hall and Schaller 2012] [Hanson 1945] [Hoover and Shen 2018a] [Hoover et al. 2018] [Iosilevskii 2010] [Johnson 1950] [Waite et al] [Keller and Rudnik 2019] [Kirby 1957] [Koch and Koert 2023] [Kriebel 1964] [Kuhn and Grunwald 1961] [Nelson et al] [Li and Da Ronch 2025] [Li and Kwok 2024] [Liefvendahl 2010] [Lucarini 2026] [Metcalf 1937] [Milenković-Babić 2018] [Milenković-Babić et al. 2015] [Morgado et al. 2013] [Nelson and Shen 2021] [Nelson and Shen 2023] [Pass 1941] [Phillips 1985a] [Phillips 2002] [Pitkin 1943] [Plunkett 1949] [Podsędkowski et al. 2023] [Maki and Giulianetti 1966] [Rauhut and Slingerland 2003] [Reed and Bland 1961] [Ribner 1944] [Robinson and Perone 1947] [Robinson and Perone 1956] [Santos et al. 2026a] [Santos et al. 2026b] [Schuldenfrei 1944] [Seckel 1964f] [Silva et al. 2022] [Simmons et al. 2026] [Sleeman 1953] [Solies 1992a] [Solies 1994a] [Swanson 1943] [Sweberg 1942a] [Sweberg 1942b] [Taboada et al. 2018] [Takeyeldein 2026b] [Teixeira and Cesnik 2020] [Tosti 1962] [van Rooyen and Eshelby 1981] [Vollo and Brassaw 1956] [Vrdoljak 2003a] [Wang et al. 2013] [Wang et al. 2022g] [Weil and Sleeman 1948] [Weil and Sleeman 1949] [Fei 2021] [Yan et al. 2024b] [Zhao et al. 2022b] [Çelebi and Aydın 2026]

Jet lift, lift fans and jet-induced effects

The other answer to vertical flight. Jet-lift and lift-fan aircraft, deflected-jet research aircraft, hot-gas ingestion, the fountain effect and other jet-induced effects, and the inlets and nozzles of vertical take-off propulsion. Its median year is 1974, and 15 titles name a lift fan.

84 records. [Adarkar and Hall 1968] [Aiken 1977] [Alford et al. 1963] [Anderson 1990] [Anderson and Petersen 1977] [Beeler 1965] [Bellin and Brooks 1983] [Bielefield et al. 1993] [Biesiadny et al. 1993] [Brogan et al. 1961] [Calvano and Harney 1998] [Castells and Mishler 1973] [Chou et al. 1981] [Cimbala et al. 1993] [Ciminera 1980] [Dugan et al. 1971] [Fearn 1988] [Feddersen and Cea 1977] [Fluk 1981] [Garner 1967] [Gerdes 1993] [Glasgow et al. 1981] [Glasgow et al. 1983] [Goldsmith and Hickey 1963b] [Grafton and Newsom 1971] [Gray and Kisielowski 1971] [Hill 1969] [Hill 1971] [Hwang and Abbott 1982] [Hwang and Diedrich 1981] [Jacobson 1964] [Jacobson 1965] [Jameson 1971] [Jeon et al. 2023] [Kelly and Tolhurst 1966] [Kentfield 1967] [Kibens et al. 1987] [Kibens et al. 1988] [Krishnamoorthy 1971] [Lan 1974] [Lander and Palcza 1974] [Lieblein 1970b] [Lieblein 1970a] [Lieblein and Stockman 1969] [Limage 1977] [Margason 1970a] [McKinney and Newsom 1967] [McKinney and Newsom 1968] [McKinney et al. 1966] [McLemore 1966a] [McLemore and Smith 1968] [Moore and Schetz 1985] [Nicholson and lowry 1966] [Payne 1958] [Petit and Scholey 1973a] [Petit and Scholey 1973b] [Pilsch 1975] [Pittsburgh Univ Washington DC Research Staff 1966] [Przedpelski 1965] [Reed and Schneider 1982] [Rolls 1960] [Rolls 1965b] [Sandlin and Howard 1991] [Sheridan 1985] [Sheridan 1986] [Siclari et al. 1975] [Siclari et al. 1976] [Spillman 1965] [Spillman 1967] [Stockman 1970] [Stockman 1974] [Stockman 1975a] [Stockman 1975b] [Substantiation of Power Available] [Tan and Chen 2020] [Tatom et al. 1972] [Waesche and Migdal 1977] [Willis 1980b] [Wilson and White 1993] [Woollett 1981] [Wu and Talmadge 1961] [Ybarra et al. 1978] [Zheng et al. 2011a] [Zhou et al. 2024]

Engines, turboshafts and propulsion systems

The power plant. Turboshaft engines, the T55 among them, the propulsion systems and power plants of vertical take-off aircraft, and Curtiss-Wright’s rotating combustion engines, around which the M-200 was first designed. Nine titles name the rotating combustion or rotary engine and three the T55.

76 records. [AIR Bleed Objective for] [Air Bleed Objective for] [Author 2007] [Bechhoefer and Hajimohammadali 2024] [Bentele 1962] [Boschma 1998] [Brown 1950] [Ciepluch et al. 1979] [Carroll 1978] [Compagnon 1980] [Cooling DATA for Turbine] [Cooling of Turbine Engines] [Cornelius and Hannula 2019] [Cousins et al. 1991] [Crafa and Reed 1980] [Crawford 1973] [Dangelo 1995] [Defining and Measuring Factors] [Diedrich et al. 1971] [Digiovanni 1991] [Ferrand et al. 2018] [Filippone and Bojdo 2010] [Froede 1961] [Gerend 1971] [Gertsma and Zigan 1973] [Giraud 1986] [Giurca 2014] [Glasgow and Skarshaug 1980] [Goldsmith and Hickey 1963a] [Hatta and Matsuki 1964] [Helicopter Engine-Rotor System Compatibility] [Hill and Schmitt 1964] [Hogg 1979] [Hurley and Bentele 1961] [Johansen and Duncan 1970] [Johnson and Lindsay 1990] [Jones 1964] [Jones 1972] [Jones 1979] [Jones and Lamping 1971] [Jones et al. 1977] [Kalabuhov et al. 2019] [Kim 2010] [Kutney 1964b] [Kutney 1966] [Lakshmi et al. 2023] [Lewis 1989] [Lewis and Lewis 1981] [Loyd 1976] [Neate 1974] [Philhower 2002] [PlCKERELL and Cresswell 1968] [Pyle and Aldrich 1990] [Reed 1980] [Rodenbaugh and Veno 1965] [Rodrigues et al. 2021] [Rotorcraft Turboshaft Engine Idle] [RS 360 Turboshaft Engine 1972] [Rutherford and Fitzpatrick 1991] [Sallee 1964] [Sanderson and Holly 1993] [Schroers and Antoniou 1966] [Sehra and Shin 2003] [Serovy and Kavanagh 1974] [Sheng et al. 2016] [Soares et al. 2015] [Spytek 2019] [T55 2023] [Tindell 1966] [Veno 1974] [Vladov et al. 2024a] [Vladov et al. 2024b] [Vogt 1991] [Welsh et al. 2014] [Zhang et al. 2021b] [Zhang et al. 2022c]

Short take-off, powered lift and high lift

The short take-off neighbour. Short take-off and landing aircraft, powered lift, blown flaps and high lift, and the short-haul and intraurban transport studies of the 1960s and 1970s.

