X-Planes: Curtiss-Wright X-19

The Curtiss-Wright X-19 carried 13,660 pounds on 154.6 square feet of wing. That is a wing loading of 88 pounds per square foot in an aircraft required to land vertically. The wings were not merely small. They were too small to carry the aircraft at any speed below 137 knots, a strange property for a machine whose entire purpose was to arrive at zero. This article is the twentieth in the X-Planes series, following the X-1, the X-2, the X-3, the X-4, the X-5, the X-6, the X-7, the X-8, the X-9, the X-10, the X-11, the X-12, the X-13, the X-14, the X-15, the X-16, the X-17, and the X-18.

The previous article covered the X-18, which tilted its whole wing. It would be natural to expect the same analysis here, since both aircraft convert by rotating propellers from vertical to horizontal. That expectation is wrong, and following it would produce the wrong article. A tilt-wing must keep its wing flying at absurd angles of attack, so the fraction of that wing immersed in the propeller slipstream governs everything. A tilt-propeller never rotates its wing at all. The wing sits at zero incidence from hover to cruise and never sees an angle it could not see in ordinary flight.

The question the X-19 asked instead is whether a propeller can be counted on for lift. Not thrust turned upward, which is trivial, but the force a propeller develops at right angles to its own axis when the oncoming flow meets the disc obliquely. Curtiss-Wright called this the radial force or radial lift in the programme’s final report, and the company’s claim was that it is large enough to size a wing around.

The standard inventory entry remains Jenkins Landis and Miller 2003 American X-Vehicles, An Inventory X-1 to X-50 and the vehicle compilation is Miller 2001 The X-Planes, X-1 to X-45. The keystone has a literature older than the aircraft by eighteen years, drawn from aerodynamic stability and not from vertical flight, in Ribner 1945 and Ribner 1945.

The Research Question

The Keystone Is the Propeller Normal Force

The keystone is how much lift a propeller produces without pointing at the sky.

A propeller meeting the air along its axis produces thrust and nothing else. Incline the axis to the flow and the symmetry breaks. Each blade sees a velocity that varies around the azimuth, the loading varies with it, and the disc as a whole exerts a force perpendicular to its axis. It was pointed out in 1909, as Ribner 1945 recounts, that a yawed propeller develops a side force like a fin, and Rumph et al 1942 treated the effect as a stability problem, as it had always been. A tractor propeller ahead of the centre of gravity is destabilising precisely because this force exists.

Curtiss-Wright proposed to stop treating it as a nuisance and start treating it as lift.

If the propellers carry part of the lift, the wing carries less, so the wing can be smaller. Writing the argument down makes its leverage visible. If the propellers supply a fraction $\phi$ of the lift at the slowest wing-borne speed, the wing need only supply the rest.

\[S = \frac{2 W \left( 1 - \phi \right)}{\rho V_{\text{conv}}^{2} C_{L,\max}}\]

A smaller wing is lighter, has less drag at high speed, and presents less area to the downwash in hover. The X-19’s 88 pounds per square foot is the arithmetic consequence of taking that argument seriously.

The same force that supplies $\phi$ is a nuisance elsewhere, and the sign distinguishes the two readings. A propeller mounted a distance $x_p$ ahead of the centre of gravity contributes a pitching moment that grows with angle of attack.

\[\frac{\partial C_m}{\partial \alpha} = \frac{x_p}{q S \bar{c}} \frac{\partial N}{\partial \alpha}\]

That derivative is positive for a tractor propeller, which is destabilising, and it is the reason the effect was studied for nearly half a century before Curtiss-Wright proposed to exploit it.

The scale of that literature is the strongest evidence that the X-19’s premise was not eccentric. Wind tunnel investigation of how a running propeller and its slipstream change an aeroplane’s stability and move its neutral point was a standing subject through the 1940s and 1950s, much of it at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, hereafter NACA, in Delany 1942, Pitkin 1943, Schuldenfrei 1944, Purser and Spear 1947, Hagerman 1947, Weil and Sleeman 1948, Brewer and May 1948, Lange and McLemore 1950, Queijo et al 1953, Sleeman 1953, Vollo and Brassaw 1956, with the static stability of canard, three-surface and research aircraft and its general factors beside them in Sleeman 1957, Donlan 1976, Nagy and Kirsten 1976, Ostowari and Naik 1986.

The propeller reports among them treat the propeller force as a correction to be predicted and designed around. Curtiss-Wright’s proposal was to change its sign in the accounting, not its magnitude in the physics.

Why This Was the Binding Unknown in 1960

The competing configurations of the moment each had a defect that was already visible. The tail-sitter of the X-13 required the pilot to descend onto a landing point that lay behind his line of sight. The tilt-wing of the X-18 stalled the un-immersed part of its wing throughout conversion. The deflected slipstream arrangements studied by Kuhn and Grunwald 1960 and Grunwald 1961 paid a large download penalty.

The tilt-propeller avoided all three. Nothing about it requires the wing to stall, nothing requires the pilot to fly backward, and the wing is small enough that the download is modest. The competing arrangements were each studied at length, in the period and after it, in Hickey 1956, Koenig and Quigley 1960, Quigley and Koenig 1961, Putman 1961, Hargraves 1961, Newsom 1962, Newsom 1962, Breul 1963, Goodson 1966, Goodson 1966, Beppu et al 1966, Curtiss et al 1967, Strand and Levinsky 1969, Kvaternik 1973, Widdison et al 1974, Detore and Sambell 1975, Sambell 1976, Bartie et al 1986, Huston et al 1989. The unknown was not whether the configuration could hover or cruise. It was whether the propeller force that made the small wing defensible was real at the size claimed.

That question had an answer in the literature and the answer was not obviously encouraging. Ribner 1943 and its final form Ribner 1945 give a theory calibrated against experiment, and Crigler and Gilman 1949 and Crigler and Gilman 1952 give methods for computing the forces on a propeller in pitch or yaw. The forces are real. Whether they are large enough to size an aircraft around is a question of magnitude, and the sections that follow compute that magnitude.

Programme Origin

The X-19 did not begin as a military aircraft and did not begin with that designation. The programme’s final report is the primary source for what follows. It is Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory technical report AFFDL-TR-66-195, written by Curtiss-Wright’s Wright Aeronautical Division and issued in May 1967 in two volumes, Fluk et al 1967, Volume I and Fluk et al 1967, Volume II, hereafter the final report. It records that Curtiss-Wright designed the aircraft first as the Model 200, or M-200, a six-place corporate executive transport with four rotating-combustion engines of 580 horsepower each, a gross weight of 10,000 pounds and a maximum level speed of 400 miles an hour at 16,000 feet.

Before the transport there was a demonstrator. The Curtiss-Wright X-100 was built to test two things at once, the radial lift force itself and the gimballed nacelles a tilt-propeller needs. The Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum records that construction began on 20 February 1958, that tethered hovering started on 20 April 1959, and that the first and only transition from vertical to high-speed flight was made on 13 April 1960, and Vertipedia places the first free hover in September 1959. The final report describes a two-place aircraft of 3,500 pounds with one Lycoming YT53 engine of 825 horsepower driving two three-blade propellers of 10 feet, a wing of 22.5 square feet, and a wing loading it puts in excess of 170 pounds per square foot, although its own weight and area give $3{,}500 / 22.5 = 156$ pounds per square foot. It gives 220 hours of ground running and 10 flight hours, while the museum gives fourteen hours of flight. The museum records that the aircraft went to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, hereafter NASA, in October 1960 for ground erosion tests at Langley, and the final report adds a test in the 40 by 80 foot wind tunnel at Ames to obtain propeller loads at high tilt.

The X-100 also showed what the transport would have to fix. The final report lists insufficient hover control power, roll and yaw coupling in hover, and strong pitch-up with forward speed, and it gives these as the reasons for moving to four propellers on two tandem wings, since four propellers at two stations give pitch and roll control without an auxiliary device. Then the company’s management changed. The final report states that after the change it was decided that a new aircraft with new and untried engines had little hope, so the design was redrawn around two Lycoming T55-L-5 turboshaft engines and pointed toward military use, and it states that no military specification existed, so the design objectives were Curtiss-Wright’s own. The museum records that the company persuaded the services to fund the aircraft under a tri-service agreement between the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, with the Air Force managing the project, and that two airframes were built for what became a vertical take-off and landing programme, hereafter VTOL.

The sequence is unusual. A company proved a concept on a small demonstrator, redesigned the follow-on when its management changed, and sold it to a government that had written no requirement for it. The aircraft that resulted weighed 13,660 pounds, nearly four times the X-100’s 3,500 and well above the 10,000 for which, the final report notes, its transmission had first been designed.

Sizing From First Principles

The Wing Cannot Carry the Aircraft

Start with the number that makes everything else necessary. The final report’s dimension table gives the forward wing a span of 19.5 feet over 56.1 square feet and the aft wing a span of 21.5 feet over 98.5 square feet, both measured to the nacelle centrelines, with constant chords of 34.5 and 55.0 inches. The overall rear-wing span of 23.5 feet in the Jane’s-derived specification is a different measurement, and it is the wrong one here, because the propeller discs are centred on the nacelles. Aspect ratio and mean chord follow from span and area alone.

\[\text{AR} = \frac{b^{2}}{S}, \qquad \bar{c} = \frac{S}{b}\]

which gives 6.78 and 2.88 feet forward, and 4.69 and 4.58 feet aft. The report states aspect ratios of 6.8 and 4.7, and the chords are its 34.5 and 55.0 inches. Total area is 154.6 square feet against the report’s normal gross weight of 13,660 pounds.

Each surface has its own lift-curve slope, reduced from the two-dimensional value by its finite span, where $a_0$ is $2\pi$ per radian and $e$ is the span efficiency.

\[a = \frac{a_0}{1 + a_0 / \left( \pi e \, \text{AR} \right)}\]

At $e = 0.90$ this is 4.732 per radian forward and 4.264 aft. The aircraft’s single equivalent slope is the area-weighted mean of the two, and it is used throughout the article.

\[\bar{a} = \frac{S_f a_f + S_a a_a}{S_f + S_a} = 4.434 \ \text{rad}^{-1}\]

Wing loading follows immediately.

\[\frac{W}{S} = \frac{13{,}660}{154.6} = 88.4 \ \text{lb/ft}^2\]

The report itself calls the loading approximately 85 pounds per square foot on both wings.

The speed at which a wing alone supports that loading is the stall speed, where $\rho$ is density, $S$ is wing area and $C_{L,\max}$ the maximum lift coefficient.

\[V_{s} = \sqrt{\frac{2W}{\rho S C_{L,\max}}}\]

For an unflapped wing with $C_{L,\max} = 1.4$ at sea level this gives 230.4 feet per second, or 136.5 knots. At 1.2 it is 147.5 knots and at 1.6 it is 127.7 knots. The final report gives both wings zero incidence, zero dihedral and zero sweepback, and its only high-lift device is a plain flap of 15.16 square feet on the forward wing, so the middle value is used and the two bounds show how far the answer moves with it.

An aircraft that stalls at 136 knots and is required to land at zero has a gap of 136 knots to explain. Tilting the propellers explains most of it, because a propeller pointed upward is a lifting device regardless of any subtlety. The radial lift force explains the rest, and the wing area was won in that remainder.

What a Propeller Does in Oblique Flow

Write the force from momentum, not from blade elements, because the momentum form has exactly one unknown and that unknown can be estimated from geometry.

Let the disc of area $A$ meet a freestream $V$ with its axis at angle $\alpha_d$ to the flow. Resolve the freestream into a component along the axis and a component in the plane of the disc.

\[V_{\text{axial}} = V \cos\alpha_d, \qquad V_{\text{in-plane}} = V \sin\alpha_d\]

The mass flow through the disc is set by the axial component plus whatever the propeller induces, where $v_i$ is the induced velocity.

\[\dot{m} = \rho A \left( V \cos\alpha_d + v_i \right)\]

The blades resist the in-plane component and turn part of it toward the axis. Let $k$ be the fraction of the in-plane momentum flux the disc removes. The reaction on the aircraft is the radial lift force.

\[N = k \, \rho A \left( V \cos\alpha_d + v_i \right) V \sin\alpha_d\]

This is the keystone relation of the article and everything downstream depends on $k$.

The Fin Analogy Fixes the Unknown

Leaving $k$ free would make the calculation circular, since any wing area could then be justified by choosing $k$ to suit. Ribner 1945 supplies the constraint. Ribner extends the fin analogy to the form of the side-force expression and identifies the effective fin area with the projected side area of the propeller, meaning the blade area seen from the side and not the disc area.

Write the propeller as a fin of area $S_f$ and lift-curve slope $a_b$ and equate the two expressions at small angle and high speed, where $v_i$ vanishes against $V$.

\[\tfrac{1}{2} \rho V^2 S_f a_b \alpha_d = k \rho A V^2 \alpha_d\]

The dynamic pressure, the freestream and the disc angle all cancel, which is why the fin analogy is useful, not merely suggestive. What remains is pure geometry.

\[k = \frac{S_f a_b}{2A}\]

The projected side area of a propeller with $B$ blades of chord $c$ and radius $R$ is not simply the blade area, because a rotating blade presents its full width to the side only twice per revolution. The azimuthal mean of that projection supplies the factor.

\[\frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{0}^{2\pi} \left| \cos\psi \right| \, d\psi = \frac{2}{\pi}\]

Multiplying the blade area by that mean gives the effective fin.

\[S_f = \frac{2}{\pi} B c R\]

So $k$ follows from blade chord, and the final report records the blade. Before using it, the rotational speed has to be settled, because blade loading depends on it as strongly as on chord.

The Cruise Requirement Caps the Tip Speed

The Jane’s-derived specification quotes a maximum speed of 400 knots at 20,000 feet. The final report states the design objective as a speed range up to 400 miles an hour, which it equates to Mach 0.65. Those two statements disagree. Four hundred miles an hour is 586.7 feet per second, which is Mach 0.566 at 20,000 feet and cannot reach Mach 0.65 at any altitude of the standard atmosphere, whose slowest speed of sound is 968.1 feet per second, while 400 knots at 20,000 feet is Mach 0.651. The 400-knot figure is used here. A propeller at 400 knots is close to its limit, because the blade tip sees the vector sum of flight speed and rotational speed. Write the helical tip Mach number with $a$ the speed of sound, $\Omega$ the rotational rate and $R$ the radius.

\[M_{h} = \frac{\sqrt{V^2 + (\Omega R)^2}}{a}\]

Propeller efficiency collapses as $M_h$ approaches unity, so take 0.90 as the working ceiling and solve for the rotational tip speed the cruise permits.

\[\Omega R \le \sqrt{\left( M_{h,\lim} a \right)^2 - V^2}\]

At 20,000 feet the dynamic pressure at that speed is 288.6 pounds per square foot, the speed of sound is 1,036.8 feet per second and 400 knots is 675.1 feet per second, a flight Mach number of 0.651. The ceiling gives 933.2 feet per second for the helical tip, and the rotational component that leaves is 644.2 feet per second. The rotational rate and the shaft speed follow.

\[\Omega = \frac{\Omega R}{R} = \frac{644.2}{6.5} = 99.11 \ \text{rad/s}, \qquad n = \frac{60 \, \Omega}{2\pi} = 946 \ \text{rpm}\]

The record confirms the derivation. The propeller qualification schedule in the final report runs the propellers at 957 revolutions per minute for maximum-speed cruise, and the specification gives 955. The derived 946 is 1.1 percent below the record, and the record’s speed puts the helical tip at

\[M_h = \frac{\sqrt{675.1^2 + 651.4^2}}{1{,}036.8} = 0.905, \qquad \Omega R = \frac{2\pi (957)}{60} (6.5) = 651.4 \ \text{ft/s}\]

which is the assumed 0.90 ceiling almost exactly. That is a slow propeller. Take the tip speed back to sea level and compare it against the static case, where no flight speed adds to it.

\[M_{\text{tip,static}} = \frac{\Omega R}{a_0} = \frac{644.2}{1{,}116.5} = 0.577\]

where a conventional propeller would run near 0.8. The propeller would see that tip Mach number if it hovered at its cruise speed, and the next section shows that it did not.

The other measure of how hard this propeller is working is the advance ratio, the distance advanced per revolution against the diameter.

\[J = \frac{V}{n D} = \frac{675.1}{(15.77)(13)} = 3.29\]

which is high, and is the regime in which a propeller behaves least like a hovering rotor.

This regime has its own literature, distinct from that of the hovering rotor. The high-speed propeller was a continuous research subject from the wartime compressibility work to the advanced turboprop programmes, in Wood and Woodward 1944, Stack et al 1950, Doetsch and Mark 1953, Perisho 1959, Watts and Biggers 1972, Hohenemser and Prelewicz 1974, Reader 1980, Bober and Mitchell 1980, Mitchell and Mikkelson 1982, Gilchrist 1983, Takallu and Lessard 1991, Gazzaniga and Rose 1992, Harris 1996, Gur and Rosen 2005, Cavcar 2011.

Two of those bear directly on the X-19. Wind tunnel measurement of two-blade propellers to forward Mach numbers of 0.725 to determine the effects of compressibility on their performance, in Stack et al 1950, bears on the constraint that sets the tip speed above. A later reanalysis of early high-speed propellers applied explicitly to civil tiltrotor configurations, in Harris 1996, is the same question asked again for the configuration the X-19 anticipated.

What Hover Asks of the Propeller

Hovering thrust must exceed weight, since the wings sit under the discs and are pushed down by the slipstream. Compute the download first. With the nacelles at the tips, the disc reaches inboard by one radius from each tip, so the immersed fraction of a semi-span is the radius over the semi-span whenever the disc does not reach the root.

\[f_{\text{imm}} = \frac{R}{b/2} = \frac{2R}{b}\]

which is 0.667 forward and 0.605 aft, and the immersed area is the sum over the two surfaces.

\[S_{\text{imm}} = \sum_j f_{\text{imm},j} S_j = 97.0 \ \text{ft}^2 = 62.7\% \ \text{of the wing}\]

measured for adjacent configurations and not calculated, in White et al 1960, Curtiss et al 1985, Qin et al 2017.

The slipstream velocity at the wing is a multiple $\lambda$ of the induced velocity, and the download is that dynamic pressure acting on the immersed area with a normal-flow drag coefficient.

\[D_{\text{down}} = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho \left( \lambda v_i \right)^2 S_{\text{imm}} C_{D,\perp}\]

Thrust and download depend on each other through $v_i$, so they solve together. Substituting the momentum-theory induced velocity into the download makes the pair linear in thrust, not requiring iteration, because $v_i^2$ is proportional to $T$.

\[T = W + \frac{\lambda^{2} S_{\text{imm}} C_{D,\perp}}{4 A} \, T \quad \Longrightarrow \quad T = \frac{W}{1 - \lambda^{2} S_{\text{imm}} C_{D,\perp} / 4A}\]

The coefficient is 0.1233, so the download is 1,921 pounds, or 14.1 percent of gross weight, and the required thrust is 15,581 pounds. The final report gives the measured download only in figures, but it states two things that bear on this estimate. The download measured on the full-scale X-100 and on its model was higher than predicted, and the blockage of the rear wing raised propeller thrust by 3 or 4 percent, which is a correction the momentum model does not contain. Momentum theory then gives the induced velocity, where $A$ is the total disc area of 530.9 square feet.

\[v_i = \sqrt{\frac{T}{2 \rho A}} = 78.57 \ \text{ft/s}\]

Ideal power in hover is the thrust acting through the induced velocity, and dividing by the figure of merit converts it into a shaft requirement.

\[P_{\text{ideal}} = T v_i = 2{,}226 \ \text{hp}, \qquad P_{\text{req}} = \frac{P_{\text{ideal}}}{\text{FM}} = 3{,}180 \ \text{hp}\]

Against 5,300 installed that is a comfortable margin. The hovering rotor and propeller, and the measurement of their performance, were studied at length, in Castles and Gray 1951, Warsett 1953, Blaser 1969, Boatwright and Clingan 1969, Parker et al 1972, Velkoff 1981, Naumowicz and Smith 1992, Talbot et al 1994, Zhao et al 2014, Ramasamy 2015, and one of those addresses a high disc loading propeller in cross flow by vortex-lattice methods, approaching the keystone condition by a different route.

\[\frac{P_{\text{inst}}}{P_{\text{req}}} = \frac{5{,}300}{3{,}180} = 1.67\]

The record allows one check on this. The propeller and transmission qualification schedule in the final report, written for the 13,660-pound aircraft, sets 860 horsepower at each propeller for take-off and hover, and dividing the ideal power by that total gives the figure of merit the schedule implies.

\[P_{\text{sched}} = 4 \times 860 = 3{,}440 \ \text{hp}, \qquad \text{FM}_{\text{sched}} = \frac{2{,}226}{3{,}440} = 0.647\]

That is below the 0.70 assumed here, and well below the 0.80 the report says the designers expected when they chose the disc loading. A qualification schedule is a design load case and not a measurement, so this bounds the assumption without replacing it.

The Blade the Record Gives

Thrust scales with the square of tip speed, which is why a slow propeller must be wide.

\[T_1 = C_T \rho A_1 (\Omega R)^{2}\]

The X-19 did not hover at its cruise speed. The qualification schedule runs the propellers at 1,204 revolutions per minute for take-off and hover, 1,066 in transition and 957 in cruise, and the flight test summary in Volume II records the pilot changing propeller speed in flight at 50 to 60 knots from 98.5 to 88 percent of the power-turbine speed and back. The hover speed gives a tip speed of

\[\Omega R = \frac{2\pi (1{,}204)}{60} (6.5) = 819.5 \ \text{ft/s}, \qquad M_{\text{tip}} = \frac{819.5}{1{,}116.5} = 0.734\]

which is the “approximately 820 feet per second” the report states for peak static thrust.

The report also gives the blade. Each propeller has three blades of NACA 64 sections, a blade area of 8.4 square feet and an activity factor of 168. Activity factor weights chord by the cube of radius,

\[\text{AF} = \frac{10^{5}}{16} \int_{0.15}^{1} \frac{c}{D} \, x^{3} \, dx\]

where $x$ is the fraction of tip radius, so a blade of constant chord with the same activity factor has the chord

\[c_{\text{AF}} = \frac{\text{AF} \, D}{\tfrac{10^{5}}{16} \cdot \tfrac{1 - 0.15^{4}}{4}} = \frac{(168)(13)}{1{,}561.7} = 1.398 \ \text{ft}\]

The blade area must be per blade. If 8.4 square feet were the whole propeller, each blade would average a chord of 0.431 feet and an activity factor of 51.7, which is a third of the stated 168. That reading is an inference from the two figures, since the table does not say. Spread over the radius, the area gives a mean chord and a solidity, where solidity is blade area over disc area.

\[\bar{c} = \frac{A_b}{R} = \frac{8.4}{6.5} = 1.292 \ \text{ft}, \qquad \sigma = \frac{B A_b}{\pi R^{2}} = \frac{(3)(8.4)}{132.73} = 0.190\]

A mean chord of 15.5 inches on a 13-foot propeller. The ratio of chord to radius is 0.199, and the blade aspect ratio is that ratio inverted.

\[\text{AR}_b = \frac{R}{\bar{c}} = \frac{6.5}{1.292} = 5.03\]

which is a wing rather than a blade.

Blade loading $C_T/\sigma$ governs rotor stall, and 0.14 is taken here as a reference limit for a heavily twisted blade. At the hover tip speed, with one quarter of the total thrust including download, the documented blade sits far below it.

\[C_T = \frac{T_1}{\rho A_1 (\Omega R)^2} = \frac{3{,}895}{(0.002377)(132.73)(819.5)^{2}} = 0.01838, \qquad \frac{C_T}{\sigma} = 0.097\]

Had the propellers hovered at the 644.2 feet per second the cruise permits, the same thrust would need a thrust coefficient of 0.02975 and a blade loading of 0.157, beyond the limit, and holding the limit would need a chord of

\[c = \frac{\pi R}{B} \cdot \frac{C_T}{0.14} = \frac{\pi (6.5)}{3} \cdot \frac{0.02975}{0.14} = 1.446 \ \text{ft}\]

or 17.4 inches. The variable propeller speed spared the blade that requirement.

Stall on a heavily loaded rotor blade was measured and modelled repeatedly, and the solidity that follows from it is the classical design variable, in Saari and Sorin 1946, Delano 1947, Chawla 1952, Meyer and Falabella 1953, Hirsch 1954, Castles and Durham 1956, Bradley 1956, Liiva 1968, Fisher and McCroskey 1971, Bobo 1972, Gabel and Tarzanin 1972, Bellinger 1972, Crimi 1975, Borst 1978, Gentry et al 1991, Yamauchi and Johnson 1994.

One of those is the experiment this article’s argument needs. A wind-tunnel investigation of the effect of high solidity on propeller characteristics at high forward speed, Delano 1947, asks the question the X-19’s blade answers, and it was published in 1947, sixteen years before the aircraft flew.

The Wide Blade Was Chosen for Radial Force

Photographs of the X-19 show propellers of remarkable width, and the final report says why. Its propeller design section states that the blades were configured to generate high values of radial force while keeping efficiency high at take-off and cruise, that the diameter was fixed by the disc loading and every other feature by a compromise among cruise, take-off and radial lift, and that a narrower blade with a higher design lift coefficient was rejected because the radial force relation requires a large blade area. Three blades were chosen over four so that each could be wide and thick inboard while staying below 30 percent thickness, and two blades were rejected because they would generate very high vibratory loads at high shaft angles.

The width was therefore bought for the radial lift force, and the hover arithmetic above shows what it cost. At hover speed the blade is lightly loaded, with a blade loading of 0.097, which is consistent with the report’s stated aim of lightly loaded propellers turning slowly for low noise. Only hovering at the cruise speed would have demanded such a blade on its own, and the aircraft did not do that. Dunham and Gentry 1989 address this coupling, since blade chord enters the analysis as solidity and the normal force follows from it.

Feeding the documented blade back gives the projected side area and the recovery fraction.

\[S_f = \frac{2}{\pi} B A_b = \frac{2}{\pi}(3)(8.4) = 16.04 \ \text{ft}^2 \ \text{per propeller}\]

With a blade lift-curve slope of 4.358 per radian at aspect ratio 5.03, the recovery fraction is

\[k = \frac{(16.04)(4.358)}{2(132.73)} = 0.263\]

The disc removes about 26 percent of the in-plane momentum that passes through it. The value is physically admissible, being safely below unity, and it was obtained from the documented geometry rather than chosen.

The assumption the keystone relation makes, that the normal force grows in proportion to the sine of the disc angle, was measured at full scale before the X-19 flew. Yaggy and Rogallo 1960 tested three full-scale propellers in the Ames 40 by 80 foot wind tunnel at shaft angles from 0 to 85 degrees, one of them a ten-foot Curtiss-Wright propeller designed to produce large normal forces, and found normal force, yawing moment and pitching moment nearly linear in shaft angle over large ranges at constant blade angle and effective advance ratio. The final report cites that measurement among its sources. Later work reports the effect of solidity and inclination on propeller-nacelle force coefficients, in Gentry et al 1991, the same pairing this section derives by hand. A quantity this article obtains from a fin analogy and a projected area is a quantity somebody else measured.

How Much Lift the Propellers Supply

The final report gives the cruise speed as 325 knots at 15,000 feet, where its estimated lift-to-drag ratio of 7.1 is best for that altitude. The Jane’s-derived specification gives 347.6 knots, and the report’s figure is used. Dynamic pressure and the lift coefficient the aircraft must reach follow directly.

\[q = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho V^{2} = 225.0 \ \text{lb/ft}^{2}, \qquad C_L = \frac{W}{q S} = 0.393\]

which is unremarkable, and corresponds to an attitude of 5.07 degrees before any interference is allowed for.

\[\alpha = \frac{C_L}{\bar{a}} = \frac{0.393}{4.434} = 0.0886 \ \text{rad}\]

Compare the lift slopes of the two contributors. For the wings, with $\bar{a} = 4.434$ per radian area-weighted across the two surfaces,

\[\frac{\partial L}{\partial \alpha} = q S \bar{a} = 154{,}238 \ \text{lb/rad}\]

and for the four propellers, from the keystone relation at small angle,

\[\frac{\partial N}{\partial \alpha} = 4 k \rho A_1 (V + v_i) V = 63{,}148 \ \text{lb/rad}\]

so the propellers supply

\[\frac{\partial N / \partial \alpha}{\partial N / \partial \alpha + \partial L / \partial \alpha} = 29.0\%\]

of the incidence-dependent lift, with the thrust set by a lift-to-drag ratio of 8. The figure moves by less than a tenth of a percentage point across lift-to-drag ratios from 7 to 10, because $v_i$ is about two feet per second at this speed and contributes almost nothing.

Curtiss-Wright’s claim survives the arithmetic. Roughly three tenths of the lift slope in cruise comes from the propellers. The final report’s design statement is that at the design cruise condition the propellers would generate at least 20 percent of the lift required, with the front propellers at a shaft angle of 2.8 degrees at 271 knots equivalent airspeed. The two figures measure different things, a share of the lift slope here and a share of the total lift there, so they agree in size without testing each other.

The mutual interference between a propeller and the surface behind it is the older half of the same subject, and it was worked continuously from the 1940s onward, in Katzoff 1940, Thoren and Johnson 1940, Purser and Spear 1946, Spreemann and Kuhn 1956, Kuhn 1957, Brenckmann 1958, Vidal et al 1960, Kuhn and Grunwald 1961, Welge and Crowder 1978, Bencze et al 1978, Rizk 1980, Welge et al 1981, Johnson and White 1983, Miley et al 1985, Howard et al 1985, Miley et al 1986, Howard and Miley 1989, Johnson et al 1991, Applin et al 1994, Gentry et al 1994.

The X-19 sits at an unusual point in that literature. A tilt-wing or a deflected-slipstream aircraft wants the slipstream on the wing, and most of the work above is about arranging that. The X-19 wants lift from the disc itself and treats the slipstream over the wing as a secondary effect, which inverts the usual emphasis without leaving the field.

What That Bought, Computed Two Ways

The honest counterfactual is not to switch the radial lift force off and leave the wing unchanged, which describes no aircraft anyone would build. It is to hold the conversion speed fixed and ask how much wing would be needed without the propellers’ help.

The first route ignores drag and thrust entirely. The wing works at its stall angle, which is the maximum lift coefficient over the equivalent slope.

\[\alpha_{\text{stall}} = \frac{C_{L,\max}}{\bar{a}} = \frac{1.4}{4.434} = 0.3157 \ \text{rad} = 18.1^{\circ}\]

With the nacelles horizontal the propeller axis sits at that same angle to the flow, so the balance to solve is the wing at maximum lift plus the keystone relation evaluated at the stall angle.

\[W = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho V^{2} S C_{L,\max} + 4 k \rho A_1 \left( V \cos\alpha_{\text{stall}} + v_i \right) V \sin\alpha_{\text{stall}}\]

Both terms grow as $V^2$ apart from the small induced-velocity contribution, so the solution is close to a closed form and the speed falls to 115.8 knots, against 136.5 knots for the wing alone. Wing area scales with the square of that speed.

\[\frac{S_{\text{equiv}}}{S} = \left( \frac{V_{\text{without}}}{V_{\text{with}}} \right)^{2} = 1.391\]

which puts the equivalent plain wing at 215.1 square feet and 63.5 pounds per square foot.

The second route reads the same quantity off the fully trimmed corridor derived below, where drag, thrust and induced velocity are all present, and gets 116.7 knots against 138.0 knots, an equivalent wing of 216.3 square feet at 63.2 pounds per square foot. The two routes differ by 0.6 percent, which is the useful part, since they share no machinery beyond the keystone relation itself.

The conclusion is quantitative. Without the radial lift force the X-19 would have needed a wing of roughly 215 square feet at about 63 pounds per square foot. The radial lift force accounts for the difference between 88 and 63.