36 records. [Attinello 1956] [Belart 1938] [Clark 1971] [Davis et al. 1966] [Diekmann 2019] [Englar and Campbell 2002a] [Englar and Campbell 2002b] [Feistel et al. 1966] [Gamon 1988] [Harradine 1977] [Harris 1956] [Hartman 1936] [Hirsch 1957] [Hirsch 1958] [Hiscock 1981] [Hoh 1977] [Holloway et al. 1972] [Hsin 1973] [Hsin 1974] [Kondoleon 1968] [Landfield and Henderson 1984] [Levinsky and Ramsey 1972] [Love 1993] [Moller 1998] [Paulson 1980] [Pinson and Ryan 1972] [Razak and Craig 1961] [Riebe 1973] [Schaefer and Velten 1970] [Schaefer and Velten 1971] [Schwartzberg 1959] [Selegan 1983] [Stout 1972] [Stout et al. 1971] [Study of Aircraft 1967b, Study of aircraft in short haul t] [Study of Aircraft 1967a, Study of aircraft in short haul t 2]

The X-19, the XC-142 and the X-22

The aircraft and its tri-service contemporaries. The X-19’s final report and the later papers about it, the Vought XC-142 tilt-wing transport and the Bell X-22 ducted-propeller research aircraft, the X-22A’s later service as a variable-stability aircraft for flying qualities research, and a history of Curtiss-Wright’s defence procurement. Four titles name the X-19, eleven the XC-142 and 13 the X-22.

29 records. [Aiken et al. 1977] [Albach and Fewel 1965] [Bell Aerospace Co Buffalo Ny 1970] [Borst 1965] [Borst 1990] [Chance Vought Corp Dallas Tx 1963] [Day 1965] [Fenwick 1967] [Fluk 1967a, Volume I] [Fluk 1967b, Volume II] [Gaebe 1964] [Gholz 2000] [Hancock 1970] [Henderson 1964] [Hesse 1965] [Josephs 1964] [Konrad 1967] [Lebacqz 1974] [Lebacqz and Aiken 1975a] [Lebacqz and Aiken 1975b] [Lebacqz et al. 1974] [Marchese 1963] [Marsh 1965] [Michaels 1969] [Pegg et al. 1974] [Smith 1974] [Smith et al. 1973] [The Bell X-22A V/STOL 1990] [Walz 1978]

Other aeronautical literature

The residual, reported and not hidden. On-subject records that belong to no cluster above, being the lift and drag of a biannular wing airplane, cast aircraft components, a wingtip fence on an uncrewed aircraft, flight envelope protection and a manufacturer’s summary of feasibility studies. No coherent subject in it is large enough to name.

5 records. [Alloy Engineering And Casting Co Champaign Il 1953] [Chung et al. 2008] [English et al. 1966b] [Flight Envelope Awareness/Protection] [Milla and Blick 1966]

Where the Framing Breaks Down

Treating the X-19 through the radial lift force can overstate what the radial lift force decided. The corridor computed above is continuous with the effect switched off. The keystone framing is correct about what the aircraft was sold on, about what its wing area required and, within the model, about the speeds it flew at its nacelle angles, and it is wrong if it suggests the configuration depended on the effect for feasibility.

The keystone framing also underweights what killed the aircraft. The steady radial lift force did not break anything. Its vibratory companion at twice propeller frequency did, and a momentum analysis of the steady force has nothing to say about that load. An article built around an aerodynamic keystone will underweight the structural dynamics that determined the outcome, and this one would too if the point were not made explicitly.

The comparison with the X-18 can be pushed too far. The two aircraft look adjacent and are adjacent in the designation sequence, but their governing quantities have nothing in common. Immersed fraction is meaningless for the X-19 and propeller normal force is nearly meaningless for the X-18, whose propellers stay roughly aligned with the flow because the whole wing rotates with them.

The model used here has a limit. The in-plane momentum picture treats the disc as an actuator turning a stream tube, which is defensible while the disc is moderately inclined and indefensible once it is close to broadside, where a propeller is a bluff body shedding a wake and no linear proportionality to $\sin\alpha_d$ has any basis. The condition to test is the disc incidence, which is the nacelle angle plus the angle of attack.

\[\alpha_d = i + \alpha \le 60^{\circ} \tag{80}\]

Five of the ten corridor rows above violate it, reaching 89.5 degrees at the hover end, so the low-speed half of the corridor should be read as indicative rather than quantitative. The final report draws the line lower for its own strip theory, at shaft angles of about 30 to 45 degrees, and against 45 degrees seven of the ten rows fail. The full-scale measurements of Yaggy and Rogallo 1960, which found normal force nearly linear in shaft angle over large ranges, are the evidence that the linear form does not fail abruptly at either limit. This is the same discipline the X-15 article applied when it found its own perfect-gas arithmetic valid to Mach 7.06 against an aircraft that flew at 6.70.

The Source Base

The survey rests on 9,677 research records drawn from Crossref, the NASA Technical Reports Server and the Defense Technical Information Center, of which 2,457 are report primaries, being 25.4 percent, by the identifier rule set out under The Definition of Primary. Their median year is 2010. Of the 9,398 dated records, 873, being 9.3 percent, date from before 1966, the years in which the X-100 and the X-19 were designed, built and flown, and 4,151, being 44.2 percent, date from 2015 or later.

The vehicle’s own literature is small, and outside one document it is encyclopaedic. The keystone’s literature is the opposite, being deep, primary, and two decades older than the aircraft.

That inversion is the defining feature here. Ribner 1943b, Ribner 1943a, Ribner 1943c, Ribner 1945a and Ribner 1945b are wartime and immediately post-war work on a stability nuisance, and they are the strongest citations in this article. The X-19 exists because someone read that literature and asked whether the nuisance could be a feature.

The tilt-wing and convertiplane design literature of the late 1950s is well populated, in McCormick and Mallen 1956, McCormick and Mallen 1957, Stepniewski 1957, Mallen and Dancik 1959, Dallas and Irvin 1956 and McCormick 1956a, with the aeroelastic problems in Loewy and Yntema 1958.

The vehicle’s primary record is the final report, AFFDL-TR-66-195, Fluk 1967a, Volume I and Fluk 1967b, Volume II, which Curtiss-Wright wrote for the Air Force after the flight test contract ended as a critical review of the whole technology. It covers the history from the X-100, the radial force theory and its correlation with test, the propellers, the control system, the tandem wing, ground effect, the wind tunnel programme, structural loads, power-off flight, the flight test summary with the account of the last flight, and the company’s own assessment. It is a contractor’s report, and its notice page states that publication does not constitute Air Force approval of its findings. The documents it cites for the flights themselves, Curtiss-Wright X-19 Flight Test Reports Nos. 8 to 50 and the accident submissions, are not available in the public archives, so the flight-by-flight record rests on the report’s summary of them. Yaggy and Rogallo 1960 is the independent NASA measurement of the keystone force on a full-scale Curtiss-Wright propeller. Two later documents about the aircraft itself are known here by their titles only, a 1965 paper on the development and flight test results of the tri-service X-19 in Borst 1965 and a 1990 paper on the lessons learned from it in Borst 1990. Four research records name the X-19 in their titles, being those two and the two volumes of the final report.

The Definition of Primary

Primacy is a property of the document, and this survey derives it from the identifier. A record is a report primary when it is a NASA Technical Reports Server record, when it carries a digital object identifier under the 10.21236 prefix, which Crossref registers for Defense Technical Information Center reports, or when it is cited at that archive’s own address. By that rule 1,871 primaries are Technical Reports Server records and 586 are Defense Technical Information Center reports. The final report and the full-scale wind tunnel measurements that carry this article’s keystone are report primaries under that rule.

The rule undercounts what is first-hand. Papers of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics and of the Society of Automotive Engineers, and journal papers by the engineers and pilots who built and flew aircraft of this class, are primary by any reading and are not reached by an identifier rule, the two later papers on the X-19 itself among them. The institutional records of the aircraft are cited as curated references and are not counted in the survey at all. 25.4 percent is therefore a lower bound on how much of the survey is first-hand.

Thin Subjects

Six subjects that this article’s derivations and its account of the loss depend on have thin literatures. Each count below is the number of research records in this survey whose title carries at least one of the listed terms, with a hyphen read as a space. Where a row joins two groups of terms with the words together with, a title must carry a term from each group.

Subject	Title terms counted	Records
the force normal to a propeller’s axis	normal force, normal forces, radial force, radial forces, radial lift, side force, side forces, in plane force, in plane forces, in plane load, in plane loads, lateral force, lateral forces, lateral load, lateral loads together with propeller, propellers	7
the activity factor	activity factor	0
the propeller as a fin	fin, fins together with propeller, propellers	2
the propeller load at twice propeller frequency	2P, twice per revolution, two per revolution, second harmonic	0
the cast magnesium housing	magnesium	1
the cross-shaft interconnecting the propellers	cross shaft, cross shafts, cross shafting, interconnect, interconnected, interconnecting, interconnection	4

The keystone is studied under the propeller’s condition rather than under its own name. Seven titles name the force normal to a propeller’s axis under any of its names, two of them from 2015 or later, while 97 records on propellers in yaw, at incidence and in non-axial flow date from 2015 or later. The thinness of the name is therefore not a thinness of the subject.

No title names the activity factor, although it is the blade parameter by which the final report specifies the X-19’s propeller, so the figure of 168 rests on the report alone.

The fin analogy has no modern literature. The two titles that name a fin together with a propeller both concern airships, so the projected side area that fixes the keystone’s magnitude rests on the wartime theory alone.

The load that destroyed the aircraft is not named in any title. No title names a load at twice propeller frequency, while nine titles name the once-per-revolution or first-order load of a propeller, so the vibratory companion of the radial lift force is studied at the first harmonic and not at the second.

The housing appears only as a material. The one title that names magnesium concerns the exposure of cast magnesium alloys aboard an aircraft carrier, so the fatigue of the X-19’s cast housing is known from the final report’s summary alone.

The interconnected drive is the subject of four titles, two on the effect of cross-shafting on the engine-out landing reliability of vertical take-off aircraft and two on deflected-slipstream aircraft with interconnected propellers.

Aircraft moments of inertia are not thin. The survey holds 23 titles that name moments of inertia or mass properties, among them measurement methods for uncrewed aircraft and estimation from flight data, and none names the X-19. The three inertias in this article are therefore not quoted from a mass-properties source. They are the quotients of the design control moments and angular accelerations that the final report gives, which is the inertia the designers worked with at 12,300 pounds.

What the Survey Admits

A record is admitted only when a person reading its title finds it on this article’s subject, being the aircraft and its tri-service contemporaries, the propeller at incidence and the force normal to its axis, the propeller and the rotor in hover and in cruise, the tandem wing and its interference, the conversion, the systems the configuration depends on from the cross-shaft to the ejection seat, the structural dynamics that destroyed the aircraft, and the tilt-rotor, tilt-wing and electric aircraft that inherited the problem.

Naval architecture is the principal homonym of this subject. A propeller in oblique inflow is a live research subject there, where it means a ship screw meeting the wake of a hull at an angle, and that literature uses the same words as this article. Its records are excluded, and some of them cannot be recognised from the words of the title alone. A paper on the normal force of a rudder behind a controllable-pitch propeller, a David Taylor Model Basin method for calculating the spindle torque of a controllable-pitch propeller, and a report on the four-quadrant characteristics of propeller 4739, designed for the dock landing ship LSD-41, are all ship work, and report-server records carry no journal name that would reveal the venue. The phrase controllable pitch also resembles the vocabulary of controllability and handling qualities. Redundancy also names a topic in biomechanics, and a motor fault also arises in road vehicles, so records that share only those words are excluded. Correction, erratum, retraction and withdrawal notices, figure, table and supplementary-material records, peer-review reports and journal front matter are excluded as well, because a survey counts research works and those are parts of works or editorial events rather than works.

Many other words this subject depends on also name something else, and a record that shares only such a word is excluded. Curtiss-Wright is also a maker of valves, pumps and nuclear plant equipment and the name of a Supreme Court case on the foreign affairs power, X-100 is also a detergent used in biochemistry, and tri-service also names the conferences, health programmes and test facilities of the three armed services. Outwash is also a glacial deposit, figure of merit also measures amplifiers, detectors and thermoelectric materials, and neutral point also names the midpoint of a power converter. Slipstream also names a kind of speculative fiction and a mode of program execution, canard also names a false report and a mathematical cycle, biplane also names a form of medical imaging, and transition also names the transition of a boundary layer. Propeller also names a protein fold, a molecular shape, a surgical flap and an imaging sequence, and propellers that drive pumps, mixers, water turbines, fans and robots are not aircraft propellers. Electric propulsion and launch escape systems of spacecraft, the aerodynamics of missiles, projectiles and fighters at high incidence, and the air traffic management, demand, market, acceptance and policy of urban air mobility are excluded as well. Trade news, forum keynotes, specifications, parts listings and book reviews are excluded for the same reason as the notices above. A signed comment on a paper, a discussion of a paper and its author’s closure, a reply to a comment and a signed letter on a research subject are research works, because each argues about a result, so each is admitted when its subject is this article’s, while an unsigned item of these kinds and a referee’s report on a manuscript are not. Glossaries and encyclopedia and dictionary entries of two pages or fewer are not admitted either, and nor is a second deposit of a document already held, such as a report-server copy of a meeting paper whose publisher record is kept, because counting it would count one work twice.

Some records of doubtful relevance are kept. Papers on permanent-magnet machines, a counter-rotating compressor, turbine vane cooling with one engine inoperative and rotating detonation engines are cited in the modern survey for the motors, blades, engine-out case and design methods of present vertical flight, and a blade-element method for axial-flow fans of high solidity is cited for the solidity of the blade. Each shares machinery or method with that field rather than its aerodynamics, so each is kept and a reader may weigh it accordingly. Curtiss-Wright’s papers on its rotating combustion engines are kept because the M-200 was first designed around four such engines, and a history of the company’s defence procurement is kept for the programme’s industrial setting. Handling qualities, stability and drag studies of conventional aircraft, and the transmissions and turboshaft engines of helicopters, are kept for the criteria, the trim and interference arithmetic and the drive that the article reasons with.

Every research title has been read for relevance, so the off-topic share that remains is a matter of reading judgement. Records read as off topic have been removed, together with other deposits of the same works.