The Conversion Corridor

Steady level flight at nacelle angle $i$ requires two equations rather than one. With the propeller axis at $i + \alpha$ to the flight path,

\[T \sin(i + \alpha) + N \cos(i + \alpha) + L \cos\alpha = W\]

The second is the horizontal balance along the flight path, where the radial lift force acts against the thrust rather than with it, because the force normal to a forward-tilted disc leans backward.

\[T \cos(i + \alpha) - N \sin(i + \alpha) - D = 0\]

Thrust appears in both and is not free. Eliminating it by multiplying the first by $\cos(i+\alpha)$, the second by $\sin(i+\alpha)$ and subtracting leaves a condition on angle of attack alone.

\[\cos(i + \alpha) \left[ W - L \cos\alpha \right] - N - D \sin(i + \alpha) = 0\]

The drag needed here is not available from the sources, so derive it from the quoted maximum speed rather than assume it. Drag is parasite plus induced, written with an equivalent flat-plate area $f$ so that the tiny reference wing does not distort the coefficient.

\[D = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho V^{2} \left( f + \frac{S C_L^{2}}{\pi e \, \text{AR}_{\text{eff}}} \right)\]

At maximum speed thrust equals drag, and thrust power is the shaft power the propellers convert.

\[D = \frac{\eta_p P_{\text{shaft}}}{V} = \frac{(0.80)(5{,}300)(550)}{675.1} = 3{,}454 \ \text{lb}\]

Of that, 277 pounds is induced, and the remainder inverts to the flat-plate area.

\[f = \frac{D - D_i}{q} = \frac{3{,}454 - 277}{288.6} = 11.01 \ \text{ft}^{2}\]

The induced part of that split is not a detail for an aircraft with two wings. Trim on a multi-surface aeroplane costs drag in a way a single wing does not, because the two surfaces can be loaded against each other, and that cost sits within a wider literature of induced, trim, parasite and installed drag, in Lockwood Taylor 1942, Payne 1958, Churchill and Harrington 1959, Milla and Blick 1966, Lundry 1967, Katz et al 1980, Lottati 1984, Bennett 1984, Goodrich et al 1989, Chiocchia and Pignataro 1995. One of those gives a closed-form trim solution minimising drag for aircraft with multiple longitudinal control surfaces, and another treats the induced drag reduction available from propeller and wing interaction directly.

Thrust available at any other speed is not this quantity divided by speed, which diverges at the hover. Momentum theory with the same power gives a form that stays finite at zero.

\[2 \rho A_1 v_i \left( V + v_i \right)^{2} = \frac{\eta_p P_{\text{shaft}}}{4}, \qquad T = 4 \cdot 2 \rho A_1 v_i \left( V + v_i \right)\]

A solution exists only where the angle of attack it demands is below the stall and the thrust it demands is below what the engines can deliver. Those two ceilings are the corridor, and at sea level they give the following.

Nacelle angle	Minimum	Maximum	Width
90 degrees	3.0 kt	57.5 kt	54.5 kt
80 degrees	3.0 kt	74.1 kt	71.1 kt
70 degrees	12.4 kt	85.9 kt	73.5 kt
60 degrees	52.7 kt	102.5 kt	49.8 kt
50 degrees	71.7 kt	119.1 kt	47.4 kt
40 degrees	83.5 kt	138.0 kt	54.5 kt
30 degrees	90.7 kt	166.5 kt	75.8 kt
20 degrees	100.1 kt	209.2 kt	109.0 kt
10 degrees	107.2 kt	270.8 kt	163.5 kt
0 degrees	116.7 kt	325.3 kt	208.6 kt

Continuity is a condition on consecutive rows rather than an impression from the table. A conversion can be flown at constant speed through a nacelle step only where the bands share a speed.

\[V_{\min}(i_{n+1}) \le V_{\max}(i_{n}) \quad \text{for every consecutive pair}\]

Every band satisfies it, so a continuous path from hover to cruise exists.

Transition and hover were computed and flown for most of the configurations of the period, together with the control and the criteria that bound a corridor of this kind, and the body of work is large, in Smith 1958, Smith 1959, NASA Conference on V/STOL 1960, NACA 1960, Conference on V/Stol Aircraft a Co, Tapscott 1960, Anderson 1960, Tapscott 1960, Kirby 1961, A Preliminary Study of 1961, Garren 1961, Kelley 1962, Drinkwater and Rolls 1962, Drinkwater and Rolls 1963, Ostheimer and Giguere 1963, Linnell 1963, Rolls 1965, Garren et al 1965, Hegarty et al 1965, Garren and Kelly 1965, Hickey et al 1966, Margason 1966, Scientific and Technical Information Division 1966, Fry et al 1966, Trenka 1967. The narrowest point is at 50 degrees of nacelle, 47.4 knots wide. The top speed at zero nacelle at sea level is 325 knots, which is consistent with the 400-knot figure quoted at 20,000 feet rather than in conflict with it.

A Result That Does Not Support the Sales Argument

Running the same corridor with the radial lift force removed produces something that has to be reported carefully, because it cuts against the argument the article has been building.

Nacelle angle	Minimum with	Minimum without
90 degrees	3.0 kt	3.0 kt
70 degrees	12.4 kt	59.8 kt
60 degrees	52.7 kt	107.2 kt
40 degrees	83.5 kt	126.2 kt
20 degrees	100.1 kt	133.3 kt
0 degrees	116.7 kt	138.0 kt

That corridor is also continuous. Without the radial lift force the aircraft still converts, at higher speeds and through narrower bands, but it converts. The radial lift force therefore does not make the X-19 possible. That would be the stronger claim, and a reader might have expected the article to reach it.

What it does is lower every boundary. Write the reduction as a difference between the two minimum speeds.

\[\Delta V(i) = V_{\min}^{\text{without}}(i) - V_{\min}^{\text{with}}(i)\]

That difference is 54.5 knots at 60 degrees of nacelle and 21.3 knots at zero, so the benefit is largest where the disc meets the flow most obliquely, as the keystone relation predicts through its $\sin\alpha_d$ factor. The small wing was bought with that reduction. Making a configuration possible and making it cheaper are different achievements, and the arithmetic supports only the second.

The conditions the aircraft flew sit in the part of the corridor the radial lift force opens. The flight test summary in the final report records a stabilised 80 knots at a nacelle angle of 65 degrees on Flight 49, and on Flight 50 a level run at 90 knots with the nacelles at 55 degrees, after which the speed varied between 95 and 105 knots. In the model, trim at both conditions exists with the radial lift force and does not exist without it, because the minimum speeds without it are 59.8 knots at 70 degrees, 107.2 knots at 60 degrees and 121.5 knots at 50 degrees. The model’s angles of attack at those two points are compared with the pilot’s estimates in the comparison section below. Within this model, the flight envelope the X-19 explored depended on the effect, even though a conversion flown faster at every nacelle angle could have done without it.

Dependent Systems

The Tandem Wing Costs Attitude

Two wings in line is not merely a way to divide area. The aft wing flies in the downwash of the forward one. The final report puts the two quarter-chord points 23 feet 4.1 inches apart, which is 2.39 forward semi-spans, so the far-field value is nearly reached. Write the downwash gradient with respect to aircraft attitude.

\[\frac{d\varepsilon}{d\alpha} = \frac{2 a_{\text{fwd}}}{\pi \text{AR}_{\text{fwd}}} = 0.444\]

The aft wing therefore loses 44 percent of every degree of attitude the aircraft takes. Trim solves in closed form because the downwash is proportional to the same angle that produces it.

\[W = q \alpha \left[ S_f a_f + S_a a_a \left( 1 - \frac{d\varepsilon}{d\alpha} \right) \right]\]

Without the interference the cruise attitude would be 5.07 degrees. With it the attitude is 6.97 degrees, a penalty of 1.90 degrees, or 37.4 percent more attitude for the same lift. The downwash at the aft wing is 3.10 degrees at that condition.

The consequence shows up in the lift split, where the forward surface works at the full attitude and the aft surface at the attitude less the downwash.

\[L_f = q S_f a_f \alpha = 7{,}270 \ \text{lb}, \qquad L_a = q S_a a_a \left( \alpha - \varepsilon \right) = 6{,}390 \ \text{lb}\]

The penalty becomes concrete when the lift share is compared with the area share.

\[\frac{L_a}{L_f + L_a} = 46.8\% \quad \text{on} \quad \frac{S_a}{S} = 63.7\% \ \text{of the area}\]

The larger wing is the less effective one, which is the price of putting it second. The designers met the same downwash in their control layout. The final report records that the ailerons were first placed on the forward wing and moved to the aft wing once it was realised that a forward aileron’s added lift increases the downwash at the aft wing behind it and cancels much of its own rolling moment. Its assessment adds that the tandem layout cost at least 6 percent of hover lift, from a centre of gravity forward of the midpoint between the propeller stations and from the larger download under the rear propellers.

Interference between two lifting surfaces in line is a well-populated subject, though most of it arrives under the word canard rather than tandem, and it shades into the interference of propellers, ducts and jets with the surfaces near them, in Gebhard 1953, Kirby 1956, Driver 1958, Morse and Newhouse 1960, McKinney and Newsom 1962, Clark et al 1963, Curtiss 1965, Winston et al 1975, Gloss and Washburn 1979, Feistel et al 1981, Prabhu and Tiwari 1983, Keith and Selberg 1984, Phillips 1985, Batina 1985, Rangwalla and Wilson 1987, Er-El 1988, Brown and Timmerman 1991, Craig et al 1991.

Three of those are about this exact machine or its close relatives. Experimental research on four-duct tandem vertical take-off configurations in McKinney and Newsom 1962, an investigation of control and stability augmentation for tandem tilting ducted-propeller aircraft in Clark et al 1963, and downwash tests of dual tandem ducted-propeller research aircraft in Curtiss 1965 all address a four-propulsor tandem layout. The ducts are the difference, and the longitudinal arrangement is not.

The Layout Supplies Pitch Control for Nothing

Here the tandem arrangement earns its keep, and the comparison with the previous article is direct.

The X-18 carried a turbojet in its tail for no purpose except pitch control in hover, because a tilt-wing with two propellers on one lateral axis has no way to generate a pitching moment at zero airspeed. The X-19 has four propellers at two longitudinal stations. Differential thrust between the stations is a pitching moment with no additional hardware whatever.

Shifting a fraction $f$ of total thrust from one station to the other raises each station by $fT/2$ and lowers the other by the same, so both arms of length $\ell/2$ contribute.

\[M = 2 \left( \tfrac{1}{2} f T \right) \frac{\ell}{2} = \tfrac{1}{2} f T \ell\]

The station separation is taken as the 23.34 feet between the wing quarter-chord points that the final report gives, because its assessment places the tilt centre near the one-third chord of each wing, so the two separations differ by a fraction of a foot. Ten percent differential then gives 18,185 foot-pounds.

The inertia it acts against does not have to be assumed. The final report lists the design hover control moments and the maximum angular accelerations they produce for a 12,300-pound aircraft, which are 27,000 foot-pounds and 0.68 radians per second squared in pitch, 20,000 and 1.75 in roll, and 5,600 and 0.12 in yaw. The quotient of each pair is the inertia the designers used.

\[I = \frac{M_{\max}}{\ddot{\theta}_{\max}} \quad \Longrightarrow \quad I_{yy} = \frac{27{,}000}{0.68} = 39{,}706, \quad I_{xx} = \frac{20{,}000}{1.75} = 11{,}429, \quad I_{zz} = \frac{5{,}600}{0.12} = 46{,}667 \ \text{slug ft}^{2}\]

These refer to the lighter weight, so they slightly understate the inertia at 13,660 pounds. Angular acceleration in pitch is the quotient of moment and inertia.

\[\ddot{\theta} = \frac{M}{I_{yy}} = \frac{18{,}185}{39{,}706} = 0.458 \ \text{rad/s}^{2}\]

At 30 percent it is 1.374 radians per second squared. The design maximum of 27,000 foot-pounds corresponds to a differential fraction of hovering thrust, at the design weight, of

\[f = \frac{2 M_{\max}}{W \ell} = \frac{2 (27{,}000)}{(12{,}300)(23.34)} = 0.188\]

so the specified pitch authority asks for less than a fifth of the thrust to move between stations. That is ample authority obtained from geometry rather than from an engine.

Roll uses the same relation with the lateral arm in place of the half-station-separation, so the moment is the differential acting at the mean semi-span of 10.25 feet.

\[M_\phi = f T \, y = (0.10)(15{,}581)(10.25) = 15{,}970 \ \text{ft\,lb}, \qquad \ddot{\phi} = \frac{15{,}970}{11{,}429} = 1.397 \ \text{rad/s}^{2}\]

Roll is better still, because the arm is comparable and the inertia is less than a third of the pitch value. The final report records why the designers wanted it. Jet-lift VTOL experience, and NASA’s recommendation from the X-14A, pointed to roll accelerations of 1.5 to 1.8 radians per second squared at low speed, against the 1.14 of the original X-19 specification, so the maximum roll moment was raised to 20,000 foot-pounds. Later flight data showed that full roll control was needed to reach 35 knots of lateral velocity with the roll stability augmentation switched off.

Yaw Control Is Not Free

With all four nacelles vertical, yaw can come from torque reaction and from thrust acting through nacelles that are not quite vertical. The final report records both. The nacelles were toed in, and the propeller rotation, right-handed for propellers 2 and 4 and left-handed for 1 and 3, was chosen so that torque reaction adds to the yawing moment from thrust, which it credits with a 50 percent increase in hover yaw control power. The torque part can be estimated. Torque per propeller follows from hovering power and the hover rotational speed of 126.08 radians per second.

\[Q_1 = \frac{P_1}{\Omega} = \frac{795 \times 550}{126.08} = 3{,}468 \ \text{ft\,lb}\]

A differential of fraction $f$ between the two pairs of like rotation, two propellers each, leaves

\[Q_{\text{net}} = 4 f Q_1\]

At 20 percent this is 2,774 foot-pounds, which is half of the documented 5,600, and it acts on the largest of the three inertias.

\[\ddot{\psi} = \frac{Q_{\text{net}}}{I_{zz}} = \frac{2{,}774}{46{,}667} = 0.0594 \ \text{rad/s}^{2}\]

The documented total is itself small. The design maximum of 0.12 radians per second squared is, by the final report’s account, low. It states that the hover control powers departed deliberately from the military helicopter handling specification MIL-H-8501A, that precise heading changes were difficult because the yaw time constant was about 14 seconds, giving acceleration control rather than rate control, and that the X-19’s hover yaw control would be unacceptable in an operational aircraft. It also notes that no problem in flight could be attributed to it, while noting that most testing was flown in calm air. The handling-qualities criteria of those years appear in Reeder 1958, Carlson 1958 and Slaughter 1958, with the earlier hovering analyses in Miller 1948 and Albachten 1956.

The criteria themselves were an active subject rather than a settled one while the X-19 was being built, and the body of work behind them is substantial, in Carpenter and Paulnock 1949, Kidd and Bull 1963, Ashkenas 1965, Ashkenas 1965, Hoffman 1969, Hoffman 1969, Hoffman 1969, Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1969, McCormick 1969, Hoffman et al 1970, Aiken et al 1977, Corliss et al 1977, Smith 1977, Gerken 1979, Goldstein 1982, Helicopter Handling Qualities 1982, Corless and Blanken 1983.

Differential tilt was proposed and never fitted. Among the remedies the final report lists, differential fore and aft tilting of the left and right propellers is the one it calls feasible and the only one that would meet the yaw requirement of the Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and Development’s report 408, and it adds that none of the remedies had been made when the project ended. The report’s assessment attributes most of the aircraft’s lateral-directional stability and control deficiencies in forward flight to a different cause, the large dihedral effect of a tall vertical tail whose short moment arm forced its size.

What the Cross-Shaft Cost

The X-18 had two engines that were not interconnected, and losing one meant losing the aircraft. That is the defect the X-19’s designers had in front of them, and they fixed it. The final report states that the shafting of the transmission interconnects all four propellers to the two engines and that either engine can supply flight power to all four, so an engine failure is a power reduction rather than an asymmetry.

The magnitude of what the fix prevents is easy to state. Losing both propellers on one side leaves a rolling moment of

\[M_{\text{upset}} = \frac{T}{2} \times 10.25 = 79{,}851 \ \text{ft\,lb}\]

Divide it by the design maximum roll moment of 20,000 foot-pounds.

\[\frac{M_{\text{upset}}}{M_{\phi,\max}} = \frac{79{,}851}{20{,}000} = 3.99\]

The upset is four times full roll control. Without the interconnect it is unrecoverable, so the cross-shaft is not a refinement. Losing a single propeller, which no shaft can prevent, is half of that, $39{,}925$ foot-pounds or twice full roll control, and the final flight described below is that case.

The cost is transmission. With one engine dead the survivor drives the far pair through the shaft, which is half the hovering power, or 1,590 horsepower. Torque depends on where in the drive train the shaft runs.

\[Q = \frac{P}{\Omega}\]

At 6,000 revolutions per minute that is 1,392 foot-pounds, at 3,000 it is 2,783, and at the hover propeller speed of 1,204 it is 6,935 foot-pounds. Shafts therefore run fast and every propeller needs its own reduction gearing, which is why the drive system is the large item. The rotorcraft transmission literature that followed treats these components, their weight, life, noise, failure and overhaul among them, in Leishman 1966, Laskin et al 1968, Badgley and Laskin 1970, Hayden and Keller 1974, Battles 1975, Townsend et al 1976, Korzun 1976, Mancini 1983, White 1985, Coy et al 1988, Mitchell 1991, Savage and Lewicki 1991, Krantz 1994, Henry 1995, Dempsey et al 2013.

The shape of that literature is itself an argument. It is dominated by helicopter transmissions, by failure analysis, by split-torque arrangements and by overhaul economics, the profile of a field that has accepted that the drive system is the hard part. The final report’s assessment says the same of the X-19 at first hand. The transmission was first designed for a 10,000-pound aircraft, the torque requirement grew with the weight and the control inertias, and the designers had to uprate it inside the original envelope. That forced a finite-life design built on a hover time-torque histogram, with the governor limiting any throttle input to 20 percent, where helicopter practice designs for full throttle torque at infinite life. The report calls the philosophy the subject of many heated discussions, and records that experience demonstrated in a dramatic fashion that the minimum requirement is to design for the maximum torque the throttle can impose, because full throttle is an instinctive pilot reaction.

The drive system’s design was contested, but the record does not make it the cause of the loss. The part that failed on the last flight was the housing that carried a propeller on its nacelle gearbox, and the loads that broke it were generated by the propeller.

The Propellers Themselves

On disc loading the tilt-propeller beats the tilt-wing outright.

\[\frac{W}{A} = \frac{13{,}660}{530.93} = 25.7 \ \text{lb/ft}^2\]

against 82.1 for the X-18. The figure was chosen rather than inherited. The final report explains that a thrust-to-power ratio near 6.0 pounds per horsepower with a figure of merit of 0.80 gives a disc loading of 25 pounds per square foot, that this set the X-100’s ten-foot propellers, and that the X-19 kept the loading, which fixed its diameter at 13 feet. Four thirteen-foot propellers present a great deal more disc than two sixteen-foot ones, and the penalty for disc loading is explicit once the induced velocity is substituted into the ideal power.

\[\frac{P_{\text{ideal}}}{W} = v_i = \sqrt{\frac{1}{2\rho} \cdot \frac{W}{A}}\]

Induced power per pound scales with the square root of disc loading, so the X-19 pays $\sqrt{25.7/82.1} = 0.56$ of what the X-18 pays for every pound it holds up. Power loading follows.

\[\frac{W}{P_{\text{req}}} = \frac{13{,}660}{3{,}180} = 4.30 \ \text{lb/hp}\]

Pitch control of the blades is the mechanism every axis depends on, and the final report records redundant dual-piston pitch-change actuators for that reason. Static thrust estimation is treated in Coward 1955 and Brusse and Cronk 1965.

The Flight Test Record

The X-19 first hovered on 20 November 1963, a date Vertipedia and the Smithsonian both give, and it was lost on 25 August 1965. The final report gives 50 flights and a total flight time of 3 hours 45 minutes, all on the first airframe, serial 62-12197, with 84 lift-offs, and it adds 134 hours of ground running and tie-down tests across both airframes. The figure of four hours in the secondary accounts appears to be that total rounded. Flights 1 to 7 were flown under an earlier contract, and the report gives 3 hours 44 minutes for Flights 8 to 50 in one place and 3 hours 38 minutes in another, so its accounting of the contract time is not internally consistent. The total is used here.

Those two numbers deserve to be set against each other.

\[\frac{225}{50} = 4.5 \ \text{minutes per flight}\]

Over the 644 days between first hover on 20 November 1963 and loss on 25 August 1965 the calendar rate is as thin as the airborne one.

\[\frac{644}{50} = 12.9 \ \text{days per flight}, \qquad \frac{3.75}{644/30.44} = 0.177 \ \text{flight hours per month}\]

A programme averaging under eleven minutes of flight per calendar month is not a flight test programme in any ordinary sense.

The programme moved in distinct phases, and the final report sets them out. Flights 8 to 19, 70 minutes and 25 lift-offs, developed the pilot’s hovering ability without stability augmentation, including spot turns, translation in every direction and hovering at 5 to 25 feet to find the ground effect. From Flight 20 the stability augmentation was switched on and evaluated. Every flight before Flight 38 was made at the Caldwell-Wright Airport in Caldwell, New Jersey, together with the first 262 ground runs. The programme then moved to the Federal Aviation Agency’s National Aviation Facilities Experimental Center at Pomona, New Jersey, for its 10,000-foot runway and adjoining airspace, and a company co-pilot joined the crew. There, Flights 40 to 43 were conversion runs along the runway that advanced the speed from 20 knots at a nacelle angle of 90 degrees to 62 knots at 82 degrees. Flight 44 made short take-offs and landings at 20 to 60 knots. Flights 45 to 49 took off at 60 knots with the nacelles at 77 degrees and tilted further in flight to reach 70 and then 80 knots, with coordinated turns at 60 knots, and Flight 49 held a stabilised 80 knots at a nacelle angle of 65 degrees.

The X-19 never completed a conversion. The report’s summary states that the conversion envelope had been extended to 100 knots with the nacelles tilted to 45 degrees, and that every flight lay within the Flight Capability Demonstration, whose purpose was sustained hover followed by gradually increasing tilt toward cruise. The aircraft never flew with its nacelles down and its wings carrying it, which the report puts at 160 knots, so it never demonstrated the regime the configuration existed to provide. Every number about cruise in the sizing section above describes a regime the aircraft did not reach.

The Final Flight

The final report chronicles Flight 50 at length, quoting the account it supplied to the Air Force accident board. The flight was planned to extend the conversion to 90 and 100 knots on an airfield circuit. After a 60-knot short take-off with the nacelles at 77 degrees, the pilot lowered them to 65 degrees to accelerate to 80 knots and climbed to 1,000 feet. At the top of the climb the nacelles were brought to 55 degrees and the aircraft reached 90 knots, with the pilot estimating an angle of attack of 10 degrees and the stick 85 to 90 percent forward. Uncomfortable with that, he returned the nacelles to 63 degrees, at about 7 degrees angle of attack, and on the downwind leg the aircraft held between 1,000 and 1,300 feet and 95 to 105 knots under good control.

Temperature warning lights ended the flight. Power was reduced at 105 knots and 1,100 feet, and the aircraft descended in a tightening right turn that missed the runway. At about 60 feet and 85 knots, descending at 1,100 to 1,200 feet per minute, the co-pilot applied nearly full power. The aircraft rotated 10 to 15 degrees, climbed at up to 1,400 feet per minute, accelerated to 120 knots, and the propeller speed rose to about 103 percent before the fuel governor held it. The aircraft levelled at 400 feet with the right turn continuing, and three to four seconds after the top of the turn the No. 2 propeller left the aircraft. It rolled left and pitched up, the No. 1 propeller followed after about 40 degrees of roll, and the remaining two were torn off by the rate of rotation. At a roll angle of 200 to 210 degrees, at about 400 feet and 120 knots, both pilots ejected almost together. Their parachutes opened at about 250 feet, and they landed with minor injuries, about 500 feet from where the airframe struck a dried reservoir bed inside the airport boundary and burned.

The failure was structural, and the loads that caused it came from the propeller. The report’s propeller section names the failed part as the propeller housing, a ribbed casting of AZ92A magnesium that carried the propeller on the nacelle gearbox housing. It states that the housing could not carry the vibratory propeller loads at twice the rotational frequency that the flight testing imposed, and that the investigation found three causes acting together. Strain-gauge data from Flights 32 to 50 showed that during conversion flying the vibratory load at twice propeller frequency was as large as the steady once-per-revolution load, considerably higher than the original design criteria anticipated. The emergency manoeuvre just before the failure produced steady loads well above design values. And the actual stress gradient at the rib transition was twice the value in the analysis, with sand pits in the rib tips adding to the stress concentration. The housing was redesigned and static tested before the contract ended.

The secondary accounts call this a gearbox or transmission failure, the Smithsonian adding pilot error and Vertipedia a transmission part. The record is more specific. The part that broke was the structure joining the propeller to the drive, not a gear, and the load that broke it was the propeller’s own response to oblique flow. The steady once-per-revolution load is the shaft moment that the report derives alongside the normal force, from the same asymmetric blade loading that produces the radial lift force, the keystone of this article. The report states that the higher harmonics cannot be calculated with any reliable accuracy by the methods of the day, that flight test was relied on to find them, and that they may become significant in transition and are then controlling loads for the propeller, the nacelle housings and the tilt mechanism. The aircraft was lost in the regime it existed to explore, to a load its designers could not compute.

The flight also tested the emergency logic the cross-shaft section set out. Losing one propeller leaves a rolling moment twice the design maximum roll control, and the record shows the aircraft rolling and pitching at once and shedding the other propellers as the rate built.

A ballistic airframe has a fixed time budget. From the 400 feet of the ejection,

\[t = \sqrt{\frac{2h}{g}} = \sqrt{\frac{2(400)}{32.174}} = 4.99 \ \text{s}\]

and a body starting with no vertical velocity takes

\[t_{150} = \sqrt{\frac{2(400 - 250)}{32.174}} = 3.05 \ \text{s}\]

to fall the 150 feet to the height at which the parachutes opened. The report gives no timings, so the interval cannot be checked against it. At a roll angle of 200 to 210 degrees the aircraft was 20 to 30 degrees past inverted, which implies that the seats fired the crew partly toward the ground, and the seats and the parachutes had the 150 feet between ejection and canopy to work with.

The seat is the reason there is anything to reconstruct. Escape at low altitude from an uncontrolled attitude was the hardest case an ejection seat had to meet, and the seat was designed and tested at length, in Watts et al 1947, Hodell and Rosner 1957, Latham 1957, Manzuk 1970, Gross and Mawhinney 1970, Stech 1977, Budd Co Fort Washington Pa Technical Center 1978, Howland 1979, Hawker and Payne 1979, Chiang 1980, Pauer 2018.

Two of those predate the X-19’s flights by only a few years. Rocket-track ejection testing at Edwards in Hodell and Rosner 1957 and a study of seat ejection treated as body ballistics in Latham 1957 both date from 1957, six years before the X-19 first flew. An ejection 20 to 30 degrees past inverted at 400 feet is a case that none of those titles names, a more accurate statement of what happened than calling it routine.

The programme was cancelled four months later. The report records that the second airframe, serial 62-12198, had been reassigned from structural testing to carry on the flight programme and had completed its transmission runs and preflight tests, but never flew. It survives in storage, recorded by National Museum of the United States Air Force, Curtiss-Wright X-19 and Vertipedia, Curtiss-Wright X-19.

Comparison With Ground Prediction

There is no flight data from cruise or from completed conversion, because the aircraft never reached either. There is, however, a small amount of data from the first half of the conversion, and the final report records it with the company’s predictions beside it. On Flight 50 the pilot estimated an angle of attack of 7 degrees at 80 knots with the nacelles at 65 degrees, and 10 degrees at 90 knots with the nacelles at 55 degrees, and the report states that its calculated steady condition at 55 degrees of tilt was 90 knots at 10 degrees. The trimmed model of the corridor section gives, at the same nacelle angles and speeds and at the 13,660-pound weight,

\[\alpha_{\text{model}}(65^{\circ}, 80 \ \text{kt}) = 4.9^{\circ}, \qquad \alpha_{\text{model}}(55^{\circ}, 90 \ \text{kt}) = 8.0^{\circ}\]

which is about 2 degrees below both the pilot’s estimates and the company’s calculation. The report also gives the design point at which the nacelles lock down, 160 knots at 13.5 degrees angle of attack and 13,660 pounds. With the nacelles at zero the model gives 9.3 degrees with the radial lift force and 13.1 degrees without it, and the wing alone gives

\[\alpha = \frac{W}{q S \bar{a}} = \frac{13{,}660}{(86.67)(154.6)(4.434)} = 0.2299 \ \text{rad} = 13.2^{\circ}\]

so the company’s design figure sits closer to the model without the effect than with it. Two explanations are open. The model’s recovery fraction may overstate the radial lift force at small shaft angles, or the angles may be measured from different references, since the report gives the forward and aft wing zero-lift lines at 2.3 and 0.9 degrees to the fuselage reference line without a convention this comparison can apply. The record does not separate the two, and the article’s cruise and conversion figures carry that uncertainty.

The company’s own theory was validated where the model is weakest. The final report’s radial force section states that its strip theory agreed closely with tests of the X-100 propeller, with the largest difference, 10 to 15 percent above measurement, at a shaft angle of 15 degrees, and that the theory is accurate only to shaft angles of about 30 to 45 degrees, above which the company used test data for performance, loads and stability. The full-scale tunnel measurements of Yaggy and Rogallo 1960 supply such data to 85 degrees.

What also exists is the X-100, which transitioned once on 13 April 1960 and which Curtiss-Wright regarded as proof. Its assessment states that the X-100 tests showed the propellers generating large radial force that could replace wing area in transition, on an aircraft whose wing loading made radial lift an important part of the total. It does not establish anything quantitative about the X-19, which was heavier and differently proportioned.

The wind tunnel record for adjacent configurations is comparatively rich. Tilt-wing and four-propeller models appear in Grunwald 1961, Newsom and Tosti 1959, Tosti 1962 and Winston and Huston 1962, slipstream effects on performance and stability in Goland et al 1964 and Butler et al 1966, and a tandem-wing configuration in ground effect in Harry and Trobaugh 1966. None of it is the X-19, and the two flight points above are the only measurements that bear on this airframe’s aerodynamics in conversion.

What the Data Changed

Very little, and for more than one reason.

The radial lift force did not enter subsequent practice as a sizing principle. No later production aircraft is known to have been given a wing sized on the assumption that its propellers would carry three tenths of the lift slope. The tiltrotor line that eventually reached service in the V-22 took the opposite approach, using large rotors and a conventional wing.

The tandem-wing arrangement did not propagate either, though it was studied afterward and the canard interference literature of the 1970s, Gloss and McKinney 1973, Gloss 1974, Gloss 1975, Gloss and Washburn 1977 and Gloss et al 1978, covers the same physics in a different application.

What the final report offers as lessons are about loads and drives rather than lift. Its propeller section concludes that the vibratory harmonics of a propeller in transition dynamically couple it to the airframe and are controlling design loads for the propeller, the nacelle housings and the tilt mechanism, which no method of the day could compute and which only flight measurement could find. Its assessment concludes that a VTOL transmission should be designed for the full torque a throttle can impose and for weight growth, and that the nacelle system should be designed for infinite life at the largest combined control deflection. Each of those is a statement the last flight made at the cost of the airframe. Two other tilting aircraft of the period, the tri-service XC-142 and the Navy’s X-22, also carried interconnected drives.

The most useful thing the X-19 changed may be the sharpest and the least flattering. A programme that flies under four hours in twenty-one months is not testing an aircraft.

The Contemporary Literature

Cluster	Records
Propeller aerodynamics, blades, solidity and stall	1,457
Structural dynamics, vibratory loads and whirl flutter	795
Hover, download, disc loading and ground effect	777
Handling qualities, control power and the criteria	685
Tilt-rotor, tilt-wing and the convertible configurations	678
Stability, control and flight dynamics	604
Propeller and wing interference and the slipstream	567
Sizing and configuration design of vertical take-off aircraft	446
Tandem wings, canards, downwash and trim	419
Transmissions, gears and the drive system	356
Computational methods, wind tunnel testing and flight test	345
Electric propulsion, motors and energy	329
High-speed propellers, compressibility and the propfan	285
Certification, urban air mobility and the vertiport	272
Transition, conversion and the corridor	267
Ejection and crew escape	214
Noise of propellers, rotors and vertical take-off aircraft	207
Fault tolerance, redundancy and control allocation	207
Propellers in yaw, at incidence and in non-axial flow	173
Vertical take-off programmes, applications and the state of the art	164
Helicopter rotors in forward flight, wakes and hubs	112
Power effects on stability and the propeller as a fin	88
Jet lift, lift fans and jet-induced effects	84
Engines, turboshafts and propulsion systems	76
Short take-off, powered lift and high lift	36
The X-19, the XC-142 and the X-22	29
Other aeronautical literature	5
Total	9,677

The X-18 article that precedes this one closed on a configuration that came back because the constraint that killed it dissolved. This article cannot make that claim and should not try to.

The X-19’s keystone was never wrong. A propeller meeting the flow obliquely develops a force normal to its axis, it did so in 1963, and it does so now. Nothing dissolved it and nothing needed to. What changed is the thing that destroyed the aircraft, and the change there is more radical than anything that happened to the aerodynamics.

The survey below follows the order of the analysis above, so that each modern field can be set against the quantity it addresses.

The Keystone Became a Routine Term

The modern literature on the propeller at incidence is large, and very little of it names the force this aircraft was built on. Of the 173 records below on propellers in yaw, at incidence and in non-axial flow, 97 date from 2015 or later, measuring and modelling propellers in edgewise, oblique and high-incidence flow, often for electric vertical take-off aircraft, as in Stokkermans and Veldhuis 2021 and Patience and Nahon 2024. Only seven titles in the whole survey name the force normal to a propeller’s axis under any of its names, as the Source Base sets out under Thin Subjects.

That is not neglect. It is the signature of a solved problem. A simplified model for propeller thrust in oblique flow, and a treatment of propeller performance at large angle of attack for compound helicopters, are the forms the subject now takes, a term to be included in a simulation and not a question to be settled.

Curtiss-Wright’s claim about the steady force was correct and is now uncontroversial. The company’s misfortune was that the same oblique flow also produced unsteady loads that it could not compute and that broke the aircraft.

The Configuration Is Common Now

The X-19’s arrangement, several propellers at more than one longitudinal station with a small wing, is no longer unusual. It is close to a description of much of the current electric vertical take-off field, in Burton et al 2026, Chaohui et al 2026, Choi et al 2026, Critchfield and Ning 2026, Hong et al 2026, Hou et al 2026, Jokar and Khoshnood 2026, Kim et al 2026, Liang et al 2026, May et al 2026, Min et al 2026, Shubert et al 2026, Spadão et al 2026, Wang et al 2026, Xue et al 2026, Yanev and Staack 2026.

Tilt-wing, tilt-rotor, lift-plus-cruise and compound layouts are all represented, and several address problems that this article works by hand, including rotor sizing for tilt-wing vehicles, the aerodynamics of a compound tilt-wing during tilt transition, and the effect of a failure during a backward transition.

The Corridor Is an Optimisation Problem

The corridor above is computed at ten nacelle angles, and its continuity is read off a table. The modern treatment optimises a trajectory through it under constraints, in Shimizu and Miwa 2019, Wang et al 2019, Sakai and Abiko 2020, Chen 2023, Gupta et al 2023, Kulhánek et al 2023, Hsu et al 2024, Li et al 2024, Zanotti et al 2024, Xiang et al 2025, Yang et al 2025, Zhu et al 2025, Lee et al 2026, Setiawarman and Sasongko 2026.

The shape of the answer is unchanged and the method is unrecognisable. A conversion schedule is now the output of a constrained optimisation rather than a line on a pilot’s card, and the constraints include quantities the X-19’s designers never had to write down.

Wing Loading and Disc Loading Are Still the Trade

The X-19 pushed wing loading to 88 pounds per square foot to buy speed and paid for it with a conversion that could not complete below 117 knots. The same trade is made now with different variables, in Alfares 2026, Bosch et al 2026, Gholamian and Beik 2026, Hu et al 2026, Jiao and Yang 2026, Lee and Kim 2026, Li et al 2026, Makeev 2026, Park and Park 2026, Qiao and Zhou 2026, Cui et al 2027.

What has changed is which quantity binds. The X-19 was limited by installed power and by the conversion speed its wing permitted. A battery-powered vehicle is limited by stored energy, which inverts the sizing problem, and the disc loading that once determined hover power now determines how long the vehicle can hover at all.

Blades, Solidity and the Advance Ratio

The wide blade the X-19 carried for radial force, on a propeller that had to change speed between hover and cruise, is a design problem the field still has, in Bacchini et al 2021, Baek et al 2021, Fan et al 2021, Kovačević et al 2021, Maung et al 2021, Wang et al 2022, Jardin et al 2023, Nozaki et al 2023, Sinha 2025, Goyal et al 2025, Liu et al 2025, Shao et al 2025, Yu et al 2026.

The X-19’s particular version of it has eased. Each of its propellers had to hover a quarter of the aircraft at 1,204 revolutions per minute and cruise toward 400 knots at 957, a speed ratio of $1{,}204/957 = 1.26$. Distributing lift across more, smaller rotors relaxes both ends of that requirement, and a vehicle that does not attempt 400 knots relaxes the tip-speed cap that the cruise imposed.

The Drive Was Deleted and the Propeller Loads Were Not

This section matters most, because here the X-19 differs from every other aircraft in this series so far.

The X-19’s drive existed because two engines had to drive four propellers, which requires an interconnected transmission with cross-shafts and gearing at every nacelle. The torque that shaft carries is computed above, and the interconnection was not optional, since losing one side is four times full roll control, and the final report records that the transmission design philosophy was the subject of many heated discussions.

Electric propulsion does not improve that transmission. It removes it. Each rotor takes its own motor, there is no cross-shaft, there is no combining gearbox, and there is no propeller reduction box to fail. The literature reflects the change, in Bai and Zhou 2024, Lee et al 2024, Lee and Yee 2024, Li et al 2024, Chen et al 2025, Machado et al 2025, Nguyen et al 2025, Ni and Lee 2025, Shang et al 2025, Yu et al 2025, Böhnisch et al 2026, Granata et al 2026, Koshel et al 2026.

That removes the component whose design the X-19’s designers argued over, but not the one that failed. The housing that broke carried a propeller, and it broke under the vibratory loads of that propeller in oblique flow. A tilting propeller on an electric aircraft still meets oblique flow in conversion, and the steady and vibratory hub loads that come with it still have to reach the airframe through a nacelle structure. That last point follows from the physics, not from the papers above. The outcome differs from the one the X-18 article described. The X-18’s keystone was dissolved by a technology that made its central quantity irrelevant. The X-19’s keystone survives untouched, its drive was designed out, and the loads that destroyed it are now computed rather than discovered in flight.

Redundancy Replaced Mechanical Interconnection

Removing the cross-shaft removes what the cross-shaft was for. The X-19 needed mechanical interconnection because an engine failure would otherwise be an unrecoverable rolling moment. With enough independent motors the same failure is a control-allocation problem, in Antonakis and Biannic 2024, Du et al 2024, Kang et al 2024, Mabboux et al 2024, Zhao et al 2024, Atmaca et al 2025, Hung and Dai 2025, Jing and Ma 2025, Ruggia 2025, Choi and Suk 2026, Han and Pei 2026, Strampe and Klingauf 2026.

The engine-out case stopped being a mechanical problem and became a software one. The change is in the kind of engineering required, not in its difficulty. The one engine inoperative case is still studied, still hard, and no longer solved with a shaft.

Handling Qualities Became Criteria

The hover yaw authority that the final report calls unacceptable for an operational aircraft would today be measured against a published criterion rather than against judgement, in Biernacki and Lewkowicz 2024, Deng et al 2024, Ducard and Carughi 2024, He et al 2024, Antonakis 2025, Saetti 2025, Yan et al 2025, Yang 2025, Yang et al 2025, Cavalcanti et al 2026, Ioannis and Ioannis 2026, Janetzko et al 2026, Kang et al 2026.

Simplified vehicle operations, meaning low workload and minimum required pilot training, is now a design objective, as in Lombaerts, Kaneshige and Feary 2020, which would have been an extraordinary claim while the X-19 was being flown four or five minutes at a time by test pilots.

Certification Has Become the Constraint

This is the largest single difference between the X-19’s world and the present. A 1963 research aircraft needed to fly. A modern powered-lift aircraft needs to fly, to be certified against a category that had to be invented for it, and to operate in shared airspace, in Dudziak et al 2020, Feng 2022, Schweiger and Preis 2022, Takacs and Haidegger 2022, Zhou 2022, Kim et al 2023, Park et al 2023, Dong et al 2024, Zhang and Zhou 2024, Farooqui 2025, Lee and Ko 2025, Laplante et al 2026, Park 2026.

The X-19 was destroyed by a propeller housing and cancelled four months later. Its descendants must also satisfy means-of-compliance documents written for their category, which the European Union Aviation Safety Agency was still issuing in 2025, and an article treating only the aerodynamics would miss where the difficulty now lies.

Noise Is a Constraint the X-19 Never Faced

A 1963 military testbed answered to no noise requirement beyond the quiet, lightly loaded propellers that the final report records among Curtiss-Wright’s design objectives. A vehicle intended to operate from a city rooftop has one that may bind before any aerodynamic limit does, in Araghizadeh et al 2025, Bauer 2025, Bergmann et al 2025, Boucher 2025, Gandhi et al 2026, Georgiou et al 2026, Hummel et al 2026, Marques et al 2026, Page et al 2026, Pascioni et al 2026, Rizzi et al 2026, Tinney and Valdez 2026, Voropayev et al 2026.

This is a new constraint rather than an old one made stricter, and it interacts directly with the quantity this article derives. Tip speed was capped here by cruise Mach number in cruise and raised for hover. It is capped now by community noise, which bears hardest on hover, the condition in which the X-19 ran its propellers fastest.

Ground Effect, Download and the Vertiport

The download of 14.1 percent of gross weight found in the hover section is a wing-area penalty, and the outwash it implies is now an infrastructure question, in García Crespillo et al 2024, Guo et al 2025, Guo et al 2025, Jung et al 2025, Li et al 2025, Zhang and Hwang 2025, Zhao et al 2025, Li et al 2026, Lyu and Feng 2026, Mirković et al 2026, Nagrare and Lieb 2026, Park and Kim 2026.

A vehicle at 26 pounds per square foot of disc loading needs a prepared surface, and the modern field calls that a vertiport and writes design specifications for it, as in European Union Aviation Safety Agency 2022, which is the same requirement with a name and a standard attached.

Methods, Autonomy and What Replaced the Wind Tunnel

The interference this article estimates with a downwash gradient and a contraction factor is now simulated directly, in Dabaghian et al 2025, Lopez and Biancolini 2025, Sadiq Ali Mir et al 2025, Sastre et al 2025, Wang et al 2025, Yan and Shi 2025, Cai et al 2026, Claro et al 2026, Qin 2026, Shen et al 2026, Zhang et al 2026.

The 0.444 downwash gradient that costs this aircraft 1.90 degrees of attitude is not a quantity a modern analysis would need to approximate. It would be resolved, and so would the propeller-wing interference that sits behind the keystone.

What the Survey Shows

Three things, of which the third matters most.

The aerodynamics were right. The radial lift force is real, is still used, and is no longer argued about.

The configuration was reasonable. Multiple propellers at two longitudinal stations with a small wing describes a large fraction of the current field.

The loads were the problem, and they are now a computed quantity. The X-19 was lost to a vibratory propeller load in conversion that its designers could not calculate and found only in flight, while its transmission, the part whose design was argued over, is not what failed. Electric motors abolished the transmission, and modern methods resolve the interference flow from which such loads arise. An aircraft can be correct in the argument it makes about the steady force and still be destroyed by the unsteady one.

Propeller aerodynamics, blades, solidity and stall

The propeller and the rotor as blades. Propeller and rotor blade aerodynamics and design, solidity, twist, blade stall, sections for rotating blades, advance ratio and performance, together with propeller titles that no more specific cluster claims. 274 of its 1,457 titles name a rotor.

1,457 records. [A “New Type Adjustable-Pitch 2017] [A Propeller for the 2017] [Senthil Athiban et al 2017] [Acree et al 2019] [Adamson 1968] [adebimpe 2023] [Adnan Fadilah and Furqon Era 2018] [Aerodynamic design of low-speed 1986] [Aerodynamics and acoustics of 1993] [Aerodynamics of Propellers 2007] [Aerodynamics of Propellers 2018] [Afari et al 2025] [Agung Nurachmat et al 2023] [Ahmad et al 2021] [Ahmad et al 2023] [Ahmed et al 2025] [Ahn and Lee 2013] [Akila et al 2018] [Al-Jaburi] [Al-Sa’D 2023] [Albert et al 2013] [Alfiannor et al 2022] [Algozino et al 2016] [Christy et al] [Almeida et al 2016] [Althaus et al 2007] [Althoff et al 2012] [Altmikus and Knutzen 2007] [Alì et al 2026] [Amer 1990] [Amer et al 1966] [Amiet 1976] [Amin et al 2018] [Amin et al 2018] [Amit Kumar Mehar 2020] [An et al 2020] [An et al 2026] [Anand et al 2023] [Anantha et al 2026] [Patterson et al 2020] [Patterson et al] [Patterson et al] [Andrews 1941] [Appendix E Derivation of 1999] [Appendix L Propeller Design 2002] [Arafat et al 2024] [Arafat et al 2024] [Arai et al 2003] [Army Service Forces Washington Dc 1940] [Wiedemann et al] [Asghar et al 2018] [Ash et al 2000] [Ashwill 2010] [Atlam and Kolhe 2013] [Attachment of a rotor 1991] [Aziz and Mukherjee 2011] [Ba and Zong 2025] [Baba Saheb K et al 2024] [Baek et al 2015] [Baek et al 2021] [Bagherzadeh and Salehi 2021] [Bahgat 1965] [Bailey] [Bain et al 2021] [Baker 1938] [Balachandran et al 2020] [Balakrishna et al 2023] [Bangalee et al 2025] [Barara et al 2024] [Barber 1983] [Barnes 1999] [Barshai 1970] [Barton and Mixson 1981] [Baskaran et al 2023] [Battelle Memorial Inst Columbus Oh 1959] [Battey and Russell 2020] [Bauer et al 2016] [Baumeister and Eversman 1987] [Bazzana et al 2024] [Becker et al] [Beek 1978] [Behbahani et al 2011] [Bell Aerospace Co Buffalo Ny 1956] [Bell Aerospace Co Buffalo Ny 1956] [Bell Aerospace Co Buffalo Ny 1956] [Bellinger 1971] [Bellinger 1972] [Benjamin 2023] [Bennett 1984] [Benson 1938] [Bergmann et al 2021] [Bergmann et al 2022] [Bergmann et al 2024] [Bergmann et al 2024] [Bergmann et al 2025] [Berkowitz 1953] [Berry and Chopra 2015] [Berton and Nark 2018] [Berton and Nark 2019] [Betz 1928] [Betz 1928] [Betz 1939] [Betzina and Nguyen 2004] [Betzina et al 2000] [Bhaganagar 2025] [Bhat and Mixson 1978] [Bianchi et al 2007] [Biber 2000] [Biber 2016] [Biber 2017] [Biber 2017] [Biber 2023] [Bienert and Regnet 2025] [Biermann 1936] [Biermann 1954] [Biermann and Hartman 1940] [Biermann and Hartman 1942] [Biermann et al 1940] [Bingham and Keith 1953] [Biplane Aerofoils 1983] [Black 2007] [Black and Michael 2003] [Black and Wainauski 1967] [Black et al 1983] [Blade Element Rotor BER 2026] [Blade Element Rotor Overview 2026] [Blade Propeller 2011] [Blade Stall During Take-off 1942] [Blaurock 1975] [Bliss 1987] [Block 1984] [Block 1984] [Block 1984] [Block 1986] [Block 1986] [Block and Gentry 1984] [Block and Gentry 1986] [Blunt and Rebbechi 2007] [Boden and Stasicki 2014] [Boden and Stasicki 2016] [Boeing Vertol Co Philadelphia Pa 1977] [Boeing Vertol Co Philadelphia Pa 1977] [Boisard 2022] [Boling and Zha 2021] [Bolonkin 1999] [Bonanza and Debonair top 2004] [Boniface et al 1995] [Bontempo and Manna 2020] [Borer and Patterson 2020] [Borst 1978] [Borst 1978] [Borysiuk and Rudkin 2026] [Bose 2012] [Bose and Lai 1989] [Boswell and Miller 1968] [Bousquet 1986] [Bousquet and Gardarein 2000] [Boyd and Fleeter 2002] [Boyle 2002] [Boyle 2002] [Boyle 2003] [Bradley 1956] [Brady 1944] [Litherland et al] [Bridges et al 1977] [Bristeau et al 2009] [Brizzolara et al 2009] [Brockett 1972] [Brouwer 1992] [Brown and Chopra 2025] [Brown and Fischer 1967] [Brown et al 2026] [Brun and Bhaganagar 2021] [Bryant and Walters 2021] [Bulat et al 2023] [Bulat et al 2023] [Bulten 2019] [Burnell and Fan 1957] [Burpo and Darlington 1965] [Busurin and Mulin 2021] [Acree 2022] [Acree 2026] [Acree 2026] [Acree et al 2022] [Cai and Gunasekaran 2025] [Cai et al 2021] [Cai et al 2021] [Cai et al 2023] [Campbell 1951] [Campos 1999] [Campos and Lau 2006] [Caracostas 1978] [Cardinale 1969] [Meyer and Johnson 1952] [Carlson and Carta 1972] [Carlson and Hilzinger 1965] [Carlton 2007] [Carlton 2007] [Carlton 2007] [Carlton 2012] [Carlton 2012] [Carlton 2012] [Carlton 2018] [Carlton 2019] [Carlton 2019] [Carlton 2019] [Carroll and Carroll 2005] [Carta et al 1973] [Casadei et al 2019] [Cassarino 1970] [Castells et al 2019] [Castells et al 2020] [Castelucci et al 2026] [Castles and Durham 1956] [Castles et al 1960] [Catherines and Mayes 1975] [CFD Results on Propeller 2017] [Cha] [Chakraborty and Kumar 2019] [Chalmers] [Chandukrishna and Venkatesh 2022] [Chang and Sullivan 1982] [Chang et al 2020] [Chaplin 1986] [CHAPTER SEVEN Propellers, Motors 2020] [Charla et al 2024] [Chattopadhyay and Walsh 1989] [Chattopadhyay et al 1997] [Chaturvedi and Sahoo 2023] [Chaware et al 2026] [Chawla 1952] [Chen and Samant 1985] [Chen et al 1989] [Chen et al 2024] [Chen et al 2024] [Chen et al 2025] [Chen et al 2025] [Chen et al 2026] [Cheng 1969] [Cheng and Balanis] [Cheng et al 2025] [Chidambaram and Vinoth Raj 2025] [Cho and Lee 1998] [Cho et al 2024] [Choi and Ahn 2010] [Choi et al 2012] [Chopra and Prahlad 2002] [Chopra and Smith 1992] [Chreim] [Chu] [Chyla 2024] [Ciftci and Cadirci 2024] [Clarke and Botero 2023] [Cleary 1947] [Cline 1950] [Coe et al 1985] [Coirier et al 2014] [Cole et al 2021] [Coleman et al 2025] [Stutz et al 2026] [Collopy and Bennett 1992] [Colozza 2002] [Composite aircraft propeller blade 1990] [Composite helicopter rotor and 1974] [Composite propeller blade 1972] [Composite rotor blade 1980] [Composite rotor blade 1993] [Conclusion The Triumph and 2017] [Cong et al 2023] [Conroy and Matveev 2023] [Conway and Biermann 1941] [Cook 1965] [Cordes 1942] [Cox and Morgan 1974] [Cresap et al 1979] [Crespo da Silva 1991] [Crigler 1948] [Crigler 1949] [Cross 1975] [Cross 1976] [Cui et al 2017] [Cummings 1968] [Curtiss 1976] [Cusati et al 2019] [Dacharla 2026] [Dahan et al 1981] 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Structural dynamics, vibratory loads and whirl flutter

What broke the aircraft. Whirl flutter of propellers and proprotors, the aeroelastic stability of tilt-rotor and propeller installations, vibratory and harmonic loads on rotors and propellers, blade, gear and airframe fatigue, and the structural loads of rotorcraft and vertical take-off aircraft. 172 titles name whirl flutter and 125 a tilt-rotor or proprotor.

795 records. [A Method of Ground] [Abbott et al 1963] [Abrego et al 1999] [Acree 2000] [Acree 2003] [Acree 2004] [Acree 2005] [Acree 2005] [Acree and Hoffman 2004] [Acree and Rutkowski 2001] [Acree et al 2000] [Acree et al 2001] [Acree et al 2001] [Acree et al 2004] [Adeyemi et al 2026] [Aerodynamic loads computation on 1990] [Aeroelastic response, loads, and 1995] [Agostinelli et al 2015] [Aguirre et al 2023] [Ahmad and Ullah 2026] [Ahmad et al 2020] [Ahmed 1996] [Ahuja and Hartfield 2015] [Akinwale and Datta 2023] [Akinwale and Datta 2025] [Akyildiz et al 2020] [Albrecht 1979] [Alexander 2025] [Alexander et al 1974] [Alexander et al 1975] [Alonso Castilla et al 2021] [Altamirano et al 2025] [Amer and LaForge 1965] [Amer and Neff 1974] [Amer et al 1985] [Amini and Steen 2012] [Amoozgar et al 2019] [Kreshock et al 2023] [Kreshock and Thornburgh 2024] [Kreshock et al] [Aplicação de transdutores piezoelétricos 2022] [Araki 1963] [Armendáriz et al 2018] [Arnhem et al 2019] [Arnold 2025] [Aryaman et al 2023] [ASC-II second generation advanced 2007] [Ashkenas 1965] [Azzi and Asma 2025] [Badgley and Hartman 1974] [Bahree et al 1989] [Baillie and Hoh 1986] [Balcerak 1967] [Balke 1970] [Balmaseda Aguirre and Richez 2026] [Balmaseda Aguirre and Yeo 2026] [Bapat et al 2025] [Bapat et al 2026] [Barkai and Rand 1998] [Batina 1985] [Beek 1977] [Beng Yeo et al 2014] [Simmons et al] [Bennett and Bland 1964] [Bennett and Reed 1963] [Beno 1968] [Berry and Chopra 2011] [Bilger et al 1981] [Bilger et al 1981] [Bilger et al 1982] [Blackwell 1983] [Bobo 1972] [Boissinot and Kheiri 2023] [Bontempo and Manna 2019] [Boswell et al 1981] [Bothwell et al 1999] [Bott 1964] [Bouillaut and Sidahmed] [Bousman and Maier 1992] [Braun and Giessler 1966] [Braun and Giessler 1966] [Breyer 1954] [Bristow 1984] [Brouwer and Hagesteijn 2014] [Buchtala et al 2000] [Buresti et al 1992] [Burgess Marvin F et al 1956] [Burpo and Lynn 1962] [Buyukataman 1991] [Buyukataman and Kazerounian 1995] [Böhnisch et al 2022] 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Load 1995] [Colella et al 2012] [Colombo and Giglio 2007] [Cook 1974] [Cornell Aeronautical Lab Inc Buffalo Ny 1947] [Cotter 1946] [Crichlow et al 1972] [Crimi 1973] [Crimi 1974] [Crimi 1975] [Croci 2026] [Cwach and Stearmant 1974] [D’Alessandro et al 2025] [Marilena 2011] [da Luz et al 2025] [Dai et al 2026] [Dall’Aglio et al 2022] [Dalwadi et al 2023] [Dalwadi et al 2023] [Datta and Chopra 2004] [Datta et al 2004] [Datta et al 2006] [Davies et al 2014] [Davis 1974] [de Almeida and Raffo 2015] [Decker 1966] [De Gaudemaris] [de Gaudemaris et al 2025] [De Vita et al 2025] [Decker and Lewicki 2003] [Delamore-Sutcliffe and Greenwell 2006] [Delgado and Datta 2024] [Delgado and Datta 2025] [Delgado and Datta 2026] [Dempsey et al 2013] [Deveaux 1980] [Dibble et al 2019] [Dibble et al 2019] [Dodic et al 2023] [Doherty and Butzel 1979] [Doherty and Butzel 1979] [Doman 1957] [Dong and Li 2022] [Dong et al 2019] [Dong et al 2021] [Dong et al 2021] [Donham et al 1986] [dos Santos et al 2026] 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al 1961] [Gabel et al 1982] [Gabel et al 1983] [Gali and Riso 2024] [Gali et al 2023] [Gali et al 2023] [Gali et al 2024] [Gandhi and Paik 2007] [Ganguli et al 1998] [Gao and Zou 2025] [Gates and Smailys 1989] [Gatlin and Riso 2024] [Gennaretti and Greco 2008] [Gennaretti et al 2009] [Gennaretti et al 2010] [Gennaretti et al 2015] [Altamirano et al] [Amer 1995] [Brooks and Silveira 1961] [Giglio 1999] [Gimmestad 1980] [Gimmestad 1981] [Glaz et al 2006] [Gloss and Washburn 1977] [Gloss and Washburn 1977] [Gloss and Washburn 1978] [Gomez et al 2021] [Gong et al 2022] [Gong et al 2022] [Gong et al 2023] [Gong et al 2025] [Grabill et al 2007] [Graham and McGuigan 1970] [Grant 1961] [Greaves 1988] [Guan et al 2025] [Gul and Datta 2022] [Gul and Datta 2024] [Gul and Yeo 2025] [Guo and Wang 2010] [Gupta et al 1984] [Guruswamy 2021] [Gustafson and Calapodas 1976] [Götzfried 2002] [Haley 1971] [Hall 1963] [Hallez and Lorenzo 2021] [Ham 1967] [Ham and Madden 1965] [Ham et al 1989] [Hammond 1980] 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2020] [Huff et al 2000] [Huff et al 2002] [Huston et al 1963] [Hwang 2026] [Ilie] [Influence of propeller characteristics 2015] [Introduction to Aeroelastic Rotor 2018] [Irving and Buller 1999] [Isakson 1970] [Isakson 1970] [Itoh and Satoh 2019] [Iyappan et al 2025] [Jain 2018] [Jan et al 2026] [Jang and Chopra 1988] [Jangam et al 2021] [Jarosch and Stepan 1970] [Jensen 1972] [Jeon and Lee 2000] [Jiang et al 2024] [Jin et al 2019] [Jingwei and Guanghu 2026] [Johns 1972] [Johnson 1954] [Johnson 1970] [Johnson 1982] [Johnson 2003] [Johnston and Cassarino 1976] [Johnston and Donham 1982] [Jones 1971] [Jones 1971] [Kahraman 2002] [Kaman Aircraft Corp Bloomfield Ct 1964] [Kamaraj et al 2016] [Kang et al 2016] [Kang et al 2017] [Kang et al 2026] [Kantzidis et al 2024] [Kaza 1973] [Kaza 1988] [Kenyon et al 1998] [Kenyon et al 1999] [Khader and Dhaher 1998] [Kher et al 2026] [Khosrovaneh et al 1990] [Kim 2004] [Kim 2023] [Kim and Shin 2008] [Kim et al 2013] [Kim et al 2023] [Kim et al 2025] 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Phan 2018] [Morduchow and Hinchey 1950] [Morduchow et al 1953] [Morgan 1954] [Mosher 2003] [Moushegian 2024] [Mukhopadhyay et al 2017] [Murrad and Leong 2008] [Muscarello and Quaranta 2019] [Muscarello and Quaranta 2021] [Muscarello and Quaranta 2023] [Muscarello and Quaranta 2024] [Möhren et al 2023] [Müller and Hann 2023] [Naoki et al 2025] [Nasu 1986] [Spivey et al] [Nelson and Shen 2022] [Ni 2013] [Niebanck 1984] [Niemiec and Gandhi 2017] [Nikolsky 1959] [Nitzsche 1988] [Nitzsche 1989] [Nitzsche 1989] [Nitzsche 1991] [Nitzsche 1994] [Nitzsche and Rodrigues 1990] [Nitzsche and Rodrigues 1992] [Niu et al 2026] [Nixon 1992] [Nixon et al 1997] [Nixon et al 1997] [Nixon et al 2001] [Nixon et al 2003] [Nord 1967] [Nt et al 2024] [null 1997] [O’Bryan 1956] [O’Bryan 1958] [O’Bryan 1958] [Ockier and Celi 1991] [Oh et al 2026] [Oliveira et al 2025] [Ordway and Greenberg 1961] [Ormiston 1972] [Ormiston 1985] [Ormiston 1991] [Ortun et al 2012] [Ortun et al 2012] [Oswald 1987] [Otsuka et al 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Hover, download, disc loading and ground effect

The hover end. Static thrust and hover performance of propellers and rotors, the download on a wing beneath them, disc loading, induced velocity and actuator-disc theory, and ground effect, recirculation, downwash and outwash. 135 titles name ground effect, 20 the outwash and 19 the download, so the download this article computes is the least named of the three.

777 records. 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2017] [Madureira and de Almeida 2026] [Magier and Fellouah 2025] [Mahdavi et al 2026] [Mahmuddin 2017] [Mahony et al] [Maisel and Harris 1981] [Makeev 2026] [Makeev 2026] [Makeev 2026] [Malick and Agarwal 2015] [Malpica et al 2011] [Malpica et al 2015] [Manouchehri et al 2011] [Maqsood and Go 2010] [Marantos et al 2013] [Marchini] [Marpu et al 2014] [Marques et al 2025] [Marques et al 2026] [Marques Goncalves et al 2024] [Marques Goncalves et al 2025] [Martin 1984] [Martin et al 1999] [Mathur and Atkins 2026] [Matsumoto et al 2010] [Wilbur et al 2000] [McCaskill 1953] [McHugh and Taylor 1976] [McLemore 1966] [Meakin 1995] [Mehrabi and Davari 2020] [Michaelsen 1971] [Michieletto et al 2017] [Miesner et al 2020] [Migdal et al 1979] [Mihaila et al 2026] [Miller 1948] [Milluzzo and Kuerbitz 2017] [Milluzzo and Leishman 2017] [Min et al 2026] [Minervino et al 2016] [Mittal 2005] [Miwa et al 2016] [Modarres and Peters 2013] [Modarres and Peters 2015] [Modisette and Darmofal 2008] [Mohammadi et al 2023] [Mohammed 2015] [Momentum Theory 2024] [Morris et al] [Morse and Newhouse 1960] [Morse and Newhouse 1961] [Morse and Newhouse 1961] [Mortimer and Sirohi 2024] [Moschetta 2010] [Mosher and Light 1994] [Mourtos et al 1995] [Moushegian et al 2021] [Mumasha et al 2026] [Munk and Cario 1923] [Murakami et al 2019] [Murata et al 2025] [Murata et al 2025] [Muttray 1936] [Myers and McLaughlin 2015] [Mylapore and Schmitz 2015] [Nagabhushanam et al 1997] [Naidu et al 2013] [Nardone et al 2014] [Nathan and Green 2011] [Nayak et al 2026] [Ness 1971] [Nguyen and Ngo 2017] [Zawodny et al 2025] [O’Bryan 1961] [Oates 1972] [Obryan 1960] [Ogle et al 2026] [Oliver and Stanzione 1993] [Oo] [Oosedo et al 2015] [Orhan and Subbarao 2020] [Osa et al 2016] [Osa et al 2017] [Osman et al 2026] [Otsuka et al 2024] [Overmeyer and Martin 2017] [Overmeyer and Martin 2017] [Panayotov et al 2019] [Panayotov et al 2020] [Park et al 2019] [Parkala and Kandath 2026] [Parwani and Coder 2018] [Pasquali et al 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Handling qualities, control power and the criteria

The criteria the X-19 was judged against, and those that came after. Handling and flying qualities, control power requirements, pilot rating, workload and simulation, for helicopters, vertical take-off aircraft and conventional aircraft. 161 titles name a vertical take-off or hovering aircraft and 97 an electric or urban air mobility aircraft.