Epistemic State

Historical fact, from the primary record. The X-19 made 50 flights totalling 3 hours 45 minutes, with 84 lift-offs, all on serial 62-12197. Flights before Flight 38 were made at Caldwell, New Jersey, and the rest at the National Aviation Facilities Experimental Center at Pomona, New Jersey, where the aircraft was lost on Flight 50. The conversion envelope reached 100 knots with the nacelles at 45 degrees, and the aircraft never flew with its nacelles fully down. Flight 50 ended when the cast magnesium housing carrying the No. 2 propeller failed under vibratory loads at twice propeller frequency, an emergency manoeuvre and a stress concentration the analysis had underestimated. Both crew ejected at about 400 feet and 120 knots and survived. The second airframe never flew. The aircraft began as Curtiss-Wright’s Model 200 executive transport, was redesigned around two T55-L-5 engines after a management change, and was funded under a tri-service agreement. The X-100 preceded it and was flown from hover to cruise.

Historical fact, from secondary sources only. The first hover on 20 November 1963 and the cancellation four months after the loss come from the museum and Vertipedia accounts. The X-100’s construction and hover dates, and its single transition on 13 April 1960, come from the Smithsonian.

Published figures taken as given. From the final report, gross weight 13,660 pounds, wing areas 56.1 and 98.5 square feet, spans to the nacelle centrelines of 19.5 and 21.5 feet, chords of 34.5 and 55.0 inches, a quarter-chord separation of 23 feet 4.1 inches, four three-blade propellers of 13 feet with 8.4 square feet of blade area per blade and an activity factor of 168, propeller speeds of 1,204 revolutions per minute in hover and 957 in cruise, cruise at 325 knots at 15,000 feet, and the design hover control moments and accelerations. From the Jane’s-derived specification, two engines of 2,650 shaft horsepower and a maximum speed of 400 knots at 20,000 feet. That specification names the T55-L-7 while the final report names the T55-L-5 and gives no rating, so the installed power rests on a source whose engine designation the primary record contradicts.

Engineering analysis. Wing loading of 88.4 pounds per square foot, stall at 136.5 knots, download of 14.1 percent, hover induced velocity of 78.6 feet per second, permitted cruise tip speed of 644.2 feet per second, blade loading of 0.097 in hover, in-plane recovery fraction of 0.263, cruise lift share of 29.0 percent, equivalent plain wing of 215 to 216 square feet, the corridor table, the model’s angles of attack at the documented flight points, tandem attitude penalty of 1.90 degrees, control accelerations, cross-shaft torques, and the free-fall budget are all computed here from the documented geometry and are not quoted from any source. The derived cruise propeller speed of 946 revolutions per minute agrees with the record’s 957 to 1.1 percent.

Assumed quantities, each of which moves the answers. Maximum lift coefficient of 1.4, helical tip Mach limit of 0.90, blade loading limit of 0.14 used only as a reference, hover figure of merit of 0.70, download drag coefficient of 1.20 with slipstream factor 1.5, propeller efficiency of 0.80 at maximum speed, span efficiencies, an effective tandem aspect ratio of 6.0, and the use of the quarter-chord separation for the propeller station separation. The inertias are those implied by the design control powers at 12,300 pounds and are applied at 13,660. That the 8.4 square feet of blade area is per blade is an inference from the activity factor.

One modelling inconsistency is carried openly. The momentum model treats the hover figure of merit and the propeller efficiency at maximum speed as a single quantity, yet the calculation assumes 0.70 for the one and 0.80 for the other. Evaluated across both values, the corridor’s low-speed boundaries are identical while its high-speed boundaries move by about 5 percent. The figure of merit implied by the qualification schedule’s hover power is 0.647, below both.

The corridor needs both equilibrium equations. Solving the vertical balance for thrust and then testing that same balance is satisfied identically at any speed, and it would place the lower boundary near zero at every nacelle angle. Eliminating thrust between the vertical and horizontal balances is what gives the corridor its lower boundaries.

The model disagrees with the record by about 2 degrees. At the two documented conversion points the model’s angle of attack is about 2 degrees below the pilot’s estimates and the company’s calculation, and at the 160-knot design point it is 4.2 degrees below the company’s figure. Whether the model overstates the radial lift force or the angles are referred to different datums is not settled by the record.

Inference, not established. That the conditions flown depended on the radial lift force holds within this model only. That the seats fired the crew partly toward the ground is inferred from the recorded roll angle.

Unresolved conflict in the record. The final report gives the contract flight time as 3 hours 44 minutes in one place and 3 hours 38 minutes in another. Its company account of the crash places the impact in a swamp and its theodolite analysis in a dried reservoir bed. The X-100’s flight time is 10 hours in the final report and fourteen in the Smithsonian’s account. The final report states the speed objective as 400 miles an hour and as Mach 0.65, which cannot both hold.

Written from present knowledge. The contemporary material postdates the editorial date of this article.

Out of Scope

Blade element analysis of the propellers, including the twist distribution and the compressibility behaviour of a wide chord at the tip. Structural design of the wings and the nacelle pivots. Aeroelastic behaviour of a heavy nacelle on a short wing, which Loewy and Yntema 1958 indicates is not trivial. Gear tooth stress and lubrication, and the fatigue analysis of the propeller housing, which the final report treats only in summary. Acoustic behaviour, which the M-200 design meant to keep low with lightly loaded propellers at low tip speed. The autorotation and engine-out descent case. Ground effect and recirculation during vertical landing, which Huston and Winston 1960, O’Bryan 1961, Pruyn and Taylor 1970 and Renselaer 1975 address for adjacent configurations. Cockpit workload and the pilot’s task during a conversion that was never completed.

Conclusion

The X-19 asked whether a propeller could be counted on for lift, and the answer computed here is that it can, to the tune of about thirty percent of the lift slope in cruise, which is enough to build a wing loading of 88 pounds per square foot on where 63 would otherwise be needed. Curtiss-Wright’s design figure was at least 20 percent of the cruise lift.

That answer was never confirmed in cruise by the aircraft that asked the question. Fifty flights and 3 hours 45 minutes took the conversion to 100 knots with the nacelles at 45 degrees and no further, and the airframe was destroyed before the nacelles were ever fully down. The two conversion points the final report documents fall inside the model’s corridor only when the radial lift force is counted, and the model’s angles of attack there run about 2 degrees below what the pilot and the company estimated. The confirmation of a complete conversion belongs to the X-100, a smaller and lighter demonstrator that transitioned once in 1960.

Three conclusions survive the analysis and two do not. The wide propeller blade was bought for radial force, as the final report states, and hovering at a higher propeller speed than it cruised at kept that blade lightly loaded. The tandem layout supplied for nothing the pitch control that the X-18 required a turbojet to obtain, and supplied a hover yaw control that its designers judged unacceptable for an operational aircraft. The interconnected drive cured the X-18’s fatal engine-out asymmetry, at the cost of a transmission that had to be uprated beyond the weight it was drawn for.

The first conclusion that does not survive is the one the marketing rested on. The radial lift force did not make this aircraft possible. The corridor closes without it at higher speeds. What it made possible was a smaller wing and, in the model, the slower conversion speeds at which the aircraft flew. The second is the familiar account of the loss. The X-19 was not destroyed by its gearbox. The final report names a cast magnesium propeller housing that failed under vibratory loads at twice propeller frequency, loads that arose in conversion, that were as large as the steady load beside them, and that no method of the period could calculate.