685 records. 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2007] [Alomar and Shafqat 2026] [Villa et al] [Amer et al 1978] [Ames 1975] [Anderson 1960] [Anderson 1960] [Anderson 1966] [Anderson 1970] [Anderson 1977] [Anderson 1979] [Anderson and Schroers 1972] [Andriesen and Honaker 1987] [Antonakis 2025] [Asadi Khanouki et al 2025] [Ashkenas 1965] [Ashkenas 1965] [Ashkenas 1982] [Autopilot, Flight Director, and] [Bachelder and Aponso 2020] [Bachelder and Aponso 2020] [Bachelder et al 2023] [Bagiev and Thomson 2009] [Bagiev and Thomson 2010] [Bahr et al 2020] [Bahr et al 2021] [Bailes et al 1975] [Bailey et al 1983] [Baillie and Morgan 1997] [Baillie et al 1995] [Baillie et al 1997] [Barbini et al 1970] [Barnes et al 2025] [Baughman and Longeauay 2015] [Bechelder et al 2025] [Beilman et al 1975] [Benmoussa and Gamboa 2024] [Bennett et al 1988] [Berger et al 2016] [Berger et al 2020] [Berger et al 2022] [Berger et al 2022] [Berger et al 2025] [Berger et al 2025] [Adelstein et al] [Bezuidenhout et al 2026] [Bhalla et al 2024] [Biernacki and Lewkowicz 2024] [Birckelbaw and Corliss 1992] [Birckelbaw and Corliss 1992] [Birckelbaw and Corliss 1994] [Birckelbaw et al 1994] [Bischoff et al 2003] [Bivens 1986] [Black and Moorhouse 1979] [Blackburn 1968] [Bland et al 1976] [Blanken and Pausder 1994] [Boeing Vertol Co Philadelphia Pa 1983] [Boothe et al 1974] [Boussard et al 2022] [Bouwer and Taghizad 1999] [Bower 1978] [Bowes and Miller 1976] [Branson 1994] [Brauser 1982] [Brauser 1983] [Bray 1963] [Bray 1982] [Brenner et al 2022] [Brenner et al 2023] [Breul 1963] [Bryant and Trueblood 1975] [Builta et al 1995] [Buley 1970] [Bustamante Alarcon et al 2023] [Cameron and Padfield 2007] [Cameron and Padfield 2010] [Cameron et al 2018] [Cao and Anvar 2012] [Cappetta and Johns 1990] [Carico and Garcia-Otero 1995] [Carlson 1958] [Carpenter and Jenny 1964] [Carter and Stultz 1958] [Caseria 1966] [Castleberry and McElreath 1982] [Celi 1989] [Cerezo-Pacheco et al 2021] [Chakraborty et al 2023] [Chalk and Key 1969] [Chalk and Saunders 1969] [Chalk et al 1969] [Champine 1971] [Chance Vought Corp Dallas Tx 1979] [Chang and Kiang 2026] [Chaparro Osman et al 2024] [Chen 1982] [Chen and Ji 2017] [Chen and Xie 2024] [Chen et al 1978] [Chen et al 2025] [Cheng et al 2026] [Cherepinsky et al 2012] [Chevalier and Burke 1972] [Childs and Nixon 1987] [Choi et al 2014] [Choksey and Gonzalez II 2004] [Chopra et al 2021] [Chowhan et al 2019] [Cicolani and Meyer 1975] [Citurs and Caton 1985] [Clark 1964] [Clark 1975] [Clark 1982] [Clarke and Griffin 2001] [Cleveland 1971] [Cockpit Information Required for] [Comer et al 2025] [Concurrent Design of Engines] [Conrad et al 2024] [Cook 1985] [Cook 1997] [Cook 2007] [Cook 2013] [Cooke 2010] [Corless and Blanken 1983] [Corliss 1983] [Corliss and Dugan 1972] [Corliss et al 1983] [Crombie and Moorhouse 1980] [Curry et al 1965] [Curtiss 1971] [Curtiss and Warburton 1992] [Darling et al 1970] [Darmstad et al 2024] [Darmstadt et al 2021] [Datta 2012] [Daud Filho] [Daughaday and Duwaldt 1955] [Davenport et al 1972] [Caudle et al] [Davis 1983] [Davis et al 1975] [De Florio 2011] [De Florio 2016] [Decker 1992] [Decker et al 1989] [Decker et al 1994] [Decker et al 1996] [Deng et al 2024] [Design and Simulation of 2024] [Design Objectives for Flying] [Design Objectives for Handling] [Difranco 1969] [Doman 1995] [Dooley 1977] [Dougherty 1968] [Dreier 2007] [Dreier 2017] [Dreier 2026] [Drewiacki et al 2016] [Drinkwater and Feistel 1965] [Drinkwater and Rolls 1963] [Drinkwater et al 1964] [Duman and Demirci 2026] [Edwards et al 1997] [Eigenmann and Bailey 1977] [Eney 1967] [Eskey and Wilson 1986] [Eskey and Wilson 1989] [Farris et al 1983] [Faulkner and Sinn 1985] [Fegely et al 2017] [Feingold et al 1995] [Ferguson et al 1984] [Ferguson et al 2017] [Feroskhan et al 2025] [Ferrarese et al 2013] [Finger et al 2018] [Flood and Cartwright 1977] [Flying Qualities Forms of 2007] [Flying Qualities Objective Assessment 2007] [Flying Qualities Subjective Assessment 2007] [Ford 1989] 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2025] [Haffley 1982] [Halbe and Hajek 2019] [Hale 1987] [Hall 1992] [Ham et al 1995] [Hammond 1971] [Handling qualities 2000] [Handling Qualities Analysis 2008] [Handling Qualities and Control 2017] [Handling Qualities Workshop 40 2009] [Hanks and Ham 1992] [Harper and Robert P. 1955] [Harper et al 1970] [Harris et al 2000] [Harrison et al 2019] [Hart 1956] [He et al 2020] [Heinle 1960] [Heintzman 1965] [Henriquez Huecas et al 2022] [Hess 1980] [Hess 1981] [Hess 1984] [Hess 2009] [Hess 2010] [Hewson 1959] [Hijazeen et al 2026] [Hodgkinson et al 1990] [Hoefinger and Blanken 2013] [Hoffelner et al 2023] [Hoffman 1969] [Hoffman 1969] [Hoffman 1969] [Hoffman 1971] [Hoffman et al 1970] [Hoffman et al 1974] [Hoffman et al 1975] [Hoffman et al 1976] [Hoh 1982] [Hoh 1988] [Hoh and Ashkenas 1979] [Hoh and Ashkenas 1981] [Hoh and Mitchell 1983] [Hoh and Mitchell 2018] [Holladay 1966] [Holzhauser et al 1971] [Holzhauser et al 1972] [Hong et al 1991] [Horn et al 2012] [Huang et al 2023] [Huang et al 2025] [Huang et al 2026] [Huang et al 2026] [Huff 1949] [Hughes et al 2002] [Hung and Dai 2025] [Hutchings 1977] [Ibrahim et al 2023] [Ickes et al 2014] [Innis et al 1966] [Innocenti 1985] [Instrumentation Requirements for Turboshaft] [Ioannis and Ioannis 2026] [Iseler et al 1996] [Ivler et al 2022] [Ivler et al 2022] [Putnam and Littell] [Jacobson and Kuhlthau 1972] [Janetzko et al 2025] [Aires et al] [Bull 1960] [Callaghan and Kunz 2021] [Campos and Marques 2021] [Dussart et al 2019] [Eilertson 1975] [Jia and Lee 2019] [John 2022] [Johnson 1974] [Johnson and Weir 1968] [Johnson et al 2024] [Johnston et al 1965] [Litt et al] [Litt et al 2025] [Jones and Jusko 2022] [Jones et al 2023] [Joppa and Parikh 1984] [Joshi and Rickard 1981] [Jusko and Berger 2026] [Littell et al] [Kahn 1968] [Kamath et al 2025] [Kang and Sun 2000] [Kang et al 2016] [Kang et al 2024] [Goodrich] [Goodrich] [Han and Park 2019] [Herbst et al 2016] [Hess and Hess 1997] [Hu et al 2024] [Humphreys-Jennings et al 2020] [Kereliuk and Sinclair 1979] [Kesling 1968] [Monk et al 2025] [Key 1971] [Key et al 1965] [Kidd and Bull 1963] [Kim et al 2023] [Kimball 1993] [Kimura et al 2024] [Kish et al 2021] [Kisslinger and Wendl 1971] [Kleckner 1973] [Klein et al 2017] [Kleinman 1975] [Klyde et al 2022] [Kopyt and Dylicki 2025] [Kose and Oktay 2021] [Kriechbaum and Lollar 1968] [Kucuk 1988] [Kuczynski et al 1979] [Kuczynski et al 1980] [Kuhn et al 1964] [Kukla 2026] [Kunwar and Chakraborty 2025] [Landis and Glusman 1985] [Lateral-Directional Flying Qualities in 2002, Lateral-Directional Flying Qualit 2] [Lawrence et al 2016] [Leacock and Thomson 1998] [Lebacqz and Forrest 1982] [Lebacqz and Radford 1978] [Lebacqz and Radford 1979] [Lebacqz and Scott 1984] [Lebacqz et al 1981] [Lee et al 2001] [Lee et al 2013] [Lee et al 2024] [Lee et al 2026] [Lemon et al 2011] [Lepe and Huynh 2026] [Levison and Rickard 1981] [Lewis et al 1991] [Li 2025] [Li 2026] [Li et al 2023] [Li et al 2024] [Li et al 2026] [Lind and Tamplin 1981] [Littell et al 2021] [Lollar and Kriechbaum 1968] [Longitudinal Flying Qualities in 2002, Longitudinal Flying Qualities in 2] [Haworth et al] [Lu et al 2026] [Lusardi 2023] [Lutze et al 1993] [Mabboux et al 2024] [Makarov 2019] [Malaek and Karimi 2008] [Maleki et al 2026] [Malpica and Lusardi 2013] [Malpica et al 2023] [Mancinelli et al 2022] [Mao et al 2019] [Margason 1981] [Margason 1982] [Marr and Roderick 1974] [Marr and Roderick 1975] [Martin 1963] [Martin 1963] [Mathur and Atkins 2025] [Gladfelter et al] [McCormick 1969] [McGregor and Smith 1965] [McGREGOR and Smith 1966] [McIntyre 1963] [McKillip Jr. et al 2025] [McVeigh 1976] [McVeigh and Widdison 1976] [Meakin 1993] [Memon et al 2021] [Mendela 1971] [Mercan et al 2025] [Merrick 1981] [Merrick 1984] [Meuleners 1981] [Meyer and Padfield 2002] [Meyer and Padfield 2005] [Mikic et al 2021] [Miller 1969] [Miller 1986] [Miller and Clark 1965] [Miller and Vinje 1967] [Milz et al 2026] [Mitchell and Hoh 1983] [Mitchell et al 2003] [Mkrtchyan et al 2009] [Modelling Helicopter Flight Dynamics 2007, Modelling Helicopter Flight Dynam] [Moen and Yenni 1975] [Mohd Arrif et al 2020] [Mokotoff and Cinar 2026] [Momiyama 1977] [Monnier 2026] [Mooij 1985] [Mooij 1985] [Mooij 1985] [Moorhouse et al 1989] [Moralez et al 1987] [Moreau et al 2024] [Morello et al 1972] [Morgan 1982] [Moro et al 2025] [Mouritsen 1994] [Mukherjee et al 2022] [Mulyanto et al 2026] [Murphy and Greif 1975] [Murphy et al 1978] [Musso et al 2024] [Myasnikov and Ilyin 2023] [Helicopter Handling Qualities 1982] [Nagata et al 1973] [Nagy and Kirsten 1976] [Nakayama et al 2026] [Nelson and Franklin 2021] [Nettleton 1965] [Newell 1963] [Nguyen and Stepanyan 2010] [Nguyen et al 2025] [Nichols 1960] [Nicoll and Mitchell 2009] [Niemiec et al 2020] [Niessen 1969] [North and Graffunder 1979] [Northrop Aircraft Inc Hawthorne Ca 1952] [Nugroho et al 2022] [O’Rourke 1992] [Ockier 1993] [Ockier 1996] [Oki 1960] [Okumoto and Elsanker 1973] [Harendra et al 1973] [Padfield 2013] [Padfield and Wilkinson 1997] [Padfield et al 2006] [Pan et al 2014] [Papa and Stoliker 1988] [Park 2026] [Pasquariello et al 2023] [Patil and Garcia-Sanchez 2024] [Patil and García-Sánchez 2025] [Darmstadt et al] [Patton 1972] [Pauli et al 1974] [Pedrioli et al 2024] [Perhinschi 2000] [Suh et al 2025] [Peterson and Grant 2011] [Phillips 1948] [Pilot Training and Certification] [Place et al 1974] [Portapas 2025] [Portapas and Cooke 2020] [Postlethwaite et al 1999] [Preis and Cheng 2022] [Preis and Hornung 2022] [Preis and Hornung 2022] [Pressburger et al 2023] [Price 1964] [Pricker and Armanini 2023] [Primatesta et al 2022] [Primatesta et al 2023] [Putman 1969] [Putnam and Littell 2023] [Quigley 1964] [Radford and Andrisani 1980] [Radford et al 1976] [Ghatas et al] [Ghatas et al 2023] [Ransone 1970] [Ransone 1971] [Raol and Singh 2023] [Rediess and Melton 1994] [Reeder 1958] [Reeder 1960] [Reschak 1970] [Reschak 1971] [Rhoads 1967] [Rhoads 1970] [Riccardi et al 2025] [Rich 1969] [Ringland 1977] [Rister and Bartling 2023] [Robbins 1967] [Roca León] [Rodchenko et al 2003] [Rogers 1970] [Rogers and Holdstock 2022] [Rohling 1968] [Rosenstein et al 1973] [Rothhaar et al 2014] [Rotorcraft handling qualities design 2011] [Roysdon 2013] [Roysdon and Khalid 2011] [Rylko et al 2025] [Saetti and Bugday 2023] [Saetti and Rogers 2020] [Saetti and Rogers 2024] [Sahasrabudhe and Celi 1997] [Sarrafian and Powers 1988] [Sasongko and Muhammad 2017] [Saucez] [Schmidt and Jusko 2025] [Schneider et al 2026] [Schrage and Meyer 1986] [Schwartz and Shearer 1964] [Schönenberg 2013] [Segner 1961] [Shan et al 2026] [Sheridan et al 1982] [Sheth 2023] [Shomber and Gertsen 1967] [Shubert and Jones 2025] [Simmons 2022] [Simmons 2023] [Simulation in support of 1988] [Sinacori 1970] [Sinacori 1970] [Slaughter 1958] [Smith 1966] [Smith 1969] [Smith 1977] [Smith 2023] [Smith and Geddes 1979] [Srinathkumar 2011] [Srinathkumar 2015] [Stability, Control, and Handling 2024] [Standard Specification for Vertiport] [Stengel and Miller 1978] [Stepniewski and Schneider 1964] [Stevenson 1991] [Strand and Ennis 2012] [Surmann and Myschik 2023] [Surmann et al 2022] [Swaim 1970] [Tai 1995] [Tai 1996] [Takii et al 2020] [Tapscott 1964] [Teofilatto 2001] [Theodore et al 2020] [Lombaerts et al] [Thomson and Bradley 1997] [Thomson et al 2005] [Tich 1991] [Tiltrotor Aircraft Modelling and 2018] [Tinling and Cole 1980] [Tischler and Hoh 1982] [Tomczyk 2008] [Tormes and Guedry 1974] [Totah 1991] [Totah 1992] [Tuck 1985] [Turner et al 2002] [Twin Engine Helicopter Power] [Umapathy et al 2021] [Unverricht et al 2024] [Ram Rohit 2024] [V/STOL flight simulation 1979] [Van Dam et al 1980] [Varela Martínez] [Verberne et al 2024] [Veres 2009] [Vinje and Miller 1973] [Voropayev et al 2025] [Voropayev et al 2026] [Wang and Zhang 2020] [Wang et al 2023] [Wechner et al 2022] [Welter 1966] [Wernecke 1958] [Westbrook 1964] [Wetmore 1965] [Wetmore 1966] [Whitbeck and Hofmann 1978] [Wilcox and Quigley 1978] [Wilde et al 2022] [Wille et al 2026] [Willebeek-LeMair and Rhinehart 2023] [Hindson et al 1993] [Wilson et al 1983] [Wilson et al 1993] [Wind Tunnel Simulations 2022] [Woodcock and Browne 1986] [Woomer and Carico 1977] [Wright and Lappos 1979] [Wright and Lappos 1981] [Wu et al 2018] [Wynosky and Szyszko 1973] [Xue et al 2026] [Yan and Chen 2019] [Yan et al 2025] [Yang 2025] [Yang et al 2025] [Yavrucuk and Prasad 1999] [Yazar 2018] [Yomchinda et al 2009] [Young 2015] [Young and Rajagopalan 2013] [Yu 2023] [Yue and Postlethwaite 1990] [Zhang et al 2024] [Zhang et al 2024] [Zhang et al 2026] [Zhao and Sheng 2025] [Zhao et al 2009] [Zhao et al 2009] [Ziakkas and Henneberry 2025] [Zintl et al 2022] [Zintl et al 2024] [Çakıcı and Leblebicioğlu 2011] [聂 2017]

Tilt-rotor, tilt-wing and the convertible configurations

The configurations that tilt the thrust. Tilt-rotor, tilt-wing, tilt-duct, lift-plus-cruise and compound aircraft, convertiplanes, quadplanes and tail-sitters, with their design, aerodynamics and control. 452 titles name the tilt-rotor and 104 the tilt-wing, so the arrangement that succeeded the X-19’s tilting propellers is chiefly the tilt-rotor.

678 records. [Abergo et al 2026] [Abergo et al 2026] [Abiko and Harada 2020] [Abiko and Tashiro 2016] [Abras and Narducci 2010] [Abrego et al 2001] [Abrego et al 2002] [Acree 2014] [Acree and Sheikman 2018] [Adebimpe 2023] [Aihaitijiang and Onal 2019] [Alexander et al 1973] [Alsharif et al 2026] [An and Kim 2026] [An and Wang 2025] [An et al 2024] [Anantha and Atkins 2023] [Anantha et al 2024] [Andrade et al 2020] [Andrade et al 2024] [Apkarian 2018] [Application of Computational Fluid 1990] [Arif and Sasongko 2021] [Armutcuoglu et al 2004] [Arnold et al 1987] [Arroyo] [Atencio and Banda 1998] [Autenrieb et al 2019] [Baerens 2024] [Baird et al 1972] [Basnight et al 2025] [Bath et al 2021] [Bath et al 2022] [Bath et al 2023] [Bauer 2023] [Bauersfeld and Ducard 2020] [Bauersfeld et al 2021] [Beliautsou and Beliautsou 2024] [Belák and Hromčík 2023] [Chakraborty and Mishra 2023] [Simmons and Murphy] [Simmons et al] [Simmons et al] [Benkhoud and Bouallegue 2016] [Benkhoud et al 2017] [Beppu et al 1966] [Beser 1978] [Betzina and Falarski 1979] [Betzina and Kita 1979] [Betzina and Kita 1980] [Bhandari and Chakraborty 2026] [Bhandari et al 2023] [Bhandari et al 2024] [Bona et al 2026] [Botelho] [Bray 1995] [Brender et al 1996] [Brown and Edenborough 1977] [Brown et al 1977] [Brown et al 1978] [Burley 1979] [Burley et al 1999] [Burton et al 2023] [Acree 2022] [Acree 2024] [Cardoso et al 2016] [Cardoso et al 2021] [Carico] [Carico] [Carlin et al 1986] [Carlson and Papachristos 2021] [Carlson and Papachristos 2024] [Carlson and Zhao 2002] [Carlson et al 1999] [Cassinelli et al 2023] [Cetinsoy 2014] [Cetinsoy 2015] [Cha et al 2024] [Chakraborty and Mishra 2021] [Chakraborty and Mishra 2022] [Chakraborty and Mishra 2023] [Chakraborty et al 2022] [Chakraborty et al 2023] [Chakraborty et al 2024] [Chakraborty et al 2025] [Chakraborty et al 2026] [Chakraborty et al 2026] [Chambers 1991] [Chambers and Grafton 1966] [Chambers and Grafton 1968] [Chambers and Grafton 1970] [Champine et al 1970] [Chana and Sullivan 1992] [Chandravanshi et al 2026] [Chao et al 2016] [Chaohui et al 2026] [Chapman 2019] [Chattopadhyay et al 1995] [Chauhan and Martins 2020] [Chen 2024] [Chen 2025] [Chen and Jia 2020] [Chen et al 2017] [Chen et al 2019] [Chen et al 2020] [Chen et al 2024] [Cheng et al 2025] [Chiariello et al 2024] [Choi et al 2012] [Choi et al 2026] [Churchill and Gerdes 1984] [Civinskas 1973] [Clark 1985] [Clay et al 1987] [Clements and Rais-Rohani 2000] [Cocco et al 2022] [Cole et al 1980] [Comer and Chakraborty 2023] [Comer and Chakraborty 2024] [Comer et al 2024] [Comer et al 2024] [Comer et al 2024] [Comer et al 2025] [Comer et al 2026] [Conner et al 1998] [Conner et al 1999] [Conner et al 2000] [Cook 2025] [Corle et al 2019] [Costa 2012] [Critchfield and Ning 2023] [Critchfield and Ning 2026] [Cronkhite and Tanner 1985] [Crossley and Rutherford 1995] [Cui 2026] [Dabundo and Neary 1985] [Dancik et al 1958] [Deckert and McCloud 1968] [Dehaeze et al 2017] [Deng et al 2025] [Design and Aerodynamic Analysis 2021] [Design definition study of 1975] [Detore and Sambell 1975] [Dezons and Ducard 2023] [Di Francesco et al 2014] [Di Francesco et al 2015] [Ding et al 2025] [Doff-Sotta et al 2022] [Donadel et al 2014] [Dong and Zhang 2020] [dos Santos et al 2021] [Doubrava et al 2024] [Ducard and Carughi 2024] [Dugan 1985] [Dugan et al 1980] [Dumond 1969] [Eberhard and Salbashian 2013] [Edenborough 1967] [Edenborough 1968] [Edwards and Conner 2003] [Edwards and Conner 2003] [Edwards et al 2001] [Eisenberg and Bowles 1986] [Eisenberg and Wait 2003] [El Gmili et al 2019] [En Chao 2013] [Erhart et al 1980] [Escamilla et al 2020] [Eskandarpour et al 2023] [Eskey et al 1984] [Falarski et al 1981] [Falarski et al 1982] [Fasching and Asmus 1965] [Fasching and Kutney 1964] [Fatemi 2024] [Faulkner 1974] [Faulkner and Swan 1976] [Favale et al 2021] [Fay 1963] [Fay 1964] [Fejtek and Roberts 1989] [Fischer et al 2026] [Ford 1999] [Ford CEng MRAes 1988] [Fraga and Liiva 1972] [Fraser et al 2018] [Fredericks et al 2015] [Fry 1965] [Gao et al 2024] [Gass et al 1986] [Gazdag and Alton 1990] [Gebril and Kamal 2023] [George 1996] [George et al 1989] [George et al 1992] [Ghiringhelli et al 1997] [Ghiringhelli et al 1999] [Gibs et al 1973] [Gill and Sauer 1983] [Gleiter 1985] [Gold and Walchli 1974] [Gonzalez-Berbel et al 2025] [Goodarzi et al 2025] [Goodson and Yaggy 1960] [Gotlieb et al 1976] [Gregory et al 2015] [Gress 2003] [Grima 2016] [Grima et al 2016] [Grosveld and Cabell 2011] [Grosveld et al 2013] [Grunwald 1965] [Guan and Xian 2025] [Guo et al 2025] [Gupta and Baeder 2005] [Gupta and Bryson 1972] [Halder and Gandhi 2026] [Hall and McClure 1989] [Ham and Whitaker 1978] [Hancer et al 2010] [Hardy 2002] [Hargraves 1961] [Harris 2003] [Harris 2017] [Hartmann et al 2017] [Hassanalian et al 2018] [Hawk and Stockman 1979] [He 2024] [He et al 2020] [He et al 2023] [He et al 2025] [He et al 2025] [Hegde 2020] [Hegde et al 2020] [Helicopter and Tiltrotor Flight 2018] [Hickey 1956] [Hill and Waters 1974] [Hill and Waters 1975] [Hiraoka et al] [Hirata and Miwa 2021] [Hirata and Miwa 2021] [Honaker 1987] [Tadghighi and Rajagopalan 1999] [Hosseini et al 2024] [Hou et al 2025] [Hou et al 2026] [Hou et al 2026] [Howard 2012] [Hrishikeshavan and Chopra 2012] [Hsu and Liu 2021] [Hu-Sheng Wu et al 2015] [Hua et al 2014] [Hua et al 2015] [Hua et al 2025] [Huang et al 2022] [Huang et al 2023] [Hunt et al 1977] [Huston et al 1989] [Hwang et al 2007] [Hwang et al 2024] [Ibrahim and Bil 2013] [Ibrahim et al 2026] [Imamura 2023] [Immersion and Invariance Adaptive 2026] [Invernizzi and Lovera 2017] [Iriarte et al 2021] [Ivler and Juhasz 2015] [Putnam and Littell] [Jamaluddin et al 2024] [Jensen and Pera 1977] [Jeong et al 2015] [Jeong et al 2025] [Horton et al] [Jia et al 2024] [Jin et al 2013] [Pei et al] [Kaneshige et al] [Johns et al 1979] [Johnson 2001] [Johnson 2001] [Johnson et al 1986] [Johnson et al 2002] [Jokar and Khoshnood 2026] [Juanxia et al 2022] [Judas and Deligiannidis 2013] [Jumper et al 1991] [Kai 2024] [Littell and Putnam] [Littell and Putnam] [Kahvecioglu and Alemdaroglu 2015] [Kaneda and Miwa 2020] [Kaneko and Martins 2023] [Kaneshige et al 2023] [Kaneshige et al 2024] [Kang et al 2008] [Kang et al 2013] [Kang et al 2014] [Kang et al 2014] [Kang et al 2019] [Kang et al 2023] [Kang et al 2024] [Kang et al 2025] [Katagiri et al 2025] [Katagiri et al 2025] [Keller et al 2024] [Keller et al 2026] [Kilmer 1988] [Kim and Choi 2016] [Kim and Chung 2006] [Kim and Jo 2025] [Kim et al 2007] [Kim et al 2020] [Kim et al 2025] [Kim et al 2026] [Kimball 1987] [Kirby et al 1963] [Kodera and Miwa 2017] [Kodera and Miwa 2017] [Kolesar et al 1970] [Kong and Lu 2018] [Kong et al 2025] [Kottapalli 1998] [Kottapalli and Kitaplioglu 2000] [Kutney 1964] [Lade and Guérin 2026] [Large scale static tests 1978] [Large scale wind tunnel 1972] [Lebrun et al 2015] [Lee and Baeder 2004] [Lee and Lee 2013] [Lee and Lee 2016] [Lee and Mosher 1979] [Lee et al 2018] [Lee et al 2018] [Lee et al 2022] [Leishman and Samsock 2007] [Leishman et al 2004] [Li et al 2023] [Li et al 2024] [Li et al 2024] [Liang et al 2025] [Liao and Song 2020] [Lichota 2023] [Liden 1980] [Lin et al 2024] [Lindqvist et al 2015] [Lira Sassett et al 2025] [Littell and Putnam 2023] [Littell et al 2026] [Litvin et al 2020] [Liu 1962] [Liu et al 2018] [Liu et al 2019] [Liu et al 2020] [Liu et al 2022] [Liu et al 2022] [Liu et al 2023] [Liu et al 2023] [Lockhart] [Longhurst 1966] [Lu et al 2017] [Lu et al 2019] [Lu et al 2021] [Ludowicy et al 2025] [Luo et al 2024] [Luo et al 2025] [Luo et al 2025] [Luo et al 2026] [Lyle et al 1997] [Lyu] [Ma et al 2022] [Ma et al 2025] [Ma et al 2027] [Maadani et al 2023] [Machini Malachias Marques et al 2020] [Magariyama and Abiko 2019] [Magee 1976] [Magee 1983] [Magee 1983] [Magee and Alexander 1973] [Magee and Alexander 1976] [Magee and Alexander 1976] [Magee and Wernicke 1979] [Maisel et al 2000] [Mancinelli et al 2025] [Marepally et al 2025] [Betzina and Nguyen 2003] [Marks 1957] [Marques] [Marr 1976] [Marr et al 1974] [Marr et al 1976] [Masarati et al 2004] [Masuda and Uchiyama 2018] [Masuda and Uchiyama 2019] [Matthys and Scroggs Jr. 1984] [Matuska et al 1994] [May et al 2022] [May et al 2026] [McCarthy and Chattopadhyay 1996] [McCluer et al 2001] [McCormick and Mallen 1956] [McCormick and Mallen 1957] [McDaniel et al 1983] [McHugh et al 1973] [Meakin 1996] [Mehra et al 2001] [Melo et al 2026] [Mercker et al 1999] [Radotich] [Radotich] [Migdal 1973] [Mikami and Uchiyama 2015] [Milz and Looye 2022] [Milz et al 2024] [Mimouni et al 2023] [Min et al 2026] [Misra et al 2022] [Mita et al 2021] [Model Predictive Control of 2004] [Monnier and Litherland 2026] [Moodie and Yeo 2012] [Moore 2010] [Morlok and Schoendorfer 1985] [Morris and Alexander 1978] [Muggli et al 1993] [Muraoka et al 2009] [Muraoka et al 2016] [Murphy and Landman 2015] [Murugan and Lm 2023] [Narducci et al 2009] [NASA/Army XV-15 tilt rotor 1975] [NASA/HAA Advanced Rotorcraft Technology 1980, NASA/HAA Advanced Rotorcraft Tech] [NASA/HAA Advanced Rotorcraft Technology 1980, NASA/HAA Advanced Rotorcraft Tech 2] [NASA/HAA Advanced Rotorcraft Technology 1980, NASA/HAA Advanced Rotorcraft Tech 3] [Newsom and Tosti 1959] [Nguyen et al 2023] [Nichols 1963] [Nie et al 2024] [Nikhilraj et al 2022] [Nixon et al 2001] [Notarstefano and Hauser 2010] [Novak 1975] [O’Heron et al 1992] [O’Rourke et al 1998] [Okan et al 1999] [Omar and Lampkin 1977] [Oosedo et al 2015] [Oosedo et al 2016] [Osa et al 2022] [Osa et al 2023] [Ouyang et al 2024] [Oyama et al 2024] [Pande 1999] [Panish et al 2023] [Panza et al 2016] [Papachristos et al 2014] [Park et al 2013] [Park et al 2017] [Patterson et al 2023] [Paw and Ang 2023] [Pegg 1962] [Pei and Roithmayr 2022] [Persson and Lawrence 2017] [Phillips 1969] [Porter et al 2016] [Potonides 1979] [Potsdam and Silva 2004] [Povarov 2021] [Pruynn and Shannon 1980] [Putman 1961] [Putnam and Littell 2020] [Putra et al 2025] [Qi and Wenhai 2014] [Qin et al 2024] [Qu et al 2024] [Quackenbush et al 1995] [Quigley and Franklin 1977] [Quigley and Koenig 1961] [Raeisi 2021] [Raghavan et al 1990] [Rais-Rohani 1993] [Rais-Rohani 1994] [Rais-Rohani 1994] [Rais-Rohani and Baker 1994] [Reber 1993] [Renselaer 1977] [Ro et al 2010] [Rogers and Reisdorfer 1993] [Roh et al 2026] [Roiati et al 2024] [Rollet 2001] [Rolls et al 1976] [Rosenstein and Clark 1986] [Rostami et al 2023] [Ruh et al 2023] [Russell and Acree 2018] [Rutherford and Bass 1992] [Rysdyk and Calise 1999] [Sahin et al 2016] [Sakai and Abiko 2018] [Sakai and Miwa 2014] [Sakai and Miwa 2016] [Samadikhoshkho and Lipsett 2025] [Sambell 1975] [Sambell 1976] [Sanchez et al 2019] [Sanchez-Rivera et al 2019] [Sanchez-Rivera et al 2020] [SantaMaria et al 1991] [Santos Martins Nunes and Su 2024] [Sato and Muraoka 2013] [Sato and Muraoka 2013] [Saunders et al 2026] [Sawron 2026] [Sawron 2026] [Schatzman and Malpica 2019] [Schenk et al 2026] 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Stability, control and flight dynamics

The rest of the control literature. Stability and control of aircraft, rotorcraft and multirotors, flight dynamics, lateral and directional motion, stability augmentation, guidance and flight control systems.

604 records. [3D Path-Following Control of 2017] [Abadi et al 2018] [Abdessameud and Janabi-Sharifi 2013] [Abdessameud and Janabi-Sharifi 2015] [Abdessameud and Tayebi 2013] [Abdessameud and Tayebi 2013] [Abdulhamitbilal 2016] [Abzug and Larrabee 2002] [Abzug and Larrabee] [Abzug and Larrabee] [Abzug and Larrabee] [Adolf and Moraes Carneiro 2009] [Ailon] [Ailon 2006] [Ailon 2009] [Aircraft moments of inertia 1996] [Aircraft Stability and Control 2003] [Aircraft Stability and Control 2014] [Aircraft Stability and Control 2024] [Aircraft Stability Derivatives 2002] [Airplane Stability and Control 1998] [Akturk and Camcı 2014] [Alharasees et al 2024] [Ali and Gueaieb 2010] [Ali et al 2024] [Allen et al 1989] [Ananthkrishnan 2004] [Ananthkrishnan and Sinha 2013] [Ananthkrishnan and Sinha 2023] [Andersen and Kristiansen 2020] [Anderson 1967] [Anderson and Innis 1965] [Anderson and Schroers 1972] [Ando and Kajita 1992] [Anthony and Habashi 2021] [Anthony et al 2018] [Appendix G Development of 2003] [Araar and Aouf 2014] [Ashraf and Van Kampen 2020] [Automatic Control of VTOL 1966] [Axten et al 2024] [Baker et al 1950] [Bakshi 2018] [BaniAsad et al 2024] [Barnwell and Boyd 1998] [Barwal et al 2025] [Baxter and Finvold 1958] [Bazhenov 2011] [Beattie 1975] [Beatty and Worthey 1984] [Bengtson et al 1975] [Benzaid et al 2016] [Bestaoui and Slim 2007] [Bhatkhande] [Bi et al 1989] [Biber 2006] [Binnie and Stengel 1978] [Bird 1970] [Bischoff and Palmer 1983] [Bivens 1985] [Bliamis et al 2021] [Blight et al 1986] [bo 2025] [Bodson and Athans 1985] [Boles et al 1984] [Bouldjedri 2018] [Bowman et al 2012] [Bramwell et al 2000] [Britt and Wheelock 1977] [Brown 1981] [Bruner 1983] [Budak et al 2023] [Calise and Kramer 1982] [Calise and Kramer 1984] [Campbell and Abramovitz 1975] [Campos et al 2021] [Capen 1971] [Carpenter 1970] [Carter 1969] [Carvalho] [Castaldi et al 2014] [Castiglione et al 2023] [Celi et al 2004] [Chambers 1971] [Chapter 6. Lateral-Directional Motions 2005] [Chapter 7. Coupled Longitudinal 2005] [Chen and Wang 2013] [Chen et al 2018] [Chen et al 2024] [Chu and Berman 2025] [Chuan et al 2016] [Chung and Son 2023] [Chung et al 2019] [Ciliberti and Nicolosi 2026] [Coelho et al 2017] [Connors and Swaim 1968] [Cook 1997] [Cook 1997] [Cook 2007] [Cook 2007] [Cook 2013] [Cook 2013] [Cook 2021] [Cook and Hickey 1967] [Cornish 1964] [Cornish 1965] [Cortez et al 2026] [Costandin et al 2018] [Costello 2009] [Coupled Longitudinal and Lateral-Directional 2015] [Craig and Paley 2017] [Craig et al 2019] [Crandall et al 1973] [Cristobal 2024] [Cunha et al 2009] [Cunha Junior et al 2011] [Cunningham 1976] [Curran and Levine 1979] [Curtiss 1965] [Curtiss 1969] [Curtiss 1970] [Czyba and Kronhof 2020] [Dagal and Erol 2025] [Danek 2002] [Dang and Dao 2024] [Davis et al 1977] [Davis et al 1985] [De Paula Vera and Rozenfeld Henrique 2015] [de Plinval et al 2013] [Dena Ruiz and Aouf 2017] [Dendy and Tribken 1968] [Development of Longitudinal and 2014] [Development of Longitudinal and 2024] [Di Carlo et al 1968] [Dicarlo et al 1966] [Digital Engine Control for 1982] [Dinca and Corcau 2024] [Dixon 1969] [Do 2014] [Do and Paxman 2013] [Do et al] [Donlan 1976] [Donlan 1976] [Donlan and Letko 1976] [Doran et al 2025] [dos Santos et al 2013] [Driggers et al 1982] [Driver and Spearman 1961] [Du et al 2025] [Dugan 2014] [Dukes 1970] [Duru et al 2023] [Duyar et al 1995] [Dynamic Stability and Control] [Dzaba and Schuster 2013] [Elliott and Chopra 1987] [Hill et al] [Emami and Rezaeizadeh 2018] [Emerson et al 2023] [Enenakpogbe et al 2022] [Enenakpogbe et al 2024] [Enenakpogbe et al 2024] [Englar 1975] [Englar et al 1984] [Enns 1990] [Enns 2003] [Erginer and Altug 2007] [Erzberger and McLean 1979] [Escareno et al 2006] [Faessler et al 2017] [Falconi et al 2013] [Fang 2025] [Feedback Stability Augmentation 2023] [Feistel et al 1969] [Feng et al 2025] [Fleming et al 2003] [Foster et al 1991] [Franke and Hafer 1963] [Franklin 1986] [Franklin and Anderson 1984] 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2024] [Heckmeier et al 2025] [Hedjar 2015] [Hegarty et al 1965] [Heidarian and Memon 2012] [Helicopter Flight Dynamics 2007] [Helicopter Flight Dynamics 2018] [Henderson and Walters 1981] [Hendrick 1977] [Henningsen and Ravn 1992] [Henningsen and Ravn 1993] [Herrera et al 2017] [Hgo and Ly 1995] [Hickey and Maki 1960] [Hickey et al 1966] [Hiller Aircraft Corp Palo Alto Ca 1965] [Hindson et al 1986] [Hoffman 1970] [Hoffmann et al 2008] [Hollister 1970] [Hoshu et al 2019] [Houghton et al 2022] [Howard 1966] [Hu 2025] [Hu and Wereley 2005] [Huber and Holdridge 1979] [Hurt and Wereley 1996] [Hwang 1983] [Hwang 1984] [Ignatkin et al 2020] [Ilhan and Karakose 2013] [Internal Model Control Tuned 2020] [Invernizzi et al 2018] [Iwata and Rock 1993] [Cook and Gregory] [Jang et al 1994] [Jenkins 1973] [Jin et al 2026] [Jing Yu et al 2016] [Joglekar 1969] [Johnson 1946] [Johnston 1964] [Johnston 1965] [Sachs-Wetstone et al 2024] [Jothiraj et al 2019] [Junior and Santos 2023] [k.AL-Taie and S.Salah 2009] [Kalemaris 1983] [Kamman and Hall 1978] [Kanneganti et al 2022] [Kaplan 1959] [Kaufman and Schultz 1963] [Kayacan and Maslim 2017] [Keller 1969] [Kelly et al 1973] [Kelly et al 1979] [Kidd 1988] [Kiel 1931] [Kim 2023] [Kim et al 2023] [Kinematics and Flight Dynamics 2007] [Kirk et al 1971] [Komerath et al 1985] [Kong et al 2026] [Korr and Hyer 1962] [Kotaru et al 2018] [Koziol 2013] [Kuhn 1960] [Kumar and Behera 2024] [Kunz et al 2024] [Kuyumcu and Bayezit 2017] [Lampton and Valasek 2006] [Lampton and Valasek 2012] [Lan 1986] [Landis and Glusman 1985] [Landis and Glusman 1985] [Laskowitz 1961] [Lateral Directional Fractional Order 2012] [Lateral-Directional Dynamic Modes 2016] [Lateral-Directional Dynamics 1998] [Lateral-Directional Motion 2016] [Lateral-Directional Motions 2015] [Le Bras et al 2007] [Lee and Kim 2024] [Lee et al 2006] [Lee et al 2012] [Lee et al 2024] [Lee et al 2025] [Lepicovsky 2008] [Li et al 2020] [Li et al 2022] [Li et al 2022] [Li et al 2026] [Liao et al 2010] [Liew et al 2024] [Lim and Moerder 2007] [Lim et al 2004] [Lin et al 2024] [Linh et al 2023] [Liu 2017] [Liu 2021] [Liu and Chen 2013] [Liu and Luo 2017] [Liu and Tan 2024] [Liu and Yang 2020] [Liu and Yang 2021] [Livneh 1995] [Lombaerts et al 2020] [Loscutoff et al 1973] [Lu et al 2016] [Lyshevski and Smith 2023] [Magee and Pruyn 1970] [Manzoor et al 2020] [Margason 1970] [Marr 1970] [Martin 2025] [Martinez-Vasquez et al 2020] [McCarley and Lindak 2016] [McInville and Moore 1994] [McJones 1953] [McLean and Naseem 1977] [McMuldroch 1979] [McMuldroch et al 1979] [Meenakshi and Bhat 2016] [Mejari et al 2013] [Mello and Kotansky 1985] [Merrick 1977] [Metcalf 1936] [Meyer-Oehme et al 2023] [Milenković-Babić et al 2017] [Miller et al 1981] [Mitchell 1979] [Model reference adaptive control 1993] [Modelling Helicopter Flight Dynamics 2018, Modelling Helicopter Flight Dynam 2] [Moeini et al 2021] [Moeini et al 2024] [Mohammed 2007] [Mooij 1985] [Morino 1990] [Morris 1962] [Mubdir and Prempain 2024] [Mueller 1964] [Mueller 1965] [Mukherjee and Waslander 2012] [Murali et al 2019] [Murphy and Haskins 1982] [Musa et al 2015] [Musa et al 2026] [Nagabhushan and Lutze 1983] [Nagabhushan and Tomlinson 1982] [Nagabhushan et al 1981] [Naldi et al 2013] [Napolitano and Kincheloe 1996] [Brown et al] [Nelson et al 1999] [Neumark 1950] [Nguyen and Webb 2025] [Nguyen and Xiong 2026] [Nguyen and Webb] [Nguyen and Xiong] [Ni et al 2025] [Nichols and Englar 1980] [Nichols and Englar 1981] [Nielsen] [Niessen 1971] [Nishimura 1980] [Niven 1977] [Niwa and Sugiura 1987] [Niwa et al 1989] [Noboni and Das 2025] [Noboni et al 2025] [Norton 2002] [Nunez Garcia et al 2026] [O’Hara] [Obradovic and Subbarao 2011] [Ogburn et al 1988] [Oktay and Eraslan 2023] [Osa et al] [Pakmehr et al 2011] [Panchal et al 2024] [Panchal et al 2025] [Parlett 1961] [Paula et al 2020] [Pauli 1964] [Pauli 1965] [Pauli 1971] [Pauli et al 1970] [Paulk and Phatak 1984] [Pelletier and Giroux 2000] [Pepper and Foster 1947] [Perkins 1969] [Perkins 1970] [Suh et al] [Peterson 2024] [Petrov 1993] [Pflimlin et al 2006] [Pflimlin et al 2007] [Pflüger et al 2026] [Phatak and Karmali 1983] [Pinder 2008] [Pipatpaibul 2021] [Platzer and Margason 1976] [Poojari 2022] [Popov et al 2024] [Qian et al 2024] [Quad Rotor Helicopter Control 2014] [Quad-rotors Unmanned Aerial Vehicle 2019] [Quintana et al 2023] [Raghavan and Ananthkrishnan 2005] [Rakgowa et al 2015] [Randall et al 2011] [Raza] [Reid 1976] [Reid 1976] [Reid 1982] [Ricardo and Santos 2023] [Riccardi and Lovera 2014] [Kuhn and McKinney 1965] [Rising et al 1984] [Roberts and Anderson 1981] [Roberts and Imlay 1992] [Roberts and Tayebi 2011] [Robinson and Spearman 1961] [Roiati et al 2022] [Rotary Wing Aerodynamics 2022] [Roth et al 1980] [Rotor Aerodynamic Modeling 2018] [Rotor Aerodynamics in Forward 2011] [Roy 2009] [Roy and Ghosh 2010] [Roysdon and Khalid 2010] [Ruangwiset 2019] [Rupprecht et al 2024] [Russell 1996] [Sadraey 2020] [Sadraey 2022] 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Propeller and wing interference and the slipstream

The interference the tandem wing lived in. Propeller and wing interaction, the slipstream and its effect on lift, drag, stability and the boundary layer, deflected-slipstream and propeller-blown wings, and the installation of propellers on wings and nacelles. 166 titles name the slipstream and 25 distributed propulsion, the second being the modern form of a wing immersed in several propeller slipstreams at once.

567 records. 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Wing-Tail Plane 1957] [Chapter 3. 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Sizing and configuration design of vertical take-off aircraft

The aircraft as a design problem. Conceptual and preliminary design, sizing, configuration selection, weight and performance of vertical take-off, short take-off and electric aircraft, and design optimisation.

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Tandem wings, canards, downwash and trim

The longitudinal layout. Tandem wings, canards, biplanes and joined wings, the interference between lifting surfaces in line, downwash at the aft surface, trim and its drag, and induced drag. 188 titles name the canard and 83 the tandem arrangement, which is the review’s observation that the subject arrives mostly under the word canard.

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[Abbasi Hoseini and Masdari 2004] [Abdel-Motaleb et al 2019] [Abed et al 2024] [Abzug and Larrabee] [Aerodynamics of arbitrary wing 1976] [Agrell and Elmeland 1984] [Agrell and Elmeland 1985] [Aidala 1985] [Alba-Maestre et al 2021] [Ali et al 2012] [Ali et al 2012] [Aliaga et al 2022] [Anderson 1986] [Anderson and Feistel 1985] [Anderson et al 2021] [Andrews and Perez 2015] [Antonakis and Biannic 2024] [Anwar 2025] [Aoki and Muraoka 2019] [Arbuckle and Sliwa 1983] [Arbuckle and Sliwa 1985] [Assoc Prof. Dr Hoang Thi Kim Dung et al 2025] [Axelson and Hill 1981] [Bagai and Leishman 1995] [Bagai and Leishman 1996] [Baigang 2024] [Bandyopadhyay 1989] [Bandyopadhyay 1991] [Basic Aerodynamics of Lifting 2023] [Bass and Rutherford 1993] [Bass et al 1993] [Bass et al 1995] [Bellavia et al 1991] [Bergmann and Hummel 2001] [Berry 1988] [Bhandari et al 2026] [Biggers et al 1966] [Blair et al 2008] [Blind et al 2024] [Boisseau and Paulson 1956] [Borisova and Silant’ev 2020] [Borisova and Silantiev 2022] [Borri and Trainelli 2003] [Bourdin 2002] [Boyden 1978] [Bridges 2005] [Brincklow and Hunsaker 2020] [Broering and Lian 2010] [Brown 2020] [Brown and Timmerman 1991] [Buell and Tinling 1959] [Busan et al 2021] [Butler 1983] [Cai et al 2025] [Calarese 1984] [Cannon and Scallion 1959] [Capone et al 1962] [Capone et al 1962] [Carlson and Miller 2002] [Chambers and Yip 1984] [Chambers et al 1984] [Chapin et al 2008] [Chen and Katz 2004] [Chen et al 2019] [Chen et al 2023] [Child and Henderson 1978] [Clyde et al 1984] [Craig and McLean 1988] [Craig et al 1991] [Crowe 1935] [Cusher and Gopalarathnam 2008] [Cusher and Gopalarathnam 2014] [Dalwadi et al 2023] [Dalwadi et al 2023] [Dalwadi et al 2023] [Das and Longo 1995] [Davari et al 2014] [Dawkins and DeVries 2018] [de Silva and Carmichael 1978] [Silva and Carmichael 1978] [Dehaan 1990] [Dehart et al 1983] [Deiler and Sachs 2026] [Deng and Mi 2019] [Design and Optimization Study 2005] [Dickinson et al 1971] [Dixon 1989] [Dollyhigh 1970] [Dong et al 2014] [Dong et al 2019] [Driver 1958] [Duman and Demirci 2026] [Durston and Schreiner 1983] [Eberle and Fowler 1971] [Eppler 1997] [Er-El 1983] [Er-El and Seginer 1985] [Erickson et al 1990] [Erwin et al 1964] [Eugene 1996] [Fawcett et al 1992] [Federico and Russo 2008] [Feistel 1985] [Feng et al 2026] [Figat 2018] [Figat 2022] [Figat and Kwiek 2023] [Finkleman 1971] [Finkleman 1972] [Fournier 1961] [Fournis and Gaultier 2026] [Frediani et al 2001] [Freeman and Newsom 1966] [Fries 1996] [Gai et al 2014] [Gainer 1961] [Gandla et al 2022] [Gao et al 2019] [Gao et al 2019] [Gao et al 2022] [Garmendia and Mavris 2014] [Gebhard 1953] [Gelhausen and Wilson 1986] [Gloss 1974] [Gloss 1975] [Gloss et al 1974] [Goland 1955] [Goland 1956] [Goodrich and Sliwa 1987] [Goodrich et al 1989] [Gordon 1990] [Govdeli et al 2019] [Granata et al 2026] [Greene 1988] [Greene 1989] [Griffin 1983] [Griffin and Jonas 1983] [Guiler] [Gupta 2023] [Gupta et al 2023] [Hayama et al 2021] [Helicopter Trim or Equilibrium 2014] [Helwani et al 2001] [Henderson 1974] [Henderson and Holmes 1989] [Henderson and Huffman 1975] [Honda et al 2023] [Howard and Kersh 1991] [Howard and O’Leary 1993] [Howard and O’Leary 1994] [Huffman 1975] [Huijts and Voskuijl 2015] [Hummel and Oelker 1994] [Hyun et al 2023] [Ichikawa and Matsuda 1997] [Ignatyev and Khrabrov 2011] [Inada and Li 2024] [Induced Drag Effect on 1976] [Ingram et al 1986] [Jacobs 1981] [Jacobs 1982] [Jacobs 1983] [Jacobs et al 2012] [Janus et al 1993] [Jenkins and Meyer 1975] [Jones et al 2015] [Jordan 1973] [Kandil and Mook 1977] [Kandil et al 1980] [Kania and Figat 2025] [Kasten 1986] [Kehayas 2021] [Kehoe et al 1990] [Keith and Selberg 1984] [Keith and Selberg 1985] [Kendall 1978] [Kendall 1984] [Kendall 1985] [Kim and Lee 2007] [Klein 1999] [Klein et al 1982] [Ko et al 2024] [Kocherla and Yu 2019] [Komarov and Zinchenko 2023] [Kong et al 2004] [Kostić et al 2022] [Kravchenko 1995] [Kryvokhatko 2023] [Kryvokhatko 2023] [Kryvokhatko 2023] [Kryvokhatko 2024] [Kryvokhatko 2024] [Kryvokhatko 2025] [Kuntjoro et al 2015] [Kunwar et al 2024] [Kusunose 2004] [Kusunose and Crowder 2001] [Kuzmina et al 2004] [Lacey 1979] [Laitone 1980] [Lamar 1976] [Lamar 1976] [Lamar 1977] [Lamar and Hodges 1995] [Landfield and Rajkovic 1984] [Landfield and Rajkovic 1986] [Larrabee 1975] [Levin 1997] [Leyser 1996] [Li] [Lifting Surfaces 1977] [Lijewski 1987] [Lijewski 1988] [Liu et al 2008] [Lockwood Taylor 1942] [Lombardi and Mengali 1997] [Lombardi and Morelli 1994] [Lombardi and Vicini 1994] [Longo and Das 1990] [Loth and Boyle 1969] [Lottati 1984] [Loubimov and Kinzel 2021] [Lu and Lu 1997] [Lundry 1967] [Lyapunov 1993] [Keith and Selberg 1983] [Ma et al 2004] [Ma et al 2017] [Mahadev et al 2024] [Malfa et al 1991] [Malpica 2017] [Malpica 2017] [Mark and Dehart 1976] [Martins et al 2024] [Mason 1982] [May et al 2023] [May et al 2024] [McBreen et al 2023] [McCutchen 1989] [McGeer and Kroo 1983] [McKinney and Newsom 1962] [McKlNNEY and DOLLYHlGH 1971] [Mele et al 2015] [Menees and Boyd 1959] [Milz et al 2024] [Milz et al 2025] [Milz et al 2026] [Milz et al 2026] [Miner and Gloss 1975] [Mitchell and Vogel 2003] [Modelling Helicopter Flight Dynamics 2007, Modelling Helicopter Flight Dynam 2] [Modelling Helicopter Flight Dynamics 2018, Modelling Helicopter Flight Dynam] [Mohd. Nasir 2026] [Morishita 2016] [Mortara and Maughmer 1993] [Nasir and Kuntjoro 2013] [Nasir et al 2012] [Nasir et al 2012] [Nasir et al 2014] [Nasuhbeyoglu and Akça 2024] [Nathman 2005] [Newsom 1963] [Nicholas et al 1984] [Nixon 2003] [Oelker and Hummel 1989] [Okulski and Ławryńczuk 2022] [Osder] [Ossyra et al 2025] [Ott et al 2026] [Panayotov et al 2017] [Pandya and Aftosmis 2001] [Pate 2013] [Paulson et al 1979] [Peigin and Epstein 2007] [Peng et al 2015] [Pfeiffer 1988] [Pham 2026] [Phillips and Snyder 2000] [Phillips et al 2019] [Pierson and Unger 1982] [Poggi et al 2024] [Pomeroy and Visser 2010] [Posada and Loth 2007] [Pradeep and Wei 2018] [Re and Capone 1977] [Re and Capone 1978] [Ren and Zha 2025] [Research of WING Dihedral 2013] [Research on Combination of 2019] [Reubush 1977] [Revell 1975] [Riccius 1984] [Rizzi et al 2010] [Rom et al 1989] [Roskam 1975] [Rotor Performance Optimization of 2008] [Rudresh et al 2024] [Rutherford et al 1993] [Sagan et al 2021] [Sagan et al 2025] [Sajjad et al 2021] [Sanders 1965] [Santos 1994] [Satrianto and Firmanto 2023] [Schirra et al 2014] [Schirra et al 2021] [Schmidt and Duren 2002] [Scott 2022] [Sears 1974] [Secchi and Mestriner 2026] [Seckel 1964] [Seckel and Graziani 1956] [Seginer and Wasserstrom 1983] [Seibel 1963] [Selberg 1983] [Selberg and Rokhsaz 1985] [Seraj and Martins 2023] [Seraj and Martins 2025] [Shah and Ahmed 2023] [Shah and Ahmed 2024] [Shahjahan and Ahuja 2026] [Shankar and Goebel 1983] [Shankar and Goebel 1985] [Shankar and Malmuth 1982] [Shankar and Malmuth 1983] [Shankar et al 1979] [Shankar et al 1981] [Shinozuka et al 2024] [Sigal 1999] [Sigal 2000] [Sigal et al 1997] [Simpkin 1982] [Sirbaugh 1983] [Sleeman 1957] [Smeltzer et al 1983] [Smith and Kroo 1990] [Spallino and Rizzo] [Spencer 1961] [Stengel et al 1977] [Geuther et al 2020] [Sears 1990] [Stewart 1981] [Stewart 1985] [Stewart and Paulson 1984] [Stoll and Koenig 1983] [Stone 2002] [Streit et al 2010] [Su et al 2026] [Summey and Smetana 1977] [Syrovy and Yassini 2005] [Tengfei Guo et al 2011] [The Boeing Canard rotor/wing 2004] [The Farman Biplane 1909] [The Voisin “Canard” Biplane 1911] [Thomas et al 1977] [Thompson 1992] [Thompson 2022] [Transition aerodynamics for close-coupled 1979] [Traub 2024] [Trim and Longitudinal Static 2017] [Trim Drag and Maneuvering 2010] [Tu] [Tu 1991] [Tu 1992] [Tu 1992] [Tu 1992] [Tu 1994] [Tu 1994] [Tu 1996] [Tu and VanDalsem 1996] [Tu et al 1993] [Tuncer and Platzer 1996] [Tuncer and Platzer 1998] [Ueno et al 2010] [Ulrich et al 2001] [Valenti and Yukish 2020] [Van Tuyl 1959] [Varun and Dwivedi 2022] [Vinogradov et al 2011] [Vogler 1970] [Wang et al 2019] [Wang et al 2020] [Warzecha and Horng 1992] [Watanabe and Muraoka 2026] [Wei et al 2019] [Weihs and Katz 1986] [Wen et al 2022] [Wendong Gai et al 2011] [Whiting 1996] [Wibowo et al 2019] [Williams and Ybarra 1981] [Wolkovitch 1979] [Wolkovitch 1984] [Wolkovitch 1985] [Wolkovitch and Fortenbaugh 1978] [Wolkovitch and Hoffman 1971] [Wu et al 2025] [Xiang et al 2025] [Yangping and Honggang 2018] [Yen et al 1981] [Yeo et al 2016] [Yi et al 2027] [Yip 1985] [Yip and Coy 1982] [Yip and Paulson 1977] [Yutuk et al 2021] [Yılmaz and German 2024] [Zafirov 2013] [Zala and Greenwood 2026] [Zeiler and Weisshaar 1986] [Zhang and Yu 2012] [Zhang and Yuan 2019] [Zhang et al 2013] [Zhang et al 2023] [Zhang et al 2024] [Zhou and Chen 2014] [Zhu et al 2025] [Zola et al 1984] [Zurriati et al 2011]

Transmissions, gears and the drive system

The drive the electric aircraft deleted. Helicopter and tilt-rotor transmissions, spiral bevel, planetary and split-torque gearing, bearings, lubrication, gear fatigue and fault diagnosis, and the shafting of multi-engine vertical take-off aircraft. 179 of its 356 titles name a helicopter or rotorcraft and 27 name split-torque gearing.

356 records. [A carnot theorem for 1968] [Alcedo 1980] [Alpman et al 2003] [Amri et al 2021] [Analog nueral network-based helicopter 1997] [Anderson and Loewenthal 1983] [Anderson and Wagner 1989] [Anderson et al 1984] [Anderson et al 1985] [Auclair and Seminski 1971] [August et al 1984] [Aydoğan et al 2023] [Badgley and Laskin 1970] [Bandoh and Niwa 1998] [Battezzato and Pias 1989] [Battles 1975] [Battles 1979] [Bechhoefer et al 2009] [Bechhoefer et al 2010] [Becker] [Belben 2016] [Bellocq et al 2015] [Bhaumik et al 2007] [Bill 1990] [Bill 1992] [Binney et al 2021] [Blachowski and Ostrowski 2001] [Bloch and Schneider 1960] [Bloomfield 1959] [Bolander et al 2010] [Bossler and Heath 1991] [Bossler and Heath 1992] [Bossler et al 1978] [Bowen 1967] [Bowen 1970] [Bowen and Walker 1972] [Bowen et al 1969] [Braddock 1982] [Braddock and Battles 1983] [Brennan et al 1994] [Brennan et al 1998] [Burger and Hartfield 2007] [Burroughs and Lastine 1965] [Bělík 2022] [Cai et al 2024] [Robb et al] [Cass and Echols 2003] [Chaiko 1990] [Chase 1973] [Chen 1991] [Chen and Bossler 1995] [Cheng et al 2020] [Choy and Qian 1993] [Choy et al 1988] [Choy et al 1997] [Coe 1989] [Cormier 1979] [Coy 1987] [Coy and Bill 1988] [Coy et al 1984] [Coy et al 1987] [Coy et al 1988] [Coy et al 1988] [Coy et al 1988] [Daniel 1964] [Darlow and Creonte 1995] [Das 2011] [Dawson 1982] [Dean 1979] [Deazley 1964] [Delgado and Hurrell 2017] [Dellomo 1999] [Deming 1940] [Dempsey et al 2003] [Dempsey et al 2004] [Dempsey et al 2007] [Dempsey et al 2008] [Dempsey et al 2009] [Dent et al 1970] [DeSmidt et al 2012] [Ding 2011] [Ding and Jin 2026] [Ding et al 2025] [Dong et al 2020] [Dong et al 2021] [Douglas 1991] [Drago and Lenski 1982] [Drago and Lenski 1990] [Duan et al 2016] [Duan et al 2016] [Duan et al 2017] [Dubrow et al 1992] [Dudnik 2024] [Dutton 1967] [Ehinger and Kilmain 2007] [El-Sayed 2016] [Elasha et al 2015] [Elasha et al 2017] [Litvin et al 1990] [Face Gear Technology for 2005] [Fagan 1967] [Fagan 1973] [Farides 2025] [Faruque 2014] [Figge et al 1974] [Filler et al 2002] [Fischer 1983] [Folenta 1983] [Folenta 1986] [Folenta 1986] [Folenta and Lebo 1988] [Fournis et al 2026] [Chandrasekaran and Krishnan 2025] [Gaudette 1980] [Gilman 1944] [Gmirya and Vinayak 2003] [Goi et al 1999] [Goldring 1977] [Goodall 1977] [Gouda et al 2014] [Grana 1985] [Gregoire 2023] [Gu and Chu 2014] [Guerrero and Corliss 1991] [Guerrero and Corliss 1991] [Guglieri 2001] [Guida 2023] [Guo and Horn 2009] [Guo et al 2011] [Haidar et al 2021] [Haiwei et al 2013] [Hall et al 2024] [Han et al 2014] [Han et al 2026] [Hanachi 1990] [Handschuh and Rohn 1988] [Handschuh and Rohn 1989] [Handschuh et al 2009] [Handschuh et al 2010] [Harding and Mack 1970] [Harmon 1941] [Hartman 1934] [Hassan et al 2016] [Hawkins 1999] [Hayden and Keller 1973] [Hayden and Keller 1974] [He and Lu 2011] [He et al 2025] [He et al 2026] [Heath and Bossler 1993] [Heath et al 2002] [Henry 1990] [Henry 1992] [Henry 1995] [Hetherington et al 1990] [Hoffmann et al 2006] [Hofmeister et al 2018] [Houser and Bassett 1985] [Huang et al 2014] [Hudson 1977] [Hudson and Gee 1977] [Hutchinson 2019] [Jacob Boby and Raj Kumar 2016] [Jacobson et al 1985] [Jambunathan and Murthy 1993] [Jin et al 2023] [Johnson 1990] [Kahraman and Singh 1990] [Kaul and Huff 2002] [Kazlas et al] [Kelley et al 1984] [Kiddy et al 2011] [Krantz 1994] [Krantz 1994] [Krantz and Handschuh 1990] [Krstic et al 2016] [LaBerge et al 2016] [Laberge et al 2017] [Lafever 1984] [Laskin et al 1968] [Le Hen et al 2005] [Leishman 1966] [Lemanski 1976] [Lenski and Valco 1991] [Lewicki 1990] [Lewicki and Coy 1987] [Lewicki and Townsend 1989] [Lewicki et al 1992] [Lewicki et al 1992] [Lewicki et al 1992] [Lewicki et al 1993] [Lewicki et al 2015] [Li et al 2024] [Liao et al 2011] [Lin et al 1987] [Lin et al 1989] [Litvin and Coy 1983] [Litvin et al 1982] [Litvin et al 1983] [Litvin et al 1992] [Litvin et al 1992] [Litvin et al 1996] [Litvin et al 2005] [Litvin et al 2005] [Liu et al 2026] [Logan 1976] [Luculescu 2021] [Luo et al 2026] [Ly 2011] [Mack 1965] [Mahapatra et al 2001] [Maier et al 1998] [Mallikarjuna et al 2020] [Mancini 1983] [Marjadi et al 2020] [Marjadi et al 2021] [Mark 1987] [Mark 1987] [Materials for helicopter gears 1979] [Meheut 2013] [Mermoz et al 2011] [Miller et al 1990] [Misté and Benini 2012] [Misté and Benini 2016] [Mitchell 1991] [Mitchell and Coy 1982] [Mitchell et al 1986] [Mitchell et al 1986] [Mixson et al 1979] [Moellmann and O’Connor 1967] [Molland and Turnock 2002] [Monsen et al] [Monsen et al 1995] [Munter 1954] [Nacib et al 2024] [Naskar 2012] [Nasvytis and White 1983] [Nguyen et al 2002] [Ohgawara et al 2020] [Onishi and Oyama 2026] [Ortamevzi 2023] [Oswald 2001] [Oswald 2002] [Overfield and Crawford 1967] [Padula and Block 1984] [Panontin 1993] [Park and Schlaich 2019] [Phillips and Niewoehner 2006] [Podlaski et al 2023] [Prause et al 1967] [Radzevich 2018] [Rahman .A and Basha .A. M 2007] [Rashidi and Krantz 1992] [Reader 1980] [Reis 1976] [Reis et al 1977] [Rodriguez et al 2014] [Saidi and Bechhoefer 2026] [Saidi et al 2025] [Samuel and Pines 1999] [Samuel and Pines 2001] [Saraçyakupoğlu 2020] [Savage and Brikmanis 1986] [Savage and Lewicki 1991] [Savage et al 1982] [Savage et al 1996] [Sawalhi and Randall] [Schairer 1944] [Schmidt 2026] [Schwartz and Jones 2000] [Segade-Robleda et al 2012] [Sellers et al 1977] [Shankin et al 2013] [Shen et al 2016] [Shi et al 2014] [Silva-Martinez et al 2015] [Solid lubricant for helicopter 1968] [Spencer et al 1991] [Stevens et al 2012] [Stevens et al 2014] [Stevens et al 2015] [Stevens et al 2018] [Strom and Ludwig 1975] [Sulkoske et al 1977] [Sun and Yuan 1994] [Szefi et al 2003] [Szefi et al 2004] [Theys and De Schutter 2021] [Tho and Wang 2009] [Toms and Cassidy 2008] [Toraason and Broman 1984] [Townsend 1986] [Townsend 1997] [Townsend and Akin 1983] [Townsend et al 1976] [Tracy and Chopra 1993] [Tronconi et al 2025] [Trustee 1976] [Tryon et al 2009] [Tucker and Dempsey 2016] [Turulin 2025] [Two-Speed Propeller Reduction Gear] [Unruh 1989] [Unruh 1990] [Uppoor and Chopra 2026] [Vahabzadeh and Linzell 1991] [Vaicaitis 1979] [van Gerwen et al 2007] [Vilán Vilán et al 2010] [Vranish 2003] [Vranish 2007] [Vranish 2009] [Wang and Li 2020] [Wang et al 1998] [Wang et al 1999] [Wang et al 2018] [Wang et al 2020] [Wang et al 2024] [Ward 1970] [Warsett 1953] [Watson 1949] [Wattananaphakaseam et al 2021] [Wei et al 2025] [Weller and Warmbrodt 1983] [Wenyi Wang] [Whelchel et al 2022] [White 1982] [White 1983] [White 1983] [White 1985] [White 1998] [Willis 1980] [Willis 1981] [Xiang et al 2026] [Xu et al] [Yang 2008] [Yang et al 2024] [Yang et al 2024] [Yi et al 2026] [Yin et al 2011] [Yu et al 2025] [Yuan and Cai 2017] [Zachary and Stapper 1998] [Zamponi et al 2011] [Zaretsky 1983] [Zaretsky et al 1979] [Zaretsky et al 1979] [Zaretsky et al 1983] [Zaretsky et al 1984] [Zhang 2010] [Zhang et al 2010] [Zhao et al 2017] [Zhao et al 2025] [Zheng et al 2026] [Zhou et al 2019] [Zhu et al 2026]

Computational methods, wind tunnel testing and flight test

The methods that replaced the hand estimate. Computational aerodynamics, wind tunnel testing and its technique, flight test, system identification, and the measurement of aircraft and rotor characteristics.