The contemporary literature adds a final observation that changes the verdict on the programme rather than on the physics. Every argument Curtiss-Wright made about the steady force has held. The radial lift force is real and is now a routine term. The configuration of several propellers at two longitudinal stations with a small wing describes a large part of the current electric vertical take-off field, and electric motors have abolished the transmission whose design the company argued over. What destroyed the aircraft was the unsteady side of the same oblique flow that produces the radial lift force, and modern methods now compute that unsteady load in advance.

An aircraft can be correct in the argument it makes about the steady force and still be destroyed by the unsteady one.

Equations

This section collects the 80 display equations of the article in the order they appear, each under its number and reproduced exactly as it stands in the text. A title in bold names an established result, and a title in italics beginning with the word Bespoke names a construction made for this analysis. Of the 80, 33 are established and 47 are bespoke. Lengths are in feet, forces in pounds and powers in horsepower at sea-level density unless a line states 15,000 or 20,000 feet, and several symbols are reused, so $S_f$ is the effective propeller fin area in the keystone derivation but the forward wing area in the lift and trim relations, $f$ is both the equivalent flat-plate area and a differential fraction of thrust, and $\bar{c}$ is a wing mean chord in the geometry check but the blade mean chord in the blade relations.

Equation 1, Bespoke Wing Area With a Propeller Lift Share. The sales argument sizes the wing for the slowest wing-borne speed after removing a fraction $\phi$ of the lift that the propellers are assumed to supply.

\[S = \frac{2 W \left( 1 - \phi \right)}{\rho V_{\text{conv}}^{2} C_{L,\max}} \tag{1}\]

Equation 2, Pitch Stiffness Contribution of a Propeller. A propeller ahead of the centre of gravity adds a pitching moment slope proportional to its arm and to the slope of its normal force with angle of attack.

\[\frac{\partial C_m}{\partial \alpha} = \frac{x_p}{q S \bar{c}} \frac{\partial N}{\partial \alpha} \tag{2}\]

Equation 3, Aspect Ratio and Mean Chord. Aspect ratio is span squared over area and mean chord is area over span for each wing. final report

\[\text{AR} = \frac{b^{2}}{S}, \qquad \bar{c} = \frac{S}{b} \tag{3}\]

Equation 4, Finite-Wing Lift-Curve Slope. The lift-curve slope of a finite wing is the two-dimensional slope reduced by its span through the aspect ratio and span efficiency.

\[a = \frac{a_0}{1 + a_0 / \left( \pi e \, \text{AR} \right)} \tag{4}\]

Equation 5, Bespoke Area-Weighted Lift-Curve Slope of the Tandem Wings. The article combines the two surfaces into one equivalent slope by area weighting, evaluated at an assumed span efficiency of 0.90.

\[\bar{a} = \frac{S_f a_f + S_a a_a}{S_f + S_a} = 4.434 \ \text{rad}^{-1} \tag{5}\]

Equation 6, Wing Loading at Normal Gross Weight. The report’s normal gross weight of 13,660 pounds over the total wing area of 154.6 square feet gives the wing loading. final report

\[\frac{W}{S} = \frac{13{,}660}{154.6} = 88.4 \ \text{lb/ft}^2 \tag{6}\]

Equation 7, Stalling Speed. The stalling speed follows from the lift equation at the maximum lift coefficient.

\[V_{s} = \sqrt{\frac{2W}{\rho S C_{L,\max}}} \tag{7}\]

Equation 8, Resolution of the Freestream at a Propeller Disc. The freestream divides into a component along the propeller axis and a component in the plane of the disc.

\[V_{\text{axial}} = V \cos\alpha_d, \qquad V_{\text{in-plane}} = V \sin\alpha_d \tag{8}\]

Equation 9, Mass Flow Through an Inclined Disc. The mass flow through the disc is density times disc area times the axial freestream component plus the induced velocity.

\[\dot{m} = \rho A \left( V \cos\alpha_d + v_i \right) \tag{9}\]

Equation 10, Bespoke Propeller Normal Force From In-Plane Momentum. The article models the propeller normal force as a fraction $k$ of the in-plane momentum flux removed by the disc, the keystone relation of the analysis.

\[N = k \, \rho A \left( V \cos\alpha_d + v_i \right) V \sin\alpha_d \tag{10}\]

Equation 11, Bespoke Fin Analogy for the Propeller Normal Force. The article equates the momentum form of the normal force with the lift of a fin of equivalent area and slope at small angle and high speed.

\[\tfrac{1}{2} \rho V^2 S_f a_b \alpha_d = k \rho A V^2 \alpha_d \tag{11}\]

Equation 12, Bespoke Recovery Fraction From the Fin Analogy. Under the fin analogy the recovery fraction reduces to fin area times slope over twice the disc area.

\[k = \frac{S_f a_b}{2A} \tag{12}\]

Equation 13, Azimuthal Mean of the Absolute Cosine. The mean of the absolute cosine over a full revolution is $2/\pi$.

\[\frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{0}^{2\pi} \left| \cos\psi \right| \, d\psi = \frac{2}{\pi} \tag{13}\]

Equation 14, Bespoke Effective Fin Area of a Propeller. The article takes the effective side area of a rotating propeller as the blade planform area times the azimuthal mean projection $2/\pi$.

\[S_f = \frac{2}{\pi} B c R \tag{14}\]

Equation 15, Helical Tip Mach Number. The helical tip Mach number is the vector sum of flight speed and rotational tip speed over the speed of sound.

\[M_{h} = \frac{\sqrt{V^2 + (\Omega R)^2}}{a} \tag{15}\]

Equation 16, Rotational Tip Speed Permitted by a Tip Mach Limit. Solving the helical tip relation for the rotational component gives the tip speed a given tip Mach limit allows at a flight speed.

\[\Omega R \le \sqrt{\left( M_{h,\lim} a \right)^2 - V^2} \tag{16}\]

Equation 17, Bespoke Rotational Rate Permitted in Cruise. The rotational rate and shaft speed follow from a working tip Mach limit of 0.90 that the article assumes at 400 knots and 20,000 feet.

\[\Omega = \frac{\Omega R}{R} = \frac{644.2}{6.5} = 99.11 \ \text{rad/s}, \qquad n = \frac{60 \, \Omega}{2\pi} = 946 \ \text{rpm} \tag{17}\]

Equation 18, Helical Tip Mach Number at the Recorded Cruise Speed. The recorded 957 revolutions per minute at 400 knots and 20,000 feet place the helical tip at Mach 0.905. Curtiss-Wright X-19

\[M_h = \frac{\sqrt{675.1^2 + 651.4^2}}{1{,}036.8} = 0.905, \qquad \Omega R = \frac{2\pi (957)}{60} (6.5) = 651.4 \ \text{ft/s} \tag{18}\]

Equation 19, Bespoke Static Tip Mach Number at the Cruise Tip Speed. The rotational tip speed from the assumed 0.90 ceiling is set against the sea-level speed of sound.

\[M_{\text{tip,static}} = \frac{\Omega R}{a_0} = \frac{644.2}{1{,}116.5} = 0.577 \tag{19}\]

Equation 20, Bespoke Advance Ratio in Cruise. The advance ratio at 400 knots uses the shaft speed derived from the assumed tip Mach ceiling.

\[J = \frac{V}{n D} = \frac{675.1}{(15.77)(13)} = 3.29 \tag{20}\]

Equation 21, Bespoke Immersed Fraction of a Semi-Span. The article defines the immersed fraction of each semi-span as one propeller radius over the semi-span, valid while the disc does not reach the root.

\[f_{\text{imm}} = \frac{R}{b/2} = \frac{2R}{b} \tag{21}\]