345 records. [Jacob da Motta 2020] [Abdessameud and Tayebi 2010] [Abdessameud and Tayebi 2010] [Aerodynamic Forces and Moments 2019] [Air Force Flight Test Center Edwards Afb Ca 1974] [Air Force Flight Test Center Edwards Afb Ca 1974] [Akturk and Camci 2011] [Akturk and Camci 2011] [Akturk and Camci 2011] [Akturk and Camci 2013] [Alexander 2024] [Allen et al 1945] [Ammer and Kutney 1977] [Aoyagi 1979] [Aoyagi et al 1961] [Arent and Falatko 1992] [Army Aviation Board Fort Rucker Al 1964] [Army Materiel Command Alexandria Va 1974] [Army War Coll Carlisle Barracks Pa 2006] [Arnold 1968] [Atte and Rauleder 2026] [Atzhorn and Stengel 1981] [Avco Lycoming Div Stratford Ct 1970] [Bach and McNally 1988] [Bach and McNally 1989] [Baker et al 1980] [Barberie et al 2013] [Barbosa et al 2022] [Becker and Frounfelker 1992] [Simmons et al] [Simmons] [Simmons] [Simmons 2023] [Berenger et al 1996] [Bhattarai et al 2026] [Bigler 1986] [Binion 1970] [Binion 1975] [Bobula et al 2019] [Boschetti et al 2010] [Bouffard 2012] [Bowden and Shockey 1970] [Brand et al 1986] [Brand et al 1989] [Briassulis and Andreopoulos 1991] [Brown et al 2007] [Burstadt and Johns 1983] [Callan 2012] [Campbell and Quinn 1973] [Russell and Conley] [Catană et al 2022] [Chambers and Kirby 1966] [Charla et al 2024] [Chebbi and Briere 2021] [Chen 1982] [Chen et al 2023] [Chowdhary and Lorenz 2005] [Churchill and Harrington 1959] [Clough et al 1971] [Coleman 1997] [Colman et al 2011] [Cook and Hickey 1965] [Cotton 1974] [Cowgill 1957] [Crispin 1982] [Curtiss et al 1961] [Czarnecki and Donlan 1976] [Danis] [Dantsker et al 2018] [De Divitiis 2003] [Zahn et al 2024] [Davis 1987] [Davis and Mertens 1958] [de Garcia and Perisho 1962] [Dehghan Manshadi and Saghafi 2021] [Deng and Mi 2025] [Deore and Coder 2024] [Deore et al 2023] [Desai et al 2009] [Design, Development, and Open-Loop 2013] [Desopper 1985] [Diedrich 1971] [Diedrich 1975] [Ding et al 2025] [Dong et al 2014] [Dooley and Yeary 1979] [Dos Santos et al 2024] [Downing and Bryant 1979] [Drinkwater and Rolls 1963] [Duran 2026] [Duyar et al 1992] [Dybvad 1973] [Dynamic Lateral-Directional Stability Theory 2003] [Ellerbroek et al 2007] [ERC V/STOL program flight 1968] [Erhard and Alonso 2024] [Eulrich and Mesiah 1974] [Experimental Development and Evaluation 2006] [Experimental development of an 1981] [Falarski 1979] [Fay and Johnstone 1960] [Feistel and Morelli 1980] [Fenwick 1966] [Ferrand et al 2020] [Ferrier et al 2025] [Figueira et al 2025] [Flight test of a 1979] [Flight Tests of Multirotor 2017] [Fosdick 1970] [Freeman and Aboelezz 2026] [Fuchs et al 2018] [Garland 1980] [Garland and Harris 1980] [Asper and Simmons 2022] [Garrow and Kim 2024] [Gerdes 1981] [Golovkin et al 2018] [Gopejenko et al 2026] [Goud and Dwivedi 2022] [Grauer and Morelli 2013] [Guryansky and Silverstein 1941] [Gustafson et al 1960] [Hall 1965] [Hall 1968] [Hall 1970] [Hall 1971] [Hall 1972] [Hall et al 1967] [Hanks 1979] [Hardy and Matthews 1968] [Harno and Kim 2020] [Harrington 1951] [Hart 1992] [Harvey et al 2024] [Healy et al 2019] [Healy et al 2022] [Heimerl et al 2021] [Hepler and Free 1974] [Hermyt and Pastucha 2024] [Heyson 1969] [Heyson 1970] [Heyson 1973] [Heyson 1978] [Hollingsworth et al 1977] [Hughes and Wernicke 1974] [Huston and Winston 1969] [Hyodo and Lei 2024] [Hüllmann et al 2018] [Ing and Zhang 1993] [Putnam et al] [Jang 2025] [Jardin and Mueller 2009] [Jenkins et al 2009] [Jiang et al 2015] [Joppa 1966] [Joppa 1968] [Joppa and Shindo 1965] [Jou and Metcalfe 1984] [Karabacak and Turan 2026] [Karli et al 2024] [Keller et al 2026] [Kelly 1972] [Kelly 1988] [Kelly and Smaus 1952] [Kerler et al 2016] [Kidwell and Wray 1964] [Kim et al 2024] [Kim et al 2026] [Kirby 1964] [Kirby and Parlett 1964] [Klann et al 1984] [Klimchenko et al 2017] [Knott 1977] [Knott 1978] [Koenig 1984] [Koenig et al 1977] [Kolwey 1977] [Koning 2018] [Koning et al 2018] [Kozol and Tankins 1993] [Krebs 1978] [Kuppuswamy and Kiran 1981] [Lange 1947] [Lange et al 1946] [Lateral-Directional Stability Theory and 2003] [Lavi 1966] [Lavi 1967] [Lebacqz and Chen 1977] [Lechniak et al 2018] [Lee 1952] [Lee and Yoon 2008] [Lee et al 2022] [Lee et al 2026] [Lewis et al 1978] [Lim et al 2024] [Liu 2023] [Liu and Liao 2019] [Livingston 1965] [Lo 1970] [Lockheed-California Co Burbank 1964] [Lopez and Biancolini 2025] [Loughran et al 2024] [Lovell 1954] [Lu et al 2023] [Luu and Ochi 2023] [Ma et al 2020] [Macdonald] [Mahalingam and Komerath 1998] [Marcos] [Margason and Hoad 1979] [Margason et al 1972] [Maricic 2006] [Martin and Tung 2004] [Mayerjak 1978] [McCloud et al 1960] [McKillip Jr. 2022] [McNally and Bach 1988] [McSwain et al 2017] [Melton and Hall 1968] [Merceruio] [Milne and Arthur 2006] [Mineck 1977] [Misiorowski et al 2019] [Mobley and Coder 2022] [Mobley et al 2021] [Monteil 2024] [Moore and Newsom 1970] [Moraru 2024] [Morelli 2021] [Morelli 2022] [Mortimer et al 2020] [Mumford et al 2023] [Munasinghe 2022] [Murphy 1956] [Newsom 1970] [Nobahari et al 2022] [Ogren et al 1974] [Oliinyk and Zylevich 2026] [Olstad 1960] [Olstad 1960] [Ostowari and Naik 1986] [Ottesen and Dickson 1979] [Owen et al 1996] [Padfield and DuVal 1982] [Park et al 2025] [Parlett 1961] [Passe et al 2015] [Paulson et al 1988] [Payne and Henry E. 1961] [Piccinini et al 2020] [Porter et al 2015] [Pour Razzaghi et al 2025] [Prasad et al 2014] [Prasad Rao et al 2022] [Purser and Spear 1947] [Qi et al 2020] [Quackenbush 1987] [Queijo et al 1953] [Rae and Shindo 1969] [Rahnamai 2016] [Rao and Chimata 2024] [Ratvasky and Ranaudo 1993] [Reader 1976] [Reason 1999] [Reilly 1970] [Rich] [Rising 1982] [Rizk and Menon 1987] [Roberts and Tayebi 2011] [Roberts et al 1966] [Rolls 1965] [Rolls and Aoyagi 1977] [Roth 1991] [Roth 1993] [Rothaupt et al 2026] [Rush 1966] [Russell et al 2018] [Sastre et al 2025] [Schneider 1963] [Schumacher 1952] [Seaver et al 2023] [Seren and Hornung 2023] [Shanmugam et al 2025] [Sharma et al 2026] [Shen et al 2026] [Sheng and Zhao 2025] [Shim et al 2023] [Shivers 1970] [Sigl and Strawn 1989] [Simmons and Busan 2024] [Simmons et al 2023] [Simmons et al 2023] [Simon and Savage 1975] [Sirca et al 2020] [Smith 1959] [Smith 1961] [Smith and Parsons 1970] [Stange 1959] [Stoll and Minter 1981] [Stroub 1985] [Su] [Su and Lin 2011] [Sullivan 1973] [Tangler 1979] [Thibault 1964] [Thomas 1967] [Tierney et al 2021] [Tomaine et al 1978] [Turnbow 1961] [Turner 1975] [Ueno et al 2021] [Vagianos and Rooney 1964] [van der Maas 1959] [VanZante 2011] [Vogler 1970] [Wadcock et al 2011] [Wang 2026] [Wang et al 2014] [Wang et al 2016] [Wang] [Warner and Rogers 2019] [Warner et al 2016] [Watts et al 1971] [Weber and Gay 1975] [Wei et al 2026] [Wendel et al 1991] [Wenzinger and Sivells 1942] [Whittley and Koenig 1980] [Williams and Ybarra 1981] [Wilson and Mineck 1974] [Wilson et al 1981] [Winston 1969] [Winston 1969] [Winter 1936] [Wood 1972] [Ye et al 2020] [Yepifanov and Bondarenko 2022] [Yuska and Diedrich 1972] [Zahn et al 2025] [Zeising and Gerhardt 1993] [Zhou et al 2019] [Zierten and Rettie 1977] [Zikyamov et al 2026] [Zori] [Öznalbant and Kavsaoglu 2015]

Electric propulsion, motors and energy

What removed the transmission. Electric and hybrid-electric propulsion of vertical take-off and other aircraft, motors and their design, batteries, fuel cells, power electronics, energy management and distributed electric propulsion. 82 titles name hybrid propulsion and 32 a battery, and 267 of its 329 records date from 2015 or later.

329 records. [Adesh and Arun 2024] [Ahmed et al 2024] [Alfares 2026] [Alvarez] [Anderson et al 2024] [Bacchini and Cestino 2019] [Baris and Landman 2017] [Woodworth] [Datta 2021] [Barbosa Marques and Silva 2021] [Battery Testing for The 2023] [Bazin et al 2016] [Benjamin et al 2025] [Bianco 2020] [Bills et al 2023] [Binkley 1986] [Bonnin et al 2023] [Borer et al 2016] [Brauer et al 2015] [Bris and Nguyen 2023] [Brito] [Buvarp and Leijon 2024] [Cai et al 2026] [Carlson 2014] [Chan 2019] [Chandrashekhar et al 2025] [Chelemen et al 2023] [Chen et al 2025] [Chen et al 2026] [Christie et al 2016] [Christie et al 2017] [Snyder] [Clarke 2015] [Coelho et al 2022] [Cole et al 2021] [Comunian et al 2025] [Cornes 2019] [Courtin and Hansman 2019] [Cui et al 2027] [Cunningham et al 2022] [Cusati et al 2023] [Czyba et al 2018] [Dai et al 2025] [North et al] [North] [Davis et al 2025] [de Vries and Vos 2022] [de Vries et al 2019] [Deckert and Rolls 1974] [Deere et al 2017] [Deere et al 2017] [Deere et al 2017] [Deere et al 2018] [Demers Bouchard et al 2015] [Deng et al 2026] [Diaz Flores Caminero et al 2024] [Distributed Electric Propulsion 2018] [Donateo and Çinar 2022] [Dorfling and Traub 2023] [Dubois et al 2016] [Dyson 2018] [Economou et al 2019] [Electric and Hybrid-Electric Propulsion] [Ellafrits et al 2025] [Eqbal et al 2022] [Eqbal et al 2023] [Finger et al 2020] [Hendricks et al] [Farides 2025] [Felder et al 2011] [Feng et al 2024] [Asfoor et al] [Fisler and Datta 2019] [Fredericks et al 2013] [Fredericks et al 2013] [Gallani et al 2020] [Gao et al 2026] [Garg et al 2025] [Gemin et al 2015] [Thomas et al] [Gholamian and Beik 2026] [Giernacki 2016] [Giernacki et al 2016] [Ginn 2014] [Ginn 2015] [Ginn and Clarke 2016] [Glover et al 2024] [Goebel and Saha 2013] [Goericke et al 2024] [Golovanov et al 2019] [Gorospe and Kulkarni 2017] [Goshtasbi et al 2024] [Govindarajan and Sridharan 2021] [Grady and Lindenbaum 2000] [Gunnarson 2014] [Dabaghian et al 2025] [Goldschmidt et al 2024] [Hakansson et al 2025] [Haller 2015] [Hamilton] [Hao and Christopher 2025] [He et al 2023] [He et al 2026] [Head 2025] [Hennessy 2014] [Herzog et al 2021] [Hess 2019] [Hirschberg 2023] [Hong et al 2023] [Hu and Agyei-Owusu] [Hu et al 2022] [Huang 2023] [Huangfu et al 2024] [Hybrid and Electric Propulsion 2025] [Kim et al 2020] [Islam et al 2026] [Ito 2018] [Putnam et al 2026] [Putnam] [Putnam et al] [Jahn 1985] [Jarrad et al 2025] [Jeong et al 2024] [Jexembaeyva and Alexander 2025] [Jiang and Pakmehr 2022] [Jiao and Yang 2026] [Doo et al 2021] [Johnson 1935] [Litt et al 2023] [Litt et al 2026] [Litt et al] [Litt et al] [Litt et al] [Litt et al 2024] [Anibal and Duensing] [Littell et al] [Littell et al] [Kang et al 2023] [Kang et al 2025] [Deere et al 2022] [Keijzer et al 2024] [Khan 2011] [Khan et al 2025] [Kim et al 2008] [Kim et al 2013] [Kim et al 2018] [Kishi et al 2021] [Klunk and Freeman 2018] [Kou et al 2023] [Papathakis 2021] [Koch et al] [Lawhorn et al 2018] [Le Bris and Nguyen 2023] [Lee 2026] [Lee and Yee 2024] [Lee et al 2018] [Lee et al 2022] [Lefebvre and Zha 2015] [Lei and Zhao 2023] [Li and Rodrigues 2026] [Machado et al] [Li 2024] [Li et al 2023] [Li et al 2023] [Li et al 2025] [Li et al 2025] [Li et al 2025] [Li et al 2025] [Li et al 2026] [Li et al 2026] [Li et al 2026] [Littell et al 2019] [Littell et al 2025] [Liu and Hupy 2025] [Haworth et al] [Love 2022] [Lympany and Page 2024] [Ma et al 2022] [Ma et al 2024] [Ma et al 2026] [Machado et al 2025] [Madavan et al 2015] [Mao et al 2022] [Moore] [Moore] [Marzooqi et al 2024] [Marzougui et al 2022] [Melo] [Mieloszyk and Tarnowski 2019] [Miyairi et al 2015] [Mo et al 2026] [Models of Electric and] [Mohamed et al 2025] [Mohammadi et al 2026] [Mosca et al 2022] [Nasoulis et al 2022] [Neogi et al] [Nathan 2026] [Ng and Datta 2018] [Ni and Lee 2025] [Ogden and Patterson 2023] [Borer] [Borer et al] [Ng and Datta 2019] [Nishikawa and Rinoie 2024] [North et al 2021] [null] [Obertino et al 2023] [Orefice et al 2020] [Orsag and Bogdan 2009] [Palumbo et al 2016] [Papathakis] [Papathakis 2017] [Papathakis et al 2016] [Papathakis et al 2016] [Park and Park 2026] [Park and Yee 2025] [Park and Yee 2026] [Park et al 2022] [Park et al 2024] [Park et al 2025] [Park et al 2026] [Pavel 2022] [Pengfei et al 2025] [Perry et al 2019] [Pettes-Duler et al 2021] [Pham et al 2022] [Pieper et al 2018] [Prabhakar et al 2026] [Prasad Rao et al 2022] [Primary Flight Controls by] [Pradeep et al 2021] [Prasetia et al 2019] [Putnam and Littell 2019] [Qian et al 2023] [Qiao and Zhou 2026] [Rahn et al 2024] [Ranasinghe and Don Lakitha Gunawardana 2021] [Rizzi et al 2017] [Russo et al 2023] [Smith and Moushegian 2022] [Stoll 2015] [Taghbalout 2024] [Wang et al 2023] [Weinstein et al 2026] [Sadalla et al 2017] [Safwat et al 2026] [Sasa et al 2026] [Sawata and Dinu 2025] [Schaefer and Lutze 1991] [Schiltgen and Freeman 2019] [Schiltgen et al 2012] [Schiltgen et al 2013] [Schmidt et al 2025] [Schnulo et al 2017] [Schrage et al 2018] [Scott 2025] [Senkans et al 2020] [Seren and Hornung 2020] [Serrano 2018] [Shane 1985] [Shang et al 2025] [Shi et al 2023] [Siddavatam et al 2023] [Siddavatam et al 2024] [Sinha 2026] [Sirigireddy and Ahner 2026] [Snyder 2017] [Snyder 2020] [Sorensen et al 2025] [Spada et al 2025] [Stahl et al 2020] [Stein and Vichness 1971] [Rizzi] [Silva et al 2021] [Stoll et al 2014] [Suiçmez and Kutay 2023] [Sumption 2026] [Swanson et al 2021] [Synodinos et al 2018] [Tallerico 2021] [Chau et al] [Tomimoto et al 2024] [Trainelli 2026] [Tripaldi and Bianchi 2025] [Tu et al 2025] [Valencia et al 2019] [Vertiports - Infrastructure and] [Vos 2019] [Wahler et al 2025] [Wang and Zhou 2026] [Wang et al 2026] [Wang et al 2026] [Wang et al 2026] [Wang et al 2026] [Wei et al 2026] [Weng et al 2021] [Westcott et al 2023] [Wiston and Yan 2025] [Wood and Livingston 1971] [Wu et al 2023] [Xia et al 2013] [Xu et al 2026] [Yan and Wiston 2026] [Yan et al 2021] [Yang and Huang 2023] [Yilmaz et al 2019] [Ayalew et al] [Yu et al 2021] [Yu et al 2025] [Yu et al 2026] [Yu et al 2026] [Yu et al 2026] [Yunus and Habing 2026] [Zaidi 2025] [Zatorski 2025] [Zhang and Zhang 2021] [Zhang et al 2023] [Zhao et al 2023] [Zhao et al 2024] [Zhao et al 2024] [Zhao et al 2025] [Zhao et al 2025] [Zhao et al 2026] [Zheng et al 2025] [Zhu et al 2022] [Zong et al 2021] [Çelik et al 2023] [鲁 2020]

High-speed propellers, compressibility and the propfan

The cruise end of the propeller. High-speed and transonic propellers, compressibility, the propfan and the open rotor, counter-rotating propellers and the turboprop. 126 titles name the propfan, the advanced or unducted propeller or the open rotor, with a median year of 1987.

285 records. [Aerodynamics in the Age 1997] [Alexiou et al 2016] [Aljabri 1983] [Aljabri 1987] [Aljabri 1988] [Allen and Korkan 1991] [Anderson et al 1983] [Applin and Coe 1986] [Awker 1986] [Bacchini et al 2021] [Balombin and Loeffler 1982] [Balombin and Loeffler 1983] [Barnes 2017] [Bartel and Swift 1989] [Bartlett 1985] [Barton et al 1985] [Bauer 1983] [Bencze et al 1986] [Bennett et al 1983] [Bertke and Edinger 1984] [Biber 2000] [Black et al 2006] [Block et al 1986] [Bober 1980] [Bober and Chang 1981] [Bober and Mitchell 1980] [Bober et al 1983] [Boulkeraa et al 2022] [Bousquet and Gardarein 2003] [Boyle et al 1999] [Bradlaugh-Dredge 1986] [Bradley 1986] [Brooks and Mackall 1984] [Burrin and Salikuddin 1983] [Cai et al 2022] [Capitao Patrao et al 2018] [Carlson and Pendergraft 1987] [Carlson et al 1985] [Chambers et al 1989] [Chandrasekaran 1986] [Chandrasekaran 1987] [Chandrasekaran and Bartlett 1983] [Chapman et al 1987] [Chapman et al 1988] [Chapman et al 1989] [Chen 1989] [Chi 1984] [Chung et al 1991] [Ciliberti and Nicolosi 2022] [Clark 1953] [Claro et al 2026] [Cleary 1945] [Codon and Bowles 1979] [Coe and Perkins 1990] [Coe and Perkins 1991] [Coe et al 1984] [Conlon and Bowles 1978] [Corson and Maynard 1952] [Cox and Reed 1988] [Crighton and Parry 1991] [Davenport 1978] [Davy 1983] [Degeorge et al 1987] [Delano 1951] [Denner 1989] [Denner and Korkan 1989] [Diehl et al 2026] [Dittmar 1985] [Dittmar 1986] [Dittmar 1987] [Dittmar 1989] [Dittmar and Hall 1990] [Dittmar and Stang 1987] [Dittmar and Stang 1987] [Dittmar and Stang 1987] [Dittmar et al 1984] [Dittmar et al 1988] [Dorfling and Rokhsaz 2016] [Dowell 1979] [Dubosc et al 2014] [Dugan et al 1977] [Dugan et al 1980] [Dunn and Farassat 1990] [Dunn and Farassat 1992] [Dunn and Tarkenton 1989] [Ehrich 1961] [Ehrich and Glessner 1964] [Energy consumption characteristics of 1976] [Envia 1991] [Farassat 1984] [Farassat et al 1987] [Farassat et al 1989] [Farassat et al 1990] [Farassat et al 1992] [Fejtek et al 1996] [Fuentes et al 2013] [Gazzaniga and Rose 1992] [Gearhart 1983] [Gee and Novick 1988] [Ghenaiet and Halimi 2014] [Gilchrist 1983] [Glatt et al 1983] [Glover et al 1984] [Graber 1987] [Graber 1990] [Grieb and Eckardt 1986] [Groeneweg and Bober 1987] [Groeneweg and Bober 1990] [Grosveld 1987] [Grosveld 1988] [Hall and Delaney 1990] [Hambrey et al 2017] [Hambrey et al 2017] [Hanson 1982] [Hanson 1983] [Hanson 1985] [Hazeri et al 2024] [Heidelberg and Nallasamy 1990] [Heidelberg and Woodward 1987] [Helming 1994] [Hirschkron and Davis 1982] [Hirschkron and Russo 1986] [Huang et al 2020] [Ibrahim 2004] [Imray] [Janus et al 1996] [Jeracki and Mitchell 1981] [Jeracki et al 1979] [Jerominek 2026] [Jiang 2003] [Johnson 1983] [Juola et al 1984] [Keck et al 1968] [Keiter 1982] [Kim 1990] [Kingan and Parry 2020] [Kirker 1990] [Kong and Lee 2013] [Kong et al 2012] [Kordan et al 1985] [Korkan and Gazzaniga 1987] [Korkan et al 1991] [Kuznetsov 1993] [Lange 1986] [Laur et al 1992] [Lefevre et al 2022] [Lefevre et al 2022] [Lesieutre and Sullivan 1986] [Leth et al 1998] [Levin et al 1985] [Levin et al 1986] [Lewis et al 2023] [Lim and Sankar 1993] [Lindblad 1989] [Loeffler 1987] [Lopez and Dickson 1953] [Lopez and Dickson 1956] [Low Cost Cargo Aircraft 1960] [Lyman and Hancock 1986] [Boctor et al 1978] [Maass 1995] [Mackall et al 1982] [Magliozzi 1984] [Magliozzi and Hanson 1991] [Marinus 2012] [Marinus 2014] [Marinus et al 2009] [Martinez 1989] [Matsuo et al 1988] [McAninch and Rawls 1984] [McCurdy 1983] [McCurdy 1984] [McCurdy 1985] [McCurdy 1988] [McCurdy 1989] [McCurdy 1991] [McCurdy et al 1986] [Melake 1992] [Mikkelson and Mitchell 1980] [Miller 1988] [Miller and Podboy 1990] [Mitchell and Mikkelson 1982] [Mixson et al 1982] [Morizawa et al 2016] [Muehlbauer and Morris 1981] [Muehlbauer and Morris 1983] [Nagel and Patrick 1988] [Naik 1990] [Nallasamy 1992] [Nallasamy and Groeneweg 1990] [Nallasamy and Groeneweg 1990] [Nallasamy et al 1987] [Nallasamy et al 1987] [Nallasamy et al 1987] [Nallasamy et al 1988] [Nallasamy et al 1989] [Nallasamy et al 1989] [Neate 1972] [Neumann et al 1983] [Nicolosi et al 2018] [Numerical Simulations of the 2025] [Ohman and Nguyen 1995] [Padula and Block 1984] [Park 2016] [Park and Sankar 1993] [Patrao et al 2019] [Patrick and Nagel 1989] [Patterson and Bartlett 1985] [Patterson and Bartlett 1987] [Peacock 1987] [Pegors 1987] [Pham et al 2023] [Polacsek et al 2000] [Ponomariov 1990] [Popa et al 2025] [Propeller/Propfan In-Flight Thrust Determination] [Ramachandra and Bober 1986] [Rasmussen 1960] [Reddy et al 1989] [Ren and Zha 2020] [Ren et al 2020] [Rennison et al 1979] [Rennison et al 1980] [Revell et al 1980] [Revell et al 1982] [Revell et al 1982] [Reynolds et al 1987] [Rhodes 1990] [Ristea et al 2025] [Rizk 1988] [Rizk 1989] [Platt and Gilman 1949] [Rosen 1965] [Sagerser and Gatzen 1986] [Sagerser and Ludemann 1985] [Saito et al 1987] [Saito et al 1988] [Samant et al 1983] [Sanapo et al 2024] [Schmidt 1985] [Serafini et al 1981] [Shattuck and Young 1993] [Shimamoto et al 2011] [Sim and George 1993] [Smith 1963] [Smith 1981] [Smith and Levin 1981] [Soule 1986] [Squires 1993] [Stack et al 1950] [Stefko and Jeracki 1985] [Stolp 1979] [Stolp 1979] [Stolp and Baum 1977] [Stoten 1983] [Strack et al 2017] [Su et al 2025] [Taylor and Tangudu 2026] [Thamke et al 2025] [Turbofan and Turboprop Engines 2022] [Turboprop/Turboshaft Engine 2018] [van Gunsteren 1971] [Veldhuis and Luursema 2000] [Violette et al 1984] [Vogeley 1942] [Vogeley 1943] [Vogt and Sehra 1993] [Wandini et al 2016] [Wells 1990] [Weslet and Sutherland 1987] [Whitfield et al 1990] [Whitlow and Sievers 1988] [Wilby and Wilby 1987] [Wilby and Wilby 1989] [Woodward 1987] [Wynn 1982] [Xu et al 2024] [Yamamoto et al 1986] [Ye et al 2024] [Yoon and Schetz 1986] [Zhang et al 2024] [Zhao and Shkarayev 2019] [Zickwolf and Cole 1988] [Ziemianski and Whitlow 1988] [Štorch and Nožička 2017]

Certification, urban air mobility and the vertiport

Where the modern constraint lives. Airworthiness and certification of aircraft and their engines, the regulation of powered-lift and urban air mobility aircraft, and vertiport design, siting, capacity and operation. 119 titles name a vertiport or heliport and 33 airworthiness or certification.