Equation 22, Bespoke Immersed Wing Area. The immersed area sums the defined immersed fractions over the two surfaces. White et al. 1960 Curtiss et al. 1985 Qin et al. 2017

\[S_{\text{imm}} = \sum_j f_{\text{imm},j} S_j = 97.0 \ \text{ft}^2 = 62.7\% \ \text{of the wing} \tag{22}\]

Equation 23, Bespoke Hover Download on the Immersed Wing. The article models download as the dynamic pressure of a slipstream at a multiple $\lambda$ of the induced velocity acting on the immersed area with a normal-flow drag coefficient.

\[D_{\text{down}} = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho \left( \lambda v_i \right)^2 S_{\text{imm}} C_{D,\perp} \tag{23}\]

Equation 24, Bespoke Hover Thrust Including Download. Substituting the momentum-theory induced velocity into the download model makes thrust linear in itself and gives a closed form for the required thrust.

\[T = W + \frac{\lambda^{2} S_{\text{imm}} C_{D,\perp}}{4 A} \, T \quad \Longrightarrow \quad T = \frac{W}{1 - \lambda^{2} S_{\text{imm}} C_{D,\perp} / 4A} \tag{24}\]

Equation 25, Bespoke Hover Induced Velocity With Download. The momentum-theory induced velocity is evaluated at the thrust from the download model over the total disc area of 530.9 square feet. final report

\[v_i = \sqrt{\frac{T}{2 \rho A}} = 78.57 \ \text{ft/s} \tag{25}\]

Equation 26, Bespoke Ideal and Required Hover Power. The ideal power is the modelled thrust times the induced velocity, and the shaft requirement divides it by a figure of merit of 0.70 that the article assumes.

\[P_{\text{ideal}} = T v_i = 2{,}226 \ \text{hp}, \qquad P_{\text{req}} = \frac{P_{\text{ideal}}}{\text{FM}} = 3{,}180 \ \text{hp} \tag{26}\]

Equation 27, Bespoke Hover Power Margin. The installed 5,300 horsepower is divided by the required power that rests on the download model and the assumed figure of merit.

\[\frac{P_{\text{inst}}}{P_{\text{req}}} = \frac{5{,}300}{3{,}180} = 1.67 \tag{27}\]

Equation 28, Bespoke Figure of Merit Implied by the Qualification Schedule. The modelled ideal power is divided by the 3,440 horsepower that the qualification schedule sets for take-off and hover. final report

\[P_{\text{sched}} = 4 \times 860 = 3{,}440 \ \text{hp}, \qquad \text{FM}_{\text{sched}} = \frac{2{,}226}{3{,}440} = 0.647 \tag{28}\]

Equation 29, Thrust Coefficient Scaling. Propeller thrust is the thrust coefficient times density times disc area times the square of tip speed.

\[T_1 = C_T \rho A_1 (\Omega R)^{2} \tag{29}\]

Equation 30, Hover Tip Speed and Tip Mach Number. The recorded hover speed of 1,204 revolutions per minute gives a tip speed of 819.5 feet per second, the figure the report states for peak static thrust. final report

\[\Omega R = \frac{2\pi (1{,}204)}{60} (6.5) = 819.5 \ \text{ft/s}, \qquad M_{\text{tip}} = \frac{819.5}{1{,}116.5} = 0.734 \tag{30}\]

Equation 31, Propeller Activity Factor. The activity factor integrates the ratio of chord to diameter weighted by the cube of radial position from the hub cut-off to the tip. final report

\[\text{AF} = \frac{10^{5}}{16} \int_{0.15}^{1} \frac{c}{D} \, x^{3} \, dx \tag{31}\]

Equation 32, Constant Chord Equivalent to the Activity Factor. A blade of constant chord with the stated activity factor of 168 on a 13 foot propeller has a chord of 1.398 feet.

\[c_{\text{AF}} = \frac{\text{AF} \, D}{\tfrac{10^{5}}{16} \cdot \tfrac{1 - 0.15^{4}}{4}} = \frac{(168)(13)}{1{,}561.7} = 1.398 \ \text{ft} \tag{32}\]

Equation 33, Bespoke Blade Mean Chord and Solidity. Reading the stated 8.4 square feet as the area of each blade, an inference the article makes, gives the mean chord and the solidity.

\[\bar{c} = \frac{A_b}{R} = \frac{8.4}{6.5} = 1.292 \ \text{ft}, \qquad \sigma = \frac{B A_b}{\pi R^{2}} = \frac{(3)(8.4)}{132.73} = 0.190 \tag{33}\]

Equation 34, Bespoke Blade Aspect Ratio. The blade aspect ratio is the radius over the mean chord from the per-blade reading of the blade area.

\[\text{AR}_b = \frac{R}{\bar{c}} = \frac{6.5}{1.292} = 5.03 \tag{34}\]

Equation 35, Bespoke Hover Thrust Coefficient and Blade Loading. The thrust coefficient uses one quarter of the modelled hover thrust including download and is compared with a blade loading limit of 0.14 that the article takes as a reference.

\[C_T = \frac{T_1}{\rho A_1 (\Omega R)^2} = \frac{3{,}895}{(0.002377)(132.73)(819.5)^{2}} = 0.01838, \qquad \frac{C_T}{\sigma} = 0.097 \tag{35}\]

Equation 36, Bespoke Chord Needed at the Cruise Tip Speed. The article computes the chord that would hold the assumed 0.14 blade loading limit if the propellers had hovered at the cruise tip speed.

\[c = \frac{\pi R}{B} \cdot \frac{C_T}{0.14} = \frac{\pi (6.5)}{3} \cdot \frac{0.02975}{0.14} = 1.446 \ \text{ft} \tag{36}\]

Equation 37, Bespoke Effective Fin Area of the Documented Blade. The fin analogy is applied to three blades of the per-blade area of 8.4 square feet.

\[S_f = \frac{2}{\pi} B A_b = \frac{2}{\pi}(3)(8.4) = 16.04 \ \text{ft}^2 \ \text{per propeller} \tag{37}\]

Equation 38, Bespoke Recovery Fraction of the Documented Blade. The recovery fraction follows from the fin analogy with a blade lift-curve slope of 4.358 per radian at the inferred blade aspect ratio.

\[k = \frac{(16.04)(4.358)}{2(132.73)} = 0.263 \tag{38}\]

Equation 39, Cruise Dynamic Pressure and Lift Coefficient. At the reported cruise of 325 knots at 15,000 feet the dynamic pressure and the lift coefficient needed to carry the weight follow directly. Fluk 1967b, Volume II

\[q = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho V^{2} = 225.0 \ \text{lb/ft}^{2}, \qquad C_L = \frac{W}{q S} = 0.393 \tag{39}\]

Equation 40, Bespoke Cruise Attitude Without Interference. The attitude is the cruise lift coefficient over the area-weighted slope built on the assumed span efficiency.

\[\alpha = \frac{C_L}{\bar{a}} = \frac{0.393}{4.434} = 0.0886 \ \text{rad} \tag{40}\]

Equation 41, Bespoke Wing Lift Slope in Cruise. The wing lift slope with angle of attack uses the area-weighted slope built on the assumed span efficiency.

\[\frac{\partial L}{\partial \alpha} = q S \bar{a} = 154{,}238 \ \text{lb/rad} \tag{41}\]