272 records. [Abraham et al 2026] [Al labbad] [Al-Rubaye et al 2023] [Alabdali et al 2025] [Alkaabneh et al 2025] [Almasabi and Zhang 2026] [Antcliff et al 2016] [Antcliff et al 2019] [Arco et al 2023] [Ariante and Papa 2024] [Babu and Ramamoorthy 2026] [Bae et al 2022] [Bagan 1967] [Baltazar et al 2026] [Bassey 2025] [Bernyk et al 2023] [Bhandari and Chakraborty 2025] [Blackwell 1970] [Brignardello 2023] [Cacciavillani and Ielmini 2019] [Caldwell and Lafavor 1980] [Carlucci et al 2026] [Cayot et al 1972] [Cha et al 2025] [Chae et al 2023] [Chamberlain et al 2026] [Chang et al 2026] [Chati et al 2026] [Chen et al 2022] [Cheyno 1967] [Choi et al 2021] [Choi et al 2026] [Ci̇zreli̇oğullari et al 2022] [Cohen 1996] [Cohen and Shaheen 2021] [Comer 2026] [Comer and Chakraborty 2023] [Conrad et al 2023] [Corliss 1982] [Cornelius et al 2024] [Cureton 2020] [Das Biswas et al 2026] [De Florio 2011] [De Florio 2016] [De Maio 1971] [Deniz et al 2025] [Denza 1982] [Dong et al 2024] [Dudziak et al 2020] [Farooqui 2025] [Feng 2022] [Ferreira Filho and Cardoso Júnior 2024] [Fujisawa et al 2022] [Furlan et al 2026] [Garren et al 1970] [Price et al 2020] [Gerbeth et al 2023] [Gertz and Manderscheid 2025] [Gilmore 2025] [Gonzales et al 2025] [Gottschalg et al 2025] [Guida 2023] [Guo et al 2025] [Guo et al 2025] [Ha et al 2019] [Ha et al 2026] [Hakim 2024] [Han et al 2026] [Lee et al] [Harris 1992] [Hascaryo and Merret 2020] [Hasselmann 2026] [He et al 2023] [Heilein and Crespillo 2024] [Heo and Lee 2024] [Heo et al 2026] [Hess et al 2024] [Hoffman and Hollister 1975] [Hoffman and Hollister 1976] [Hollister 1969] [Hollister et al 1970] [Homola and Tiwari 2023] [Huh et al 2026] [Huynh et al 2025] [Ito and Tsuge 2022] [Janetzko et al 2024] [Janetzko et al 2026] [Jang et al 2024] [Janić 2025] [Jensen 1990] [Jin and Ma 2025] [Johnson and Silva 2018] [Johnson et al 2018] [Baculi et al] [Baculi et al] [Julián García et al 2023] [Junjie et al 2026] [Jusko et al 2022] [Kadhiresan and Duffy 2019] [Kai et al 2022] [Kaliappan et al 2024] [Karimli and Marano 2025] [Kawamura et al 2024] [Kawamura et al 2025] [Goodrich and Theodore 2021] [Kim 2025] [Kim and Hong 2024] [Kim and Park 2022] [Kim et al 2024] [Kim et al 2024] [Kim et al 2024] [Kim et al 2024] [Wasson et al 2022] [Kopardekar 2017] [Kopardekar 2020] [Krois et al 2024] [Kunchulia et al 2019] [Köse and Özuysal 2023] [Laghrib et al 2024] [Lalli and Sergio 1972] [Laplante et al 2026] [Lee and Bang 2025] [Lee and Ko 2025] [Lee et al 2024] [Lee et al 2025] [Lerro 2020] [Letica and Rizzi 2024] [Li et al 2025] [Li et al 2026] [Lim et al 2023] [Lin 2023] [Lippoldt et al 2023] [Liu et al 2026] [Lombaerts et al 2020] [Louis-Ferdinand et al 2025] [Lu et al 2025] [Luo and Chen 2026] [Lv et al 2026] [Lyu and Feng 2026] [Ma and Xiao 2026] [Maksoud et al 2025] [Maleki et al 2024] [Maleki et al 2025] [Mannan and Hassanalian 2024] [Marzouk 2025] [McGee et al 1978] [McKercher] [McKillip 2022] [McQueen 2021] [Meiklem 1969] [Mendonca et al 2022] [Merrick and Gerdes 1977] [Merrick and Gerdes 1983] [Miccio et al 2024] [Mirković and Sindik 2024] [Mirković et al 2026] [Mishra and Chakraborty 2024] [Mishra and Chakraborty 2024] [Moore and Hassanalian 2025] [Morscheck 2021] [Mpala and Chakraborty 2025] [Sarkar et al] [Nagrare and Lieb 2026] [Nekoo et al 2022] [Campbell et al] [Craven et al] [Oh et al 2026] [Omorodion 2023] [Osaka and Tsujii 2025] [Park and Kim 2022] [Park and Kim 2026] [Park et al 2023] [Murphy et al] [Murphy et al] [Patterson 2025] [Peisen and Ferguson 1996] [Peksa et al 2023] [Peng et al 2022] [Petit and Ribeiro 2025] [Phadke and Majumdar 2025] [Pleffken et al 2024] [Pleffken et al 2026] [Preis 2021] [Preis 2023] [Preis and Hornung 2022] [Puvrez 1965] [Qiao et al 2026] [Rakas 2022] [Rakas et al 2021] [Reeder 1964] [Reid et al 1973] [Representative Operations of V/STOL 2002] [Rimjha and Trani 2021] [Rohrmeier et al 2025] [Rudolph 1972] [Santhosh 2023] [Savane et al 2022] [Schade 1968] [Schneider 1989] [Schweiger and Knabe 2023] [Schweiger and Preis 2022] [Schweiger et al 2021] [Schweiger et al 2023] [Scott and Battey 2020] [Scroger et al 2020] [Shah 2025] [Shaik 2026] [Shao et al 2021] [Sherman 2019] [Sharma and Murphy] [Shubert and Sizoo 2025] [Shubert et al 2026] [Krishnamurthy et al] [Silva et al 2018] [Smith 2025] [Smith and Vickers 1970] [Das Biswas et al 2025] [Shin et al 2022] [Song 2022] [Song et al 2021] [Stanzione et al 2019] [Stefana et al 2024] [Barrett et al 2023] [Tan and Low 2021] [Tang et al 2026] [Taylor et al 2020] [Nguyen 2025] [Tuck 1970] [Uppoor 2023] [Urban Air Mobility UAM 2023] [Vandy 2026] [Vascik and Hansman 2019] [Vascik et al 2018] [Veneruso et al 2023] [Ventura Diaz and Yoon 2018] [Ventura Diaz and Yoon 2019] [Volakakis and Mahmassani 2025] [Johnson and Silva 2022] [Wang et al 2021] [Wang et al 2025] [Welsch and Fichter 2023] [Wing et al 2020] [Winter et al 2025] [Wu et al 2025] [Xiong et al 2023] [Xu 2023] [Xu et al 2022] [Yan et al 2024] [Yan et al 2026] [Ye et al 2020] [Yilmaz et al 2024] [Yoon et al 2024] [Yoon et al 2025] [Zare et al 2026] [Zelinski 2020] [Zhang and Hwang 2025] [Zhang and Wang 2026] [Zhang and Zhou 2024] [Zhang et al 2021] [Zhang et al 2022] [Zhang et al 2024] [Zhang et al 2025] [Zhao and Feng 2024] [Zhao and Han 2026] [Zhao et al 2025] [Zhou 2022] [Zhou et al 2026] [Zhou et al 2026] [Ziakkas 2026] [Ziakkas et al 2026] [Čečrdle 2015] [čečrdle 2023]

Transition, conversion and the corridor

The conversion as the field now names it. Transition and conversion between hover and wingborne flight, its corridors, trajectories and control, for tilt-rotor, tilt-wing, tail-sitter and lift-plus-cruise aircraft. 139 of its 267 titles name a tilting configuration, 16 name a corridor, and 207 of its records date from 2015 or later.

267 records. [Amargianitakis et al 2022] [Angelov and Holzapfel 2022] [Ansari et al 2018] [Appleton et al 2021] [Aroussi 2026] [Bai et al 2025] [Baêsso et al 2026] [Bhardwaj et al 2018] [Bhardwaj et al 2019] [Boekfah 2017] [Bullock et al 2024] [Burton et al 2026] [Carnes and Coder 2019] [Carter 1970] [Casau et al 2011] [Chen 2023] [Chen et al 2021] [Chen et al 2026] [Cheng and Pei 2022] [Cheng et al 2022] [Choi et al 2025] [Chou et al 1984] [Chu et al 2009] [Chu et al 2010] [Comer et al 2026] [Cong et al 2024] [Cong et al 2024] [Costa e Silva et al 2025] [Dai Chao et al 2016] [Daud Filho and Belo 2023] [Perez et al] [Dawe et al 2025] [de Paula et al 2025] [Deng et al 2025] [DiMaggio et al 2025] [Doff-Sotta et al 2023] [Dollinger et al 2021] [Dollinger et al 2021] [Dony and Islam 2026] [Dorr et al 1992] [Dorr et al 1994] [Dragos Daniel et al 2026] [Drinkwater 1960] [Drinkwater 1961] [Du and Zha 2024] [Duvivier and McCallum 1960] [Elahi Kahooker and Liu 2026] [Elanchezhian and Anitha 2023] [Experimental Investigation of Control-Display 1978] [Fan et al 2022] [Fang et al 2012] [Favaro et al 2025] [Favaro et al 2025] [Fearn and Margason 1969] [Flores and Lozano 2013] [Forge et al 1990] [Foster et al 1987] [Foster et al 1988] [Franklin et al 1996] [Fu et al 2018] [Fu et al 2020] [Fu et al 2025] [Fu et al 2025] [Gao et al 2024] [Gao et al 2025] [Gao et al 2025] [Gardner et al 2019] [Gardner et al 2021] [Garg et al 1990] [Gentry and Margason 1968] [Gilmer et al 1983] [Girard 1959] [Grafton and Anglin 1975] [Gress 2024] [Guan et al 2025] [Górska et al 2024] [Hadytama and Sasongko 2016] [Hadytama and Sasongko 2017] [Hartmann et al 2016] [Hartmann et al 2017] [Harvey and Bobbitt 1981] [Hatori and Uchiyama 2015] [Hegde et al 2021] [Heister 2013] [Heister 2016] [Hernandez-Garcia and Rodriguez-Cortes 2015] [Hernández-García and Rodríguez-Cortés 2013] [Hong et al 2026] [Hsu et al 2023] [Hsu et al 2024] [Hu et al 2024] [Huang and German 2025] [Huang et al 2024] [Huntley 1972] [INAV-Based Adaptive Transition Control 2025] [Isgandarov and Hajizada 2026] [Jeaong et al 2022] [Ji et al 2016] [jian-jian et al 2019] [Jiang et al 2025] [Jin and Zhao 2025] [Johnson and Craig 1974] [Junquan et al 2017] [Yokesh et al 2025] [Kang et al 2025] [Kang et al 2026] [Key 1970] [Kim et al 2025] [Kjerstad and Paulson 1993] [Kubo and Suzuki 2008] [Kuhn 1981] [Kuhn and Vogler 1965] [Kulhánek et al 2023] [Vu et al 2025] [Lee and Kim 2024] [Lee and Lee 2026] [Lee et al 2024] [Lee et al 2025] [Lee et al 2025] [Lee et al 2026] [Li et al 2020] [Li et al 2024] [Li et al 2025] [Li et al 2025] [Li et al 2026] [Li et al 2026] [Li et al 2026] [Liang et al 2025] [Liang et al 2026] [Lin et al 2023] [Liu et al 2017] [Liu et al 2018] [Liu et al 2018] [Liu et al 2024] [Liu et al 2025] [Lou et al 2021] [Lou et al 2024] [Ma et al 2022] [Magariyama and Abiko 2020] [Magee and Taylor 1971] [mao et al 2026] [Margason 1966] [Marvakov and Holzapfel 2021] [May et al 2024] [May et al 2025] [May et al 2025] [May et al 2026] [May et al 2026] [McCormick 1956] [Mineck and Margason 1974] [Mineck and Schwendemann 1973] [Morino et al 2000] [Mukherjee et al 2023] [Muraoka et al 2024] [Newsom and Anglin 1975] [Nie et al 2024] [North et al 2018] [Omar et al 2007] [Orndorff and Hwang 2022] [Orndorff et al 2023] [Overmeyer et al 2018] [Panish and Bacic 2022] [Panish and Bacic 2023] [Panish and Bacic 2025] [Park et al 2026] [Peng et al 2014] [Pobikrowska and Goetzendorf-Grabowski 2025] [Prabhakar et al 2025] [Qing et al 2023] [Qing et al 2023] [Qu et al 2023] [Rae 1973] [Ramnath 1969] [Ramnath 1970] [Reiss et al 2021] [Ren et al 2025] [Roth 1993] [Saetti 2025] [Safi’i et al 2021] [Sakai and Abiko 2020] [Salahudden et al 2023] [Salahudden et al 2024] [Sanchez-Rivera et al 2020] [Schoen et al 1977] [Setiawarman and Sasongko 2026] [Sharma et al 2025] [Shimizu and Miwa 2018] [Shimizu and Miwa 2019] [Sim et al 2022] [Son et al 2025] [Song et al 2024] [Spadão et al 2026] [Sun et al 2022] [Sunkara et al 2013] [Sunkara et al 2014] [Takii et al 2020] [Tapscott and Kelley 1960] [Theys et al 2016] [Thirumaleshwar Hegde et al 2020] [Thirumaleshwar Hegde et al 2021] [Tian et al 2026] [Tran et al 2019] [Transition Dynamics of VTOL 2010] [Van Dam and Holmes 1986] [van Dam and Holmes 1988] [Verling et al 2017] [Verma and Junkins 2000] [Vorsin and Arogeti 2017] [Wang and Fang 2023] [Wang and Li 2020] [Wang et al 2017] [Wang et al 2018] [Wang et al 2019] [Wang et al 2019] [Wang et al 2026] [Wang et al 2026] [Wang et al 2026] [Wei et al 2025] [Wen et al 2020] [Westcott et al 2025] [Wu and Hu 2014] [Wu et al 2019] [Wu et al 2024] [Wu et al 2026] [Xi et al 2021] [Xi et al 2025] [Xi et al 2025] [Xu et al 2024] [Xu et al 2027] [Xue et al 2025] [Xue et al 2026] [Yan et al 2023] [Yang et al 2022] [Yang et al 2023] [Yang et al 2024] [Yang et al 2024] [Yang et al 2024] [Yang et al 2026] [Yang et al 2026] [Yang et al 2026] [Ye and Zong 2025] [Ye et al 2026] [Yeo and Liu 2018] [Yeo and Saberi 2020] [Yeo and Saberi 2021] [Ying and Liang 2013] [Yu et al 2017] [Yuan et al 2015] [Yue and Xia 2009] [Yue et al 2026] [Yuksek and Inalhan 2022] [Yuksek et al 2016] [Zaludin and Gires 2019] [Zhang et al 2015] [Zhang et al 2018] [Zhang et al 2019] [Zhang et al 2019] [Zhang et al 2023] [Zhao and Underwood 2014] [Zhao et al 2023] [Zhao et al 2024] [Zhao et al 2026] [Zheng et al 2011] [Zheng et al 2020] [Zhou et al 2025] [Zuo et al 2025] [6ttl and Willinger 2021]

Ejection and crew escape

How the crew survived. Ejection seats, their aerodynamics, propulsion and testing, escape capsules and through-canopy egress, injury in ejection, and the crew escape systems of research and combat aircraft. 114 of its 214 titles name a seat, and the five that name a low altitude or an adverse attitude all date from 2018 or later, so the case the X-19’s crew met, an ejection at about 400 feet and 120 knots, is named in titles only recently.

214 records. [Acanfora et al 2021] [Aircraft crew escape system 2014] [Anthony 2005] [Bader and Coleman 1967] [Bao et al 2021] [Baodong 2011] [Baum and Loehner 1993] [Bement 1978] [Bement 1979] [Bement 1979] [Bement 2000] [Bierman 1959] [Billings et al 1971] [Bonsi 1988] [Bowen et al 2025] [Bozack 1970] [Bradfield and Thomasson 1966] [Brinkley et al 1981] [Brinkman 1992] [Budd Co Fort Washington Pa Technical Center 1978] [Buller 2017] [Burk 1970] [Chen et al 2007] [Cheng and Pellettiere 2005] [Cheng et al 2003] [Chiang 1980] [Chu et al 1983] [Chuan Chen et al 2018] [Clark 1961] [Computational aerodynamic analysis of 1994] [Connors and Sachs 1957] [Corsiglia et al 1989] [Crew Escape Certification Test 1988] [Crew escape propulsion system 2003] [Crew Escape System 1984] [Crew Restraint System] [Cummings 1982] [Dehua et al 2006] [DeStefano 1965] [Dillon et al 1990] [Disselkoen et al 1989] [Douglas Aircraft Co Long Beach Ca 1983] [Downwards Escape from JET 1956] [Dressel 1958] [Dufour and McGillivary 2007] [Ejection Seat 2003] [Ejection Seat 2015] [Ejection Seat Testing 2021] [Elson et al 1997] [Ewing 1972] [Flight Deck Escape Provisions] [Ford 1979] [Ford 1985] [Frazier and McElreath 1976] [French 1988] [Fullerton et al 1991] [Georghiou et al 1986] [Gilewicz 1978] [Gragg et al 1982] [Green et al 2019] [Griffin 1975] [Gross and Mawhinney 1970] [Guan et al 2013] [Głowiński and Krzyżyński 2011] [Habchi and Hufford 1995] [Habchi et al 1992] [Habchi et al 1998] [Hackenberger and Mattenson 1965] [Hasbrook 1957] [Hawker and Payne 1979] [Hearon et al 1981] [Hegenwald 1958] [Helicopter escape compartment and 2002] [Hellyer and Sherhod] [Henzel 1967] [Hickey and Kirk 1966] [Hirsch 1986] [Hodell and Rosner 1957] [Hoffman 1996] [Hollinger 1965] [Hollrock and Barzda 1972] [Howland 1979] [Huffman et al 1977] [Hufford and Habchi 1994] [Jia-Lin et al 2014] [Jines 1980] [Jines 1983] [Jines 1987] [Johnson 1986] [Johnson 1989] [Jones 1966] [Karunakaran 2018] [Kazarian 1980] [Keller and Plaga 2008] [Kennedy 1999] [Kenzakowski et al 1997] [Kinzler and McCraw 1970] [Kowaleczko et al 2018] [Kowaleczko et al 2025] [Latham 1957] [Launch escape, 2 Ejection 2009] [Lewis 2025] [Li et al 2011] [Lin et al 2013] [Littell et al 1967] [Liu et al 2022] [Loka et al 2000] [Lorch 1981] [Lorch 1981] [Lorch and Schultz 1984] [Lowry 1979] [Lowry et al 1994] [Maldonado and Stork 1983] [Manzuk 1970] [Mao and Liang 2019] [Mao et al 2011] [Martin 1956] [Matsuo and Butler 1983] [Mazelsky 1974] [McCarty and Smith 1982] [McCormack and Poteate Jr. 1965] [Meyerson 1992] [Miller and Morelli 1993] [Ming et al 2016] [Moiseev and Lozbin 2022] [Murtaza and Indluru 2026] [Murugan et al 2014] [Mussett 1967] [Naumowicz and Smith 1992] [Naveen Raj and Shankar 2018] [Naveen Raj and Shankar 2021] [Nichols 1998] [Obergefell and Kaleps 1988] [Offik 1966] [Ojetola et al 2011] [Opazo and Langelaan 2020] [Parate 2020] [Parate 2022] [Parate 2025] [Parate 2026] [Pauer 2018] [Payne 1969] [Perry 2007] [Peterson and Roberts 1973] [Piacentino et al 1978] [Pilot Escape Capsule 1961] [Pint et al 2003] [Poteate and Solomonides 1964] [Price and Earl A. 1970] [Qiu et al 2012] [Rahman et al 2025] [Rahman et al 2026] [Raj and Shankar 2020] [Reilly 1975] [Restraint systems and escape 2006] [Restraint Systems and Escape 2016] [Robert 1988] [Rock and Habchi 1997] [Rock and Habchi 1998] [Rock et al 1999] [Rothe et al 1963] [Rothwell and Sperry 1952] [Ryack et al 1984] [Salter 1975] [Savkovic 2008] [Scherberg and Ferguson 1952] [Schultz et al 2022] [Schwartz et al 1999] [Shaffer and Brinkley 1974] [Shane 1985] [Shannon 1973] [Shi et al 2025] [Sommer et al 2023] [Song et al 2013] [Stech 1977] [Stein 1965] [Stewart 1981] [Streiff and Henderson 1974] [Strickland 1989] [Strietzel and Shefler 1963] [Swingle 1995] [Tauby 1979] [The advanced stabilised ejection 1974] [Thompson and Harper 1964] [Tian and Chen 2012] [Wang et al 2014] [Wang et al 2014] [Wang et al 2019] [Wang et al 2020] [Wang et al 2021] [Wang et al 2024] [Watts et al 1947] [Weinberg 1963] [Wen and Chen 2010] [Wen and Guan 2025] [West et al 1980] [Winkler and Johnson 1982] [Wolf 2002] [Wolf 2019] [Wong and Mastroianni 1999] [Wood 1990] [Wu et al 2023] [Xiaodong et al 2010] [Xu et al 2011] [Yang et al 2011] [Yang et al 2025] [Yipton and Blachowski 1996] [Zenobi 1977] [Zenobi 1978] [Zhang and Yi 2011] [Zhang et al 2017] [Zhao et al 2015] [Zhu et al 2012] [Zivkovic et al 2024]

Noise of propellers, rotors and vertical take-off aircraft

A constraint the X-19 never faced. The noise of propellers, rotors and electric vertical take-off aircraft, its prediction and measurement, and its perception and annoyance in the community. 135 of its 207 records date from 2015 or later.

207 records. [Aalmoes and Sieben 2021] [Aalmoes et al 2025] [Abergo et al 2025] [Aircraft Noise Research Needs] [Amargianitakis et al 2026] [Araghizadeh et al 2025] [Arndt and Borgman 1970] [Arndt and Borgman 1971] [Baeder 1998] [Bain et al 2026] [Barakos 2024] [Barry et al 2026] [Bauer 2021] [Bauer 2023] [Bausch et al 1971] [Bezuidenhout et al 2026] [Blacodon and Lewy 1990] [Blacodon and Lewy 1992] [Boucher 2025] [Boucher et al 2023] [Boucher et al 2024] [Bragg 1968] [Buǧday and Saetti 2024] [Caillet et al 2025] [Caillet et al 2026] [Chen et al 2026] [Chen et al 2026] [Cho et al 2024] [Clark et al 1973] [Cole and England 1967] [Colli et al 2026] [Boyd] [Janakiram 1982] [Di Verniere et al 2026] [Begault] [Candeloro et al 2022] [Edwards and Cox 1978] [Falck et al 2018] [Feng 2026] [Feng et al 2026] [Fletcher et al 2009] [Gandhi et al 2026] [Garrelick et al 1986] [Gasaway 1969] [George 1978] [Georgiou et al 2026] [Gill and Lee 2024] [Gnemmi et al 1991] [Goldschmidt and Ukeiley 2023] [Goldschmidt and Ukeiley 2025] [Gounet and Lewy 2012] [Greenwood and Schmitz 2014] [Guedel and Farrando 1986] [Guerrero et al 2025] [Halwes 1970] [Ham 2024] [Hanson et al 2024] [Hanson et al 2025] [Hubbard 1991] [He et al 2021] [Helicopter and V/Stol Aircraft] [Heller and Splettstoesser 1983] [Henschel et al 1974] [Hilton et al 1960] [Hinterkeuser and Sternfeld 1968] [Hoad and Green 1978] [Homans et al 1978] [Hua and Mankbadi 2024] [Kekus-Kumor and Sieradzki 2025] [Konzel et al 2023] [Stephenson et al] [Jayasundara et al 2023] [Jeong et al 2021] [Jeong et al 2023] [Jia and Lee 2022] [Jia and Li 2025] [Li et al] [Li et al 2021] [Li et al 2021] [Johnson 1973] [Josephson 2020] [Kekus-Kumor and Sieradzki 2023] [Kenyon 1968] [Kevin Li and Lee 2021] [Kim 2022] [Kim and Lee 2024] [Kim et al 2025] [Ko et al 2024] [Ko et al 2026] [Koehler et al 2021] [Kopyt and Ogrodnik 2026] [Krishnamurthy and Rizzi 2022] [Weist et al 2026] [Lee and Haan 2025] [Lee and Lee 2020] [Lee et al 2024] [Lee et al 2025] [Lee et al 2026] [Li and Lee 2024] [Li et al 2021] [Li et al 2021] [Li et al 2023] [Li et al 2024] [Lieser et al 1994] [Lima Pereira et al 2024] [Lince 1973] [Little et al 2022] [Liu 2011] [Loeffler et al 1980] [Loewy and Sutton 1966] [Lowson 1972] [Macaluso 1971] [Maglieri et al 1961] [Groom et al] [Marze and Dambra 1978] [Casanova et al 2025] [Miranda and Lee 2023] [Murray and Wilby 1978] [Musser et al 2023] [Ng 2022] [Nguyen et al 2021] [Page et al 2021] [Page et al 2026] [Park et al 2026] [Paswan et al 2026] [Pegg 1976] [Perusek 1994] [Pinto et al 2022] [Preis et al 2025] [Raza and Stansbury 2025] [Richards 1955] [Rimjha et al 2021] [Rinaldi et al 2026] [Rizzi 2020] [Rizzi and Rafaelof 2021] [Rizzi and Scata 2022] [Rizzi et al 2022] [Rizzi et al 2024] [Rizzi et al 2026] [Rizzi et al 2026] [Rotor Noise Development of 1976] [Rotor Noise Discrete Frequency 1976] [Rotor Noise Panel Discussion 1976] [Rotor Noise Tone Noise 1976] [Rozman and Grace 2025] [Schlegel et al 1966] [Schmitz and Stepniewski 1971] [Schmitz and Stepniewski 1973] [Schmähl et al 2021] [Sessini et al 2026] [Shapiro and Healy 1968] [Krishnamurthy] [Lotinga et al 2025] [Pereira et al 2025] [Pereira et al 2025] [Smith et al 2023] [Sorensen and Cuppoletti 2022] [Standard Indoor Method of] [Rizzi 2020] [Rizzi and Scata] [Rizzi et al] [Rizzi] [Rizzi] [Rizzi et al] [Rizzi et al 2023] [Sternfeld 1972] [Sternfeld and Hinterkeuser 1970] [Sternfeld et al 1957] [Strawn and Biswas 1995] [Sureshkumar et al 2019] [Valente et al 2024] [Tan et al 2023] [Tangler 1977] [Tinney et al 2025] [Tinney et al 2026] [Tokarev and Makarenko 2021] [Tracy et al 2024] [Vaicaitis 1980] [Vaicaitis et al 1985] [Valente et al 2023] [Valente et al 2025] [Vardanyan et al 2026] [Vascik and Hansman 2018] [Vaughn and Christian 2024] [Vaughn and Christian 2024] [Vella et al 2026] [Vieira et al 2026] [Bauer 2025] [Wachspress et al 2019] [Walker and Cuppoletti 2022] [Wall et al 2017] [Wei et al 2026] [Weitsman and Greenwood 2021] [Wu et al 2023] [Yang et al 2023] [Yin 2019] [Yin and Ahmed 1999] [Yu et al 2024] [Yuan et al 2024] [Yuk et al 2024] [Yuk et al 2025] [Yunus et al 2023] [Yunus et al 2024] [Zeng et al 2027] [Zhang et al 2023] [Zhao et al 2026] [Zhu et al 2018]

Fault tolerance, redundancy and control allocation

The engine-out case after the cross-shaft. Fault detection, fault-tolerant control, redundancy, reconfiguration and control allocation for multirotor, electric and conventional aircraft, motor and rotor failure, and the one engine inoperative case. 49 titles name control allocation and nine the one engine inoperative or engine-out case.

207 records. [Abouselima] [Adeline et al 2023] [Al Younes] [Ambroziak et al 2023] [asadi 2022] [Asper et al 2026] [Atmaca et al 2025] [Ayati et al 2022] [Bai et al 2022] [Baldini et al 2023] [Ban Wang and Youmin Zhang 2020] [Barrett-Gonzalez et al 2023] [Barton 1966] [Bauer 1987] [Belapurkar et al 2011] [Bezerra and Antônio dos Santos 2021] [Bezerra and Santos 2022] [Bezerra and Santos 2022] [Bodson 2000] [Bosch et al 2026] [Boskovic et al 2007] [Brotherton and Pollard 1993] [Bruno Garcia Franciscone and Elton Fernandes 2023] [Buffington 1997] [Bugday and Saetti 2023] [Buzzatto and Liarokapis 2022] [Carithers et al 2019] [Castaldi et al 2020] [Charnsethikul et al 2025] [Chaudhari 1993] [Chen et al 1995] [Chen et al 2020] [Chen et al 2025] [Cheng et al 2024] [Chi et al 2019] [Choi and Suk 2026] [Cokorilo 2020] [Control Allocation and Flight 2016] [Cooper et al 1966] [Davi Antônio dos Santos et al 2024] [Dehkordi and Danesh 2024] [Delisle and Takahashi 2018] [Deng et al 2021] [DeVore et al 2022] [Devytkovsky and Trefilov 2023] [Diget et al 2022] [Dixit 2023] [Du et al 2015] [Du et al 2024] [Elif and Tekinalp 2025] [Ellis et al 2023] [Eltrabyly] [Engine Failure in Light 1980] [Eskandarzadeh et al 2024] [Failure of a Helicopter 2019] [Falconì et al 2018] [Fong and Gandhi 2025] [Frank and Rempe 2026] [Gappa 1964] [Garcia et al 2007] [Thomas and Malone] [Goshtasbi et al 2025] [Gu et al 2022] [Gu et al 2025] [Guan and Shi 2019] [Haglage and Brown 2020] [Hamadi] [Han and Pei 2026] [Han et al 2024] [Hannan et al 2016] [Harish et al 2018] [He et al 2023] [Hoogreef and Soikkeli 2022] [Hou et al 2020] [Hu et al 2021] [Iijima et al 2021] [Ismail et al 2024] [Jamil et al 2010] [Jebelli et al 2023] [Jiang et al 2026] [Jing and Ma 2025] [Jing and Pebrianti 2016] [Karahan et al 2023] [Keith-Lucas 1959] [Litt] [Litt] [Jothiraj et al 2020] [Kawauchi 2026] [Khattab et al 2019] [Khattab et al 2019] [Kim et al 2019] [Kim et al 2024] [Kim et al 2025] [Kong and Koo 2011] [Kotarski and Kasać 2018] [Wu and Litt 2023] [Lai et al 2026] [Lanzon et al 2014] [Lawati and Akhtar 2026] [Lawrence and Head 2024] [Leelaburanathanakul et al 2021] [Li et al 2022] [Li et al 2025] [Liao 2025] [Liao et al 2023] [Liao et al 2025] [Lien et al 2020] [Litt 2024] [Litt 2026] [Littell 2019] [Liu et al 2024] [Lombaerts et al 2011] [Long Lu and Turkoglu 2015] [Lu and Turkoglu 2016] [Lu and Turkoglu 2018] [Lu and van Kampen 2015] [Lu] [Lu] [Lu et al 2019] [Ma et al 2025] [Ma et al 2025] [Malaek and Alipour 2020] [Marks et al 2012] [Massey et al 2018] [Michieletto et al 2019] [Mochida et al 2023] [Morani et al 2024] [Nasr et al 2026] [Nery and Antônio dos Santos 2025] [Nnamdi-Nwosu and Liscouët 2023] [Orincon Corp La Jolla Ca 1992] [Papathakis 2017] [Papathakis et al 2017] [Papathakis et al 2017] [Peterson et al 2022] [Pose and Giribet 2021] [Qin et al 2023] [Rathinasamy et al 2024] [Reddick 1983] [Ruggia 2025] [Saied et al 2019] [Sajjadi and Ayati 2025] [Sajjadi et al 2025] [Salvador 2022] [Santos and Bezerra 2022] [Conley et al] [Sarker et al 2026] [Schrage and Arterburn 2016] [Schrage et al 2018] [Seo and Kim 2019] [Seo et al 2026] [Shen et al 2022] [Sheng et al 2019] [Simha and Ambroziak 2025] [Strampe and Klingauf 2026] [Sun et al 2022] [Suzuki et al 2019] [Tang et al 2021] [Thomas and Malone 2023] [Tiong and Jones 2009] [Tremblay 2026] [Unal 2021] [Unal 2021] [Vachtsevanos et al 2016] [Venkataraman and Seiler 2019] [Vey and Lunze 2016] [Vidya and Kandath 2026] [Wahba and Hönig 2024] [Wang and Hu 2026] [Wang and Zhang 2018] [Wang et al 2014] [Wang et al 2017] [Wang et al 2025] [Wang et al 2026] [Wanhill 2003] [Wanhill 2019] [Ward et al 1999] [Weaver 1984] [Weiss and Zola 1975] [Wells 2002] [Willis and Beard 2022] [Windolph 1969] [Wood 2012] [Wu and Sreenath 2016] [Xia et al 2022] [Xie et al 2020] [Xie et al 2023] [Xie et al 2026] [Xu et al 2023] [Xulin and Yuying 2018] [Yang et al 2010] [Yang et al 2026] [Yoon 2025] [Yuanqing et al 2014] [Zaludin 2026] [Zare et al 2025] [Zelina and Prazenica 2024] [Zhang et al 2024] [Zhang et al 2024] [Zhao et al 2024] [Zhao et al 2026] [Zhong Liu et al 2020] [Zou 2017] [Zou and Xia 2020] [Zou et al 2022] [Zou et al 2026] [Zuhair et al 2023]

Propellers in yaw, at incidence and in non-axial flow

The keystone’s own literature. Propellers in yaw, in pitch, at incidence and in oblique, edgewise and non-axial flow, and propellers in forward flight with the axis inclined, from the reports of the 1920s to the propellers of electric vertical take-off aircraft, together with the tilt-wing models whose titles name the propeller’s inclination. 97 of its 173 records date from 2015 or later, twelve titles name edgewise flight, none before 2025, and 33 concern the noise of a propeller at incidence.

173 records. [Abbasi et al 2023] [Alcañiz-Brull et al 2026] [Alcañiz-Brull et al 2026] [Alcañiz-Brull et al 2026] [Allenspach and Ducard 2021] [Aular et al 2026] [Belák and Hromčík 2023] [Simmons 2021] [Simmons and Hatke 2021] [Simmons] [Bilyaz et al 2026] [Boldman et al 1993] [Boldman et al 1993] [Borck 1921] [Borst 1968] [Burhanuddin et al 2026] [Bölk et al 2021] [Cai and Gunasekaran 2022] [Cai and Gunasekaran 2023] [Cai and Gunasekaran 2024] [Cantos et al 2026] [Cerny and Breitsamter 2020] [Cerny and Breitsamter 2020] [Cerny et al 2021] [Cerny et al 2021] [Chadha et al 2023] [Chaware et al 2025] [Cheng et al 2026] [Chinwicharnam et al 2013] [Chinwicharnam et al 2015] [Colli et al 2026] [Crigler and Gilman 1949] [Crigler and Gilman 1952] [Crigler and Gilman 1953] [Culpepper et al 2022] [Curtiss and Howard C. 1969] [Curtiss et al 1967] [De Young 1965] [Di et al 2026] [Dicarlo 1971] [Dittmar 1986] [Dittmar and Jeracki 1981] [Dittmar and Stefko 1983] [Hanson and Parzych 1993] [Dong et al 2026] [Dunham and Gentry 1989] [Durand and Lesley 1923] [Dwyer and McCroskey 1970] [Felli and Falchi 2018] [Fernandez et al 2023] [Flachsbart and Krober 1930] [Frota et al 1998] [Fujiwara et al 2017] [Tamilselvan and Niresh 2022] [Gautam et al 2025] [Gentry et al 1991] [Gill and D’Andrea 2017] [Gogidze et al 2023] [Goodson 1966] [Goodson 1967] [Goodson and Grunwald 1962] [Goyal et al 2023] [Goyal et al 2025] [Grava et al 2024] [Grava et al 2025] [Gray and Hallissy 1950] [Gray et al 1954] [Grunwald 1961] [Hammond et al 1974] [Hanson 1976] [Hanson 1979] [Hanson 1980] [Hanson 1990] [Hanson 1995] [Harris 1996] [Heyson 1961] [Higgins et al 2020] [Higgins et al 2022] [Hirschberger and Jones 1948] [Hua et al 2025] [Hua et al 2025] [Hua et al 2026] [Huang et al 2016] [Huang et al 2025] [Hwang et al 1994] [Hysteresis assumptions for propeller 2018] [Igoe and Davidson 1952] [Ishaque et al 2024] [Hassell and Kirby 1966] [Junaidin et al 2026] [Karimian et al 2026] [Khan and Nahon 2015] [Kim et al 2009] [Kim et al 2019] [Kirby and Newsom 1964] [Komizunai et al 2020] [Krejsa 1990] [Kubo et al 2010] [Kuhn and Draper 1956] [Lahatte 1946] [Leng et al 2019] [Leng et al 2019] [Leng et al 2019] [Lesley et al 1937] [Lopes de Moraes Filho et al 2025] [Lovell and Parlett 1957] [Mani 1990] [Matsuo and Hirano 1985] [Matsuo and Hirano 1986] [Mendoza 1979] [Misztal 1933] [Moreira et al 2024] [Nallasamy and Groeneweg 1989] [Nallasamy and Groeneweg 1990] [Nam et al 2024] [Newsom 1962] [Newsom 1962] [Ng 2020] [Nguyen et al 2018] [O’Neal Robert L and Heath 1954] [Parker et al 1972] [Parlett et al 2026] [Paswan et al 2025] [Patience and Nahon 2024] [von Hardenberg et al] [Pendley 1945] [Polivanov and Sidorenko 2019] [Qaissi et al 2026] [Report No. 113, Tests 1922] [Report no. 597, Air 1937] [Ribner 1943] [Ribner 1943] [Ribner 1945] [Ribner 1945] [Rigby and Von Hardenberg 2024] [Rogallo et al 1956] [Rumph et al 1942] [Sahwee et al 2019] [Samad et al 2026] [Shao et al 2026] [Sheen et al 2024] [Sinnige et al 2016] [Srivathsan and Rauleder 2024] [Srivathsan et al 2024] [Stokkermans and Veldhuis 2021] [Stuff 1988] [Takallu and Lessard 1991] [Tang and Chung 2022] [Taubert et al 2023] [Thai and Bain 2025] [Theys et al 2014] [Theys et al 2017] [Tian et al 2024] [Van Bang and Rozehnal 2017] [Van De Vooren and Zandbergen 1963] [Van Treuren and Wisniewski 2022] [Von Hardenberg et al 2024] [Vrdoljak 2007] [Wang et al 2025] [Wang et al 2027] [Wechtler et al 2025] [Wróblewski et al 2025] [Wu et al 2026] [Xu et al 2026] [Yang et al 2018] [Yilmaz et al 2015] [Yu et al 2025] [Yunus et al 2025] [Zandbergen et al 1990] [Zarev and Green 2020] [Zhang et al 2019] [Zhang et al 2020] [Zhu et al 2025]

Vertical take-off programmes, applications and the state of the art

The class as a whole. Conferences, programme reports, overviews, operational and transport studies and histories of vertical and short take-off aircraft, and the vertical take-off drones and electric aircraft of the present. Its median year is 1977.

164 records. [Albers and Zuk 1990] [Albers and Zuk 1992] [Alvarez muñoz] [Aláez Gómez] [American Helicopter Society Inc Washington Dc 1965] [Anderson 1981] [Anderson 1983] [Anderson and Lebacqz 1997] [Androsky et al 1972] [Axten et al 2025] [Beebe 1968] [Berlin et al 2025] [Birckelbaw and Nelson 1992] [Boeing Co Morton Pa Vertol Div 1956] [Bogdanović et al 2024] [Bondi and Robinson 1971] [Borland 1959] [Bretoi 1968] [Bridgelall 2024] [Camacho 1991] [German et al] [Bright 1966] [Brown and Fisher 1968] [Butler and Thomas 1964] [Campbell 1962] [Campbell 1963] [Campbell 1965] [Campbell 1967] [Campbell 1968] [Campbell 1979] [Chana 2002] [Chichester-Miles 1965] [Choi and Hampton 2020] [Cochrane et al 1981] [Cotton 1967] [Cowels 2023] [Dansby et al 1964] [Deckert 1977] [deDecker 1969] [Defense Science Board Washington Dc 1979] [Deniz et al 2023] [Scientific and Technical Information Division 1966] [Durbin and McGeer 1982] [Egerton and Fitzpatrick 1967] [eVTOL 2026] [Feary 2018] [Feistel et al 1972] [Fishbach and Strack 1968] [Flaig 1977] [Fredericks et al 2016] [Fredericks et al 2018] [Goto and Miwa 2017] [Gowanlock 2025] [Hafer and Sachs 1982] [Harper 1966] [Hellyar 1970] [Hellyar 1971] [Heyson 1961] [Hirschberg 1997] [Holzhauser and Innis 1960] [How to Tackle The 2022] [Howze 1969] [Hui et al 2024] [Ito and Adachi 2023] [Jo and Kwon 2019] [Putnam et al] [Welstead] [Johansen 1970] [Campbell 1964] [Kaufman and Quackenbush 2020] [Littell and Pellettiere] [Kalemaris and Cea 1977] [Kelly et al 1977] [Shish et al] [Kuhn 1967] [Kuhn 1979] [Lewandowski 1980] [Li et al 2026] [Lichten 1959] [Lightfoot 1968] [Lightfoot 1981] [MacPhail et al 1993] [Maggitti 1965] [Marubashi et al 2014] [Matheis and Norrefeldt 2026] [Mazzitelli 1957] [McCormick 1976] [McElreath 1972] [Merrick 1982] [Vincent] [Miller 1965] [Minsk 1970] [Muse 1961] [NASA Conference on V/STOL 1960] [NACA 1960, Conference on V/Stol Aircraft a Co] [A Preliminary Study of 1961] [Jones et al] [Niwa and Suzuki 1991] [Novak 1970] [Ogden 2023] [Okpara 2025] [Okpara 2026] [Osterman and Mulley 1977] [Ott 1998] [Pearlman 1968] [Pines 2014] [Rathjen] [Reber 1981] [Reeder 1965] [Reeder 1967] [Research directed toward determination 1968] [Rich 1969] [Kirby 1960] [Roberts and Anderson 1977] [Roberts et al 1981] [Salkind 1973] [Sanderson 1973] [Sarames 1967] [Schaefer 2016] [Scott 1970] [Seren and Hornung 2024] [Cody] [Momiyama 1977] [Papayanopoulos et al 2019] [Qin 2023] [Simpson 1969] [Sisák and Škultéty 2020] [Smith and Belina 1974] [Solomon 1972] [Statler 1966] [Suppes and Suppes 2026] [Gorton] [Syrovy and Yassini 2003] [Takita and Kashitani 2016] [Takita et al 2018] [Tanabe et al 2015] [Telford and Vasiloff 1968] [Terpecz 2023] [Terpecz and Schuster 2024] [Terpecz and Schuster 2025] [Tokuoka et al 2025] [Turner 1969] [Uehara et al 2019] [V/STOL Conference, Palo Alto 1977] [V/STOL R and D 1971] [V/STOL World wide view 1971] [Van Houtte 1970] [Virasak 2021] [VTOL ‘a matter of 1971] [VTOL - 1968 1969] [VTOL Booster 1961] [Wernicke 1993] [White 1968] [White et al 1985] [Whitten 1960] [Wilcox and Shovlin 1975] [Willis and Genever-Watling 1977] [Wyzykowski 2025] [Yang and Wang 2017] [Yoeli 2003] [Yoeli 2005] [Zimmerman 1960] [Zimmermann 1963] [МИРНЕНКО 2025]

Helicopter rotors in forward flight, wakes and hubs

The rotor as a helicopter uses it. Helicopter rotors in forward flight, their wakes, inflow and hubs, the interaction of rotor and airframe, and the evaluation and technology of helicopters. 26 titles name forward flight.

112 records. [Abalakin et al 2020] [Ahmad et al 2013] [Appendix C BO-105 helicopter 2011] [Application of Transonic Flow 1989] [Artis Jr 1975] [Augustin et al 2002] [Barbely and Komerath 2016] [Bardera et al 2020] [Bauer 1963] [Bennett 1932] [Bhagwat and Leishman 2001] [Bi et al 1991] [Biggers and Linden 1985] [Binias et al 2016] [Boeing Co Morton Pa Vertol Div 1965] [Boeing Vertol Co Philadelphia Pa 1980] [Boirun and Benoit 1972] [Brandão et al 2018] [Briardy et al 1970] [Briassulis and Andreopoulos 1993] [Buckner and McLellon 1984] [Burks 1989] [Campanardi et al 2026] [Celniker et al 1964] [Charles and Hassan 1988] [Chen and Prasad 2005] [Chen and Prasad 2007] [Cheney 1969] [Choephel and Maughmer 2014] [Couch 2005] [Crimi 1965] [Csencsitz et al 1973] [Danai 2004] [Davis and Pounds 2017] [Dayhoum et al 2020] [Detore and Conway 1991] [Dingeldein 1961] [Dolinar 2000] [Dooley et al 1978] [Falcone et al 1974] [Flater 1993] [Foulke 1965] [Free-wake computation of helicopter 1993] [Ganguli 2002] [Gessow 1993] [Ghee and Elliott 1992] [Grendahl 1999] [Hariharan and Sankar 1995] [Heyson 1980] [Hiller Aircraft Corp Palo Alto Ca 1965] [Huston 1996] [Itt Systems Rome Ny 1987] [Iwakura et al 2010] [Jung et al 2023] [Kato and Yamane 1979] [Kelley 1970] [Kelley 1995] [Klemin 1940] [Kolwey 1999] [Komerath et al 1985] [Kong et al 2020] [Kuehl 1979] [Lehman 1968] [Leishman and Bagai 1991] [Levenetz 1973] [Linden and Biggers 1987] [Liou et al 1988] [Loftin 1954] [Magee et al 1975] [Sekula] [Mathur] [Mathur and Rajagopalan 1991] [Mathur et al 1992] [McCloud 1980] [Nagata and Buss 1969] [Ollerhead 1971] [Ott 2019] [Payne 1955] [Peters 1980] [Peters and Nelson 2000] [Peters et al 2014] [Pickles et al 2018] [Rajagopalan 1989] [Rotor Mechanisms for Forward 2011] [Sahani and Horn 2001] [Schneider and Wilkerson 1990] [Schrage and McKeithan 1989] [Scully 1967] [Shanahan 1993] [Sheehy 1976] [Sheehy and Clark 1976] [Smith 1968] [Steinhoff 1990] [Stringer et al 1972] [Sunada et al 2003] [Tai and Runyan 1984] [The Quad-rotor Rotorcraft] [Tung and DuWaldt 1970] [Van Zante 2015] [Volodin 2022] [Wagner 2005] [Werner 1973] [Whitt and Gandhi 2023] [Wilkerson et al 1991] [Yackle 1969] [Yamakawa et al 1972] [Yamakawa et al 1972] [Yang et al 2023] [Yeates 1964] [Yemenici et al 2010] [Yu and Peters 2003] [Çiçin and Yavşan 2022]

Power effects on stability and the propeller as a fin

The propeller as a stabilising and destabilising surface. The effect of propeller operation and of the slipstream on the stability and control of aeroplanes and vertical take-off models, the shift of the neutral point with power, propeller torque and its trim, and the stability of the propeller on its mount. Five titles name the neutral point and nine whirl flutter.

88 records. [Abzug and Larrabee] [Ali et al 2025] [Biber 2017] [Bland and Bennett 1963] [Boulahbal et al 2000] [Bouquet and Vos 2017] [Butler et al 1966] [Böhnisch et al 2024] [Chang et al 2024] [Chen et al 2016] [Chompoosri 2024] [Clark et al 1963] [Custers et al] [Delany 1942] [Dias 2022] [Erturk and Dogan 2015] [Erturk and Dogan 2016] [Gao et al 2012] [Gao et al 2024] [Gentry et al 1966] [Glessner 1999] [Goett and Delaney 1944] [Goland et al 1964] [Grunwald 1961] [Hagerman 1947] [Hagerman 1947] [Hall and Schaller 2012] [Hanson 1945] [Hoover and Shen 2018] [Hoover et al 2018] [Iosilevskii 2010] [Johnson 1950] [Waite et al] [Keller and Rudnik 2019] [Kirby 1957] [Koch and Koert 2023] [Kriebel 1964] [Kuhn and Grunwald 1961] [Nelson et al] [Li and Da Ronch 2025] [Li and Kwok 2024] [Liefvendahl 2010] [Lucarini 2026] [Metcalf 1937] [Milenković-Babić 2018] [Milenković-Babić et al 2015] [Morgado et al 2013] [Nelson and Shen 2021] [Nelson and Shen 2023] [Pass 1941] [Phillips 1985] [Phillips 2002] [Pitkin 1943] [Plunkett 1949] [Podsędkowski et al 2023] [Maki and Giulianetti 1966] [Rauhut and Slingerland 2003] [Reed and Bland 1961] [Ribner 1944] [Robinson and Perone 1947] [Robinson and Perone 1956] [Santos et al 2026] [Santos et al 2026] [Schuldenfrei 1944] [Seckel 1964] [Silva et al 2022] [Simmons et al 2026] [Sleeman 1953] [Solies 1992] [Solies 1994] [Swanson 1943] [Sweberg 1942] [Sweberg 1942] [Taboada et al 2018] [Takeyeldein 2026] [Teixeira and Cesnik 2020] [Tosti 1962] [van Rooyen and Eshelby 1981] [Vollo and Brassaw 1956] [Vrdoljak 2003] [Wang et al 2013] [Wang et al 2022] [Weil and Sleeman 1948] [Weil and Sleeman 1949] [Fei 2021] [Yan et al 2024] [Zhao et al 2022] [Çelebi and Aydın 2026]

Jet lift, lift fans and jet-induced effects

The other answer to vertical flight. Jet-lift and lift-fan aircraft, deflected-jet research aircraft, hot-gas ingestion, the fountain effect and other jet-induced effects, and the inlets and nozzles of vertical take-off propulsion. Its median year is 1974, and 15 titles name a lift fan.

84 records. [Adarkar and Hall 1968] [Aiken 1977] [Alford et al 1963] [Anderson 1990] [Anderson and Petersen 1977] [Beeler 1965] [Bellin and Brooks 1983] [Bielefield et al 1993] [Biesiadny et al 1993] [Brogan et al 1961] [Calvano and Harney 1998] [Castells and Mishler 1973] [Chou et al 1981] [Cimbala et al 1993] [Ciminera 1980] [Dugan et al 1971] [Fearn 1988] [Feddersen and Cea 1977] [Fluk 1981] [Garner 1967] [Gerdes 1993] [Glasgow et al 1981] [Glasgow et al 1983] [Goldsmith and Hickey 1963] [Grafton and Newsom 1971] [Gray and Kisielowski 1971] [Hill 1969] [Hill 1971] [Hwang and Abbott 1982] [Hwang and Diedrich 1981] [Jacobson 1964] [Jacobson 1965] [Jameson 1971] [Jeon et al 2023] [Kelly and Tolhurst 1966] [Kentfield 1967] [Kibens et al 1987] [Kibens et al 1988] [Krishnamoorthy 1971] [Lan 1974] [Lander and Palcza 1974] [Lieblein 1970] [Lieblein 1970] [Lieblein and Stockman 1969] [Limage 1977] [Margason 1970] [McKinney and Newsom 1967] [McKinney and Newsom 1968] [McKinney et al 1966] [McLemore 1966] [McLemore and Smith 1968] [Moore and Schetz 1985] [Nicholson and lowry 1966] [Payne 1958] [Petit and Scholey 1973] [Petit and Scholey 1973] [Pilsch 1975] [Pittsburgh Univ Washington Dc Research Staff 1966] [Przedpelski 1965] [Reed and Schneider 1982] [Rolls 1960] [Rolls 1965] [Sandlin and Howard 1991] [Sheridan 1985] [Sheridan 1986] [Siclari et al 1975] [Siclari et al 1976] [Spillman 1965] [Spillman 1967] [Stockman 1970] [Stockman 1974] [Stockman 1975] [Stockman 1975] [Substantiation of Power Available] [Tan and Chen 2020] [Tatom et al 1972] [Waesche and Migdal 1977] [Willis 1980] [Wilson and White 1993] [Woollett 1981] [Wu and Talmadge 1961] [Ybarra et al 1978] [Zheng et al 2011] [Zhou et al 2024]

Engines, turboshafts and propulsion systems

The power plant. Turboshaft engines, the T55 among them, the propulsion systems and power plants of vertical take-off aircraft, and Curtiss-Wright’s rotating combustion engines, around which the M-200 was first designed. Nine titles name the rotating combustion or rotary engine and three the T55.

76 records. [AIR Bleed Objective for] [Air Bleed Objective for] [GE’s Approach to Turboshaft 2007] [Bechhoefer and Hajimohammadali 2024] [Bentele 1962] [Boschma 1998] [Brown 1950] [Ciepluch et al 1979] [Carroll 1978] [Compagnon 1980] [Cooling DATA for Turbine] [Cooling of Turbine Engines] [Cornelius and Hannula 2019] [Cousins et al 1991] [Crafa and Reed 1980] [Crawford 1973] [Dangelo 1995] [Defining and Measuring Factors] [Diedrich et al 1971] [Digiovanni 1991] [Ferrand et al 2018] [Filippone and Bojdo 2010] [Froede 1961] [Gerend 1971] [Gertsma and Zigan 1973] [Giraud 1986] [Giurca 2014] [Glasgow and Skarshaug 1980] [Goldsmith and Hickey 1963] [Hatta and Matsuki 1964] [Helicopter Engine-Rotor System Compatibility] [Hill and Schmitt 1964] [Hogg 1979] [Hurley and Bentele 1961] [Johansen and Duncan 1970] [Johnson and Lindsay 1990] [Jones 1964] [Jones 1972] [Jones 1979] [Jones and Lamping 1971] [Jones et al 1977] [Kalabuhov et al 2019] [Kim 2010] [Kutney 1964] [Kutney 1966] [Lakshmi et al 2023] [Lewis 1989] [Lewis and Lewis 1981] [Loyd 1976] [Neate 1974] [Philhower 2002] [PlCKERELL and Cresswell 1968] [Pyle and Aldrich 1990] [Reed 1980] [Rodenbaugh and Veno 1965] [Rodrigues et al 2021] [Rotorcraft Turboshaft Engine Idle] [RS 360 Turboshaft engine 1972] [Rutherford and Fitzpatrick 1991] [Sallee 1964] [Sanderson and Holly 1993] [Schroers and Antoniou 1966] [Sehra and Shin 2003] [Serovy and Kavanagh 1974] [Sheng et al 2016] [Soares et al 2015] [Spytek 2019] [T55 2023] [Tindell 1966] [Veno 1974] [Vladov et al 2024] [Vladov et al 2024] [Vogt 1991] [Welsh et al 2014] [Zhang et al 2021] [Zhang et al 2022]

Short take-off, powered lift and high lift

The short take-off neighbour. Short take-off and landing aircraft, powered lift, blown flaps and high lift, and the short-haul and intraurban transport studies of the 1960s and 1970s.

36 records. [Attinello 1956] [Belart 1938] [Clark 1971] [Davis et al 1966] [Diekmann 2019] [Englar and Campbell 2002] [Englar and Campbell 2002] [Feistel et al 1966] [Gamon 1988] [Harradine 1977] [Harris 1956] [Hartman 1936] [Hirsch 1957] [Hirsch 1958] [Hiscock 1981] [Hoh 1977] [Holloway et al 1972] [Hsin 1973] [Hsin 1974] [Kondoleon 1968] [Landfield and Henderson 1984] [Levinsky and Ramsey 1972] [Love 1993] [Moller 1998] [Paulson 1980] [Pinson and Ryan 1972] [Razak and Craig 1961] [Riebe 1973] [Schaefer and Velten 1970] [Schaefer and Velten 1971] [Schwartzberg 1959] [Selegan 1983] [Stout 1972] [Stout et al 1971] [Study of aircraft in 1967, Study of aircraft in short haul t] [Study of aircraft in 1967, Study of aircraft in short haul t 2]

The X-19, the XC-142 and the X-22

The aircraft and its tri-service contemporaries. The X-19’s final report and the later papers about it, the Vought XC-142 tilt-wing transport and the Bell X-22 ducted-propeller research aircraft, the X-22A’s later service as a variable-stability aircraft for flying qualities research, and a history of Curtiss-Wright’s defence procurement. Four titles name the X-19, eleven the XC-142 and 13 the X-22.

29 records. [Aiken et al 1977] [Albach and Fewel 1965] [Bell Aerospace Co Buffalo Ny 1970] [Borst 1965] [Borst 1990] [Chance Vought Corp Dallas Tx 1963] [Day 1965] [Fenwick 1967] [Fluk et al 1967, Volume I] [Fluk et al 1967, Volume II] [Gaebe 1964] [Gholz 2000] [Hancock 1970] [Henderson 1964] [Hesse 1965] [Josephs 1964] [Konrad 1967] [Lebacqz 1974] [Lebacqz and Aiken 1975] [Lebacqz and Aiken 1975] [Lebacqz et al 1974] [Marchese 1963] [Marsh 1965] [Michaels 1969] [Pegg et al 1974] [Smith 1974] [Smith et al 1973] [The Bell X-22A V/STOL 1990] [Walz 1978]

Other aeronautical literature

The residual, reported and not hidden. On-subject records that belong to no cluster above, being the lift and drag of a biannular wing airplane, cast aircraft components, a wingtip fence on an uncrewed aircraft, flight envelope protection and a manufacturer’s summary of feasibility studies. No coherent subject in it is large enough to name.

5 records. [Alloy Engineering And Casting Co Champaign Il 1953] [Chung et al 2008] [English et al 1966] [Flight Envelope Awareness/Protection] [Milla and Blick 1966]

Where the Framing Breaks Down

Treating the X-19 through the radial lift force can overstate what the radial lift force decided. The corridor computed above is continuous with the effect switched off. The keystone framing is correct about what the aircraft was sold on, about what its wing area required and, within the model, about the speeds it flew at its nacelle angles, and it is wrong if it suggests the configuration depended on the effect for feasibility.

The keystone framing also underweights what killed the aircraft. The steady radial lift force did not break anything. Its vibratory companion at twice propeller frequency did, and a momentum analysis of the steady force has nothing to say about that load. An article built around an aerodynamic keystone will underweight the structural dynamics that determined the outcome, and this one would too if the point were not made explicitly.

The comparison with the X-18 can be pushed too far. The two aircraft look adjacent and are adjacent in the designation sequence, but their governing quantities have nothing in common. Immersed fraction is meaningless for the X-19 and propeller normal force is nearly meaningless for the X-18, whose propellers stay roughly aligned with the flow because the whole wing rotates with them.

The model used here has a limit. The in-plane momentum picture treats the disc as an actuator turning a stream tube, which is defensible while the disc is moderately inclined and indefensible once it is close to broadside, where a propeller is a bluff body shedding a wake and no linear proportionality to $\sin\alpha_d$ has any basis. The condition to test is the disc incidence, which is the nacelle angle plus the angle of attack.

\[\alpha_d = i + \alpha \le 60^{\circ}\]

Five of the ten corridor rows above violate it, reaching 89.5 degrees at the hover end, so the low-speed half of the corridor should be read as indicative rather than quantitative. The final report draws the line lower for its own strip theory, at shaft angles of about 30 to 45 degrees, and against 45 degrees seven of the ten rows fail. The full-scale measurements of Yaggy and Rogallo 1960, which found normal force nearly linear in shaft angle over large ranges, are the evidence that the linear form does not fail abruptly at either limit. This is the same discipline the X-15 article applied when it found its own perfect-gas arithmetic valid to Mach 7.06 against an aircraft that flew at 6.70.

The Source Base

The survey rests on 9,677 research records drawn from Crossref, the NASA Technical Reports Server and the Defense Technical Information Center, of which 2,457 are report primaries, being 25.4 percent, by the identifier rule set out under The Definition of Primary. Their median year is 2010. Of the 9,339 dated records, 871, being 9.3 percent, date from before 1966, the years in which the X-100 and the X-19 were designed, built and flown, and 4,131, being 44.2 percent, date from 2015 or later.

The vehicle’s own literature is small, and outside one document it is encyclopaedic. The keystone’s literature is the opposite, being deep, primary, and two decades older than the aircraft.

That inversion is the defining feature here. Ribner 1943, Ribner 1943, Ribner 1943, Ribner 1945 and Ribner 1945 are wartime and immediately post-war work on a stability nuisance, and they are the strongest citations in this article. The X-19 exists because someone read that literature and asked whether the nuisance could be a feature.

The tilt-wing and convertiplane design literature of the late 1950s is well populated, in McCormick and Mallen 1956, McCormick and Mallen 1957, Stepniewski 1957, Mallen and Dancik 1959, Dallas and Irvin 1956 and McCormick 1956, with the aeroelastic problems in Loewy and Yntema 1958.

The vehicle’s primary record is the final report, AFFDL-TR-66-195, Fluk et al 1967, Volume I and Fluk et al 1967, Volume II, which Curtiss-Wright wrote for the Air Force after the flight test contract ended as a critical review of the whole technology. It covers the history from the X-100, the radial force theory and its correlation with test, the propellers, the control system, the tandem wing, ground effect, the wind tunnel programme, structural loads, power-off flight, the flight test summary with the account of the last flight, and the company’s own assessment. It is a contractor’s report, and its notice page states that publication does not constitute Air Force approval of its findings. The documents it cites for the flights themselves, Curtiss-Wright X-19 Flight Test Reports Nos. 8 to 50 and the accident submissions, are not available in the public archives, so the flight-by-flight record rests on the report’s summary of them. Yaggy and Rogallo 1960 is the independent NASA measurement of the keystone force on a full-scale Curtiss-Wright propeller. Two later documents about the aircraft itself are known here by their titles only, a 1965 paper on the development and flight test results of the tri-service X-19 in Borst 1965 and a 1990 paper on the lessons learned from it in Borst 1990. Four research records name the X-19 in their titles, being those two and the two volumes of the final report.

The Definition of Primary

Primacy is a property of the document, and this survey derives it from the identifier. A record is a report primary when it is a NASA Technical Reports Server record, when it carries a digital object identifier under the 10.21236 prefix, which Crossref registers for Defense Technical Information Center reports, or when it is cited at that archive’s own address. By that rule 1,871 primaries are Technical Reports Server records and 586 are Defense Technical Information Center reports. The final report and the full-scale wind tunnel measurements that carry this article’s keystone are report primaries under that rule.

The rule undercounts what is first-hand. Papers of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics and of the Society of Automotive Engineers, and journal papers by the engineers and pilots who built and flew aircraft of this class, are primary by any reading and are not reached by an identifier rule, the two later papers on the X-19 itself among them. The institutional records of the aircraft are cited as curated references and are not counted in the survey at all. 25.4 percent is therefore a lower bound on how much of the survey is first-hand.

Thin Subjects

Six subjects that this article’s derivations and its account of the loss depend on have thin literatures. Each count below is the number of research records in this survey whose title carries at least one of the listed terms, with a hyphen read as a space. Where a row joins two groups of terms with the words together with, a title must carry a term from each group.

Subject	Title terms counted	Records
the force normal to a propeller’s axis	normal force, normal forces, radial force, radial forces, radial lift, side force, side forces, in plane force, in plane forces, in plane load, in plane loads, lateral force, lateral forces, lateral load, lateral loads together with propeller, propellers	7
the activity factor	activity factor	0
the propeller as a fin	fin, fins together with propeller, propellers	2
the propeller load at twice propeller frequency	2P, twice per revolution, two per revolution, second harmonic	0
the cast magnesium housing	magnesium	1
the cross-shaft interconnecting the propellers	cross shaft, cross shafts, cross shafting, interconnect, interconnected, interconnecting, interconnection	4

The keystone is studied under the propeller’s condition rather than under its own name. Seven titles name the force normal to a propeller’s axis under any of its names, two of them from 2015 or later, while 97 records on propellers in yaw, at incidence and in non-axial flow date from 2015 or later. The thinness of the name is therefore not a thinness of the subject.

No title names the activity factor, although it is the blade parameter by which the final report specifies the X-19’s propeller, so the figure of 168 rests on the report alone.

The fin analogy has no modern literature. The two titles that name a fin together with a propeller both concern airships, so the projected side area that fixes the keystone’s magnitude rests on the wartime theory alone.

The load that destroyed the aircraft is not named in any title. No title names a load at twice propeller frequency, while nine titles name the once-per-revolution or first-order load of a propeller, so the vibratory companion of the radial lift force is studied at the first harmonic and not at the second.

The housing appears only as a material. The one title that names magnesium concerns the exposure of cast magnesium alloys aboard an aircraft carrier, so the fatigue of the X-19’s cast housing is known from the final report’s summary alone.

The interconnected drive is the subject of four titles, two on the effect of cross-shafting on the engine-out landing reliability of vertical take-off aircraft and two on deflected-slipstream aircraft with interconnected propellers.

Aircraft moments of inertia are not thin. The survey holds 23 titles that name moments of inertia or mass properties, among them measurement methods for uncrewed aircraft and estimation from flight data, and none names the X-19. The three inertias in this article are therefore not quoted from a mass-properties source. They are the quotients of the design control moments and angular accelerations that the final report gives, which is the inertia the designers worked with at 12,300 pounds.

What the Survey Admits

A record is admitted only when a person reading its title finds it on this article’s subject, being the aircraft and its tri-service contemporaries, the propeller at incidence and the force normal to its axis, the propeller and the rotor in hover and in cruise, the tandem wing and its interference, the conversion, the systems the configuration depends on from the cross-shaft to the ejection seat, the structural dynamics that destroyed the aircraft, and the tilt-rotor, tilt-wing and electric aircraft that inherited the problem.

Naval architecture is the principal homonym of this subject. A propeller in oblique inflow is a live research subject there, where it means a ship screw meeting the wake of a hull at an angle, and that literature uses the same words as this article. Its records are excluded, and some of them cannot be recognised from the words of the title alone. A paper on the normal force of a rudder behind a controllable-pitch propeller, a David Taylor Model Basin method for calculating the spindle torque of a controllable-pitch propeller, and a report on the four-quadrant characteristics of propeller 4739, designed for the dock landing ship LSD-41, are all ship work, and report-server records carry no journal name that would reveal the venue. The phrase controllable pitch also resembles the vocabulary of controllability and handling qualities. Redundancy also names a topic in biomechanics, and a motor fault also arises in road vehicles, so records that share only those words are excluded. Correction, erratum, retraction and withdrawal notices, figure, table and supplementary-material records, peer-review reports and journal front matter are excluded as well, because a survey counts research works and those are parts of works or editorial events rather than works.

Many other words this subject depends on also name something else, and a record that shares only such a word is excluded. Curtiss-Wright is also a maker of valves, pumps and nuclear plant equipment and the name of a Supreme Court case on the foreign affairs power, X-100 is also a detergent used in biochemistry, and tri-service also names the conferences, health programmes and test facilities of the three armed services. Outwash is also a glacial deposit, figure of merit also measures amplifiers, detectors and thermoelectric materials, and neutral point also names the midpoint of a power converter. Slipstream also names a kind of speculative fiction and a mode of program execution, canard also names a false report and a mathematical cycle, biplane also names a form of medical imaging, and transition