Equation 42, Bespoke Propeller Normal Force Slope in Cruise. The slope of the four propeller normal forces follows from the keystone relation at small angle with the recovery fraction of the fin analogy.

\[\frac{\partial N}{\partial \alpha} = 4 k \rho A_1 (V + v_i) V = 63{,}148 \ \text{lb/rad} \tag{42}\]

Equation 43, Bespoke Propeller Share of Incidence-Dependent Lift. The share compares the modelled propeller slope with the modelled wing slope, with thrust set by a lift to drag ratio of 8 that the article assumes.

\[\frac{\partial N / \partial \alpha}{\partial N / \partial \alpha + \partial L / \partial \alpha} = 29.0\% \tag{43}\]

Equation 44, Bespoke Stall Angle of the Equivalent Wing. The stall angle is an assumed maximum lift coefficient of 1.4 over the area-weighted slope.

\[\alpha_{\text{stall}} = \frac{C_{L,\max}}{\bar{a}} = \frac{1.4}{4.434} = 0.3157 \ \text{rad} = 18.1^{\circ} \tag{44}\]

Equation 45, Bespoke Vertical Balance at the Stall With Propeller Normal Force. The article balances weight against the wing at the assumed maximum lift plus the keystone relation evaluated at the stall angle.

\[W = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho V^{2} S C_{L,\max} + 4 k \rho A_1 \left( V \cos\alpha_{\text{stall}} + v_i \right) V \sin\alpha_{\text{stall}} \tag{45}\]

Equation 46, Bespoke Equivalent Plain Wing Area. The area a plain wing would need scales with the square of the ratio of the modelled minimum speeds without and with the propeller normal force.

\[\frac{S_{\text{equiv}}}{S} = \left( \frac{V_{\text{without}}}{V_{\text{with}}} \right)^{2} = 1.391 \tag{46}\]

Equation 47, Vertical Force Balance at a Nacelle Angle. In steady level flight the vertical components of thrust, propeller normal force and wing lift balance the weight.

\[T \sin(i + \alpha) + N \cos(i + \alpha) + L \cos\alpha = W \tag{47}\]

Equation 48, Horizontal Force Balance at a Nacelle Angle. Along the flight path the thrust component balances drag and the rearward component of the propeller normal force.

\[T \cos(i + \alpha) - N \sin(i + \alpha) - D = 0 \tag{48}\]

Equation 49, Trim Condition With Thrust Eliminated. Eliminating thrust between the two balances leaves one condition on angle of attack.

\[\cos(i + \alpha) \left[ W - L \cos\alpha \right] - N - D \sin(i + \alpha) = 0 \tag{49}\]

Equation 50, Drag With an Equivalent Flat-Plate Area. Drag is the dynamic pressure times an equivalent flat-plate area plus an induced term.

\[D = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho V^{2} \left( f + \frac{S C_L^{2}}{\pi e \, \text{AR}_{\text{eff}}} \right) \tag{50}\]

Equation 51, Bespoke Drag at Maximum Speed. Drag at 400 knots equals the converted shaft power over speed at a propulsive efficiency of 0.80 that the article assumes.

\[D = \frac{\eta_p P_{\text{shaft}}}{V} = \frac{(0.80)(5{,}300)(550)}{675.1} = 3{,}454 \ \text{lb} \tag{51}\]

Equation 52, Bespoke Equivalent Flat-Plate Area. The parasite part of the drag from the assumed propulsive efficiency is divided by the dynamic pressure to give the flat-plate area.

\[f = \frac{D - D_i}{q} = \frac{3{,}454 - 277}{288.6} = 11.01 \ \text{ft}^{2} \tag{52}\]

Equation 53, Momentum-Theory Thrust at Given Power. With a fixed power per propeller momentum theory gives an induced velocity and a thrust that remain finite at zero speed.

\[2 \rho A_1 v_i \left( V + v_i \right)^{2} = \frac{\eta_p P_{\text{shaft}}}{4}, \qquad T = 4 \cdot 2 \rho A_1 v_i \left( V + v_i \right) \tag{53}\]

Equation 54, Bespoke Corridor Continuity Condition. The article defines continuity of the corridor as the minimum speed of each nacelle step lying at or below the maximum speed of the step before it.

\[V_{\min}(i_{n+1}) \le V_{\max}(i_{n}) \quad \text{for every consecutive pair} \tag{54}\]

Equation 55, Bespoke Speed Reduction From the Propeller Normal Force. The article measures the benefit of the normal force as the difference of the modelled minimum speeds without and with it at each nacelle angle.

\[\Delta V(i) = V_{\min}^{\text{without}}(i) - V_{\min}^{\text{with}}(i) \tag{55}\]

Equation 56, Bespoke Downwash Gradient at the Aft Wing. The far-field downwash gradient $2a/(\pi \text{AR})$ is evaluated with the forward wing slope built on the assumed span efficiency. final report

\[\frac{d\varepsilon}{d\alpha} = \frac{2 a_{\text{fwd}}}{\pi \text{AR}_{\text{fwd}}} = 0.444 \tag{56}\]

Equation 57, Tandem-Wing Lift With Downwash. The total lift of a tandem pair is the forward wing at full attitude plus the aft wing at the attitude reduced by the downwash.

\[W = q \alpha \left[ S_f a_f + S_a a_a \left( 1 - \frac{d\varepsilon}{d\alpha} \right) \right] \tag{57}\]

Equation 58, Bespoke Forward and Aft Wing Lift in Cruise. The lift of each surface at the trimmed cruise attitude uses the modelled slopes and downwash.

\[L_f = q S_f a_f \alpha = 7{,}270 \ \text{lb}, \qquad L_a = q S_a a_a \left( \alpha - \varepsilon \right) = 6{,}390 \ \text{lb} \tag{58}\]

Equation 59, Bespoke Aft Wing Lift Share Against Area Share. The aft wing carries 46.8 percent of the modelled lift on 63.7 percent of the area.

\[\frac{L_a}{L_f + L_a} = 46.8\% \quad \text{on} \quad \frac{S_a}{S} = 63.7\% \ \text{of the area} \tag{59}\]

Equation 60, Pitch Moment From Differential Thrust. Shifting a fraction $f$ of total thrust between two stations a distance $\ell$ apart produces a pitching moment of $fT\ell/2$.

\[M = 2 \left( \tfrac{1}{2} f T \right) \frac{\ell}{2} = \tfrac{1}{2} f T \ell \tag{60}\]

Equation 61, Design Inertias From Control Moment and Acceleration. Each inertia is the report’s design hover control moment divided by the maximum angular acceleration it produces. final report

\[I = \frac{M_{\max}}{\ddot{\theta}_{\max}} \quad \Longrightarrow \quad I_{yy} = \frac{27{,}000}{0.68} = 39{,}706, \quad I_{xx} = \frac{20{,}000}{1.75} = 11{,}429, \quad I_{zz} = \frac{5{,}600}{0.12} = 46{,}667 \ \text{slug ft}^{2} \tag{61}\]

Equation 62, Bespoke Pitch Acceleration From a Ten Percent Differential. The pitch acceleration uses a differential of 10 percent of the modelled hover thrust including download.

\[\ddot{\theta} = \frac{M}{I_{yy}} = \frac{18{,}185}{39{,}706} = 0.458 \ \text{rad/s}^{2} \tag{62}\]

Equation 63, Thrust Fraction for the Design Pitch Moment. The design maximum pitch moment corresponds to a differential fraction of hovering thrust at the design weight of 12,300 pounds. final report

\[f = \frac{2 M_{\max}}{W \ell} = \frac{2 (27{,}000)}{(12{,}300)(23.34)} = 0.188 \tag{63}\]

Equation 64, Bespoke Roll Moment and Acceleration From a Ten Percent Differential. The roll moment uses a 10 percent differential of the modelled hover thrust at the mean semi-span.

\[M_\phi = f T \, y = (0.10)(15{,}581)(10.25) = 15{,}970 \ \text{ft\,lb}, \qquad \ddot{\phi} = \frac{15{,}970}{11{,}429} = 1.397 \ \text{rad/s}^{2} \tag{64}\]

Equation 65, Bespoke Torque per Propeller in Hover. The torque per propeller divides one quarter of the required hover power, which rests on the assumed figure of merit, by the hover rotational rate. Fluk 1967b, Volume II

\[Q_1 = \frac{P_1}{\Omega} = \frac{795 \times 550}{126.08} = 3{,}468 \ \text{ft\,lb} \tag{65}\]

Equation 66, Net Yaw Torque From Differential Like-Rotation Pairs. A differential of fraction $f$ between the two pairs of like rotation leaves a net torque of four times $f$ times the torque per propeller.

\[Q_{\text{net}} = 4 f Q_1 \tag{66}\]

Equation 67, Bespoke Yaw Acceleration From Torque Differential. The yaw acceleration uses a differential of 20 percent that the article chooses against the design yaw inertia.

\[\ddot{\psi} = \frac{Q_{\text{net}}}{I_{zz}} = \frac{2{,}774}{46{,}667} = 0.0594 \ \text{rad/s}^{2} \tag{67}\]

Equation 68, Bespoke Rolling Moment After Losing One Side. The upset moment is half the modelled hover thrust acting at the mean semi-span.

\[M_{\text{upset}} = \frac{T}{2} \times 10.25 = 79{,}851 \ \text{ft\,lb} \tag{68}\]

Equation 69, Bespoke Upset Moment Against Full Roll Control. The modelled upset moment is divided by the design maximum roll moment of 20,000 foot-pounds.

\[\frac{M_{\text{upset}}}{M_{\phi,\max}} = \frac{79{,}851}{20{,}000} = 3.99 \tag{69}\]

Equation 70, Torque From Power and Rotational Rate. Shaft torque is power divided by rotational rate.

\[Q = \frac{P}{\Omega} \tag{70}\]

Equation 71, Disc Loading of the X-19. The disc loading is the normal gross weight over the total disc area of four 13 foot propellers. final report

\[\frac{W}{A} = \frac{13{,}660}{530.93} = 25.7 \ \text{lb/ft}^2 \tag{71}\]

Equation 72, Ideal Power per Unit Weight. Ideal hover power per unit weight equals the induced velocity, which grows as the square root of disc loading.

\[\frac{P_{\text{ideal}}}{W} = v_i = \sqrt{\frac{1}{2\rho} \cdot \frac{W}{A}} \tag{72}\]

Equation 73, Bespoke Power Loading in Hover. The power loading divides the weight by the required power that rests on the download model and the assumed figure of merit.

\[\frac{W}{P_{\text{req}}} = \frac{13{,}660}{3{,}180} = 4.30 \ \text{lb/hp} \tag{73}\]

Equation 74, Airborne Time per Flight. The recorded 225 minutes over 50 flights give 4.5 minutes per flight.

\[\frac{225}{50} = 4.5 \ \text{minutes per flight} \tag{74}\]

Equation 75, Calendar Rate of the Flight Programme. The 644 days between first hover and loss give 12.9 days per flight and 0.177 flight hours per month.

\[\frac{644}{50} = 12.9 \ \text{days per flight}, \qquad \frac{3.75}{644/30.44} = 0.177 \ \text{flight hours per month} \tag{75}\]

Equation 76, Free-Fall Time From the Ejection Height. A body with no vertical velocity falls from 400 feet in about five seconds.

\[t = \sqrt{\frac{2h}{g}} = \sqrt{\frac{2(400)}{32.174}} = 4.99 \ \text{s} \tag{76}\]

Equation 77, Fall Time to Parachute Opening. The fall of 150 feet to the height at which the parachutes opened takes about three seconds.

\[t_{150} = \sqrt{\frac{2(400 - 250)}{32.174}} = 3.05 \ \text{s} \tag{77}\]

Equation 78, Bespoke Model Angle of Attack at the Flight 50 Conditions. The trimmed corridor model, with the fin analogy recovery fraction and the assumed polar, gives the angle of attack at the nacelle angles and speeds of Flight 50. Fluk 1967b, Volume II

\[\alpha_{\text{model}}(65^{\circ}, 80 \ \text{kt}) = 4.9^{\circ}, \qquad \alpha_{\text{model}}(55^{\circ}, 90 \ \text{kt}) = 8.0^{\circ} \tag{78}\]

Equation 79, Bespoke Wing-Alone Angle of Attack at the Lock-Down Point. The wing-alone attitude at 160 knots uses the area-weighted slope built on the assumed span efficiency and ignores the propeller normal force. final report

\[\alpha = \frac{W}{q S \bar{a}} = \frac{13{,}660}{(86.67)(154.6)(4.434)} = 0.2299 \ \text{rad} = 13.2^{\circ} \tag{79}\]

Equation 80, Bespoke Validity Limit of the In-Plane Momentum Model. The article limits its momentum model to a disc incidence of 60 degrees, beyond which a propeller behaves as a bluff body.

\[\alpha_d = i + \alpha \le 60^{\circ} \tag{80}\]

Notation

• $S$, the total wing reference area, with $S_a$ the aft wing area
• $W$, the aircraft weight
• $\phi$, the fraction of lift that the propellers supply at the slowest wing-borne speed
• $N$, the propeller normal force, the radial lift force of an inclined disc
• $\text{AR}$, the wing aspect ratio, with $\text{AR}_b$ the blade aspect ratio
• $\bar{a}$, the area-weighted lift-curve slope of the two wings
• $C_{L,\max}$, the maximum lift coefficient
• $\alpha_d$, the angle of the propeller axis to the flow
• $v_i$, the induced velocity at the propeller disc
• $k$, the fraction of in-plane momentum flux that the disc removes
• $A_1$, the disc area of one propeller, with $A$ the total disc area
• $a_b$, the lift-curve slope of a propeller blade
• $\Omega$, the propeller rotational rate
• $M_h$, the helical tip Mach number
• $J$, the propeller advance ratio
• $S_{\text{imm}}$, the immersed wing area
• $C_{D,\perp}$, the normal-flow drag coefficient of the immersed wing
• $\text{FM}$, the hover figure of merit
• $C_T$, the thrust coefficient
• $\text{AF}$, the propeller activity factor
• $\sigma$, the propeller solidity, blade area over disc area
• $\eta_p$, the propulsive efficiency
• $\frac{d\varepsilon}{d\alpha}$, the downwash gradient at the aft wing
• $\ell$, the separation of the forward and aft thrust stations
• $I_{yy}$, the moment of inertia in pitch, with $I_{xx}$ in roll and $I_{zz}$ in yaw
• $Q_1$, the torque of one propeller, with $Q_{\text{net}}$ the net yaw torque
• $i + \alpha$, the disc incidence, the nacelle angle $i$ plus the angle of attack $\alpha$

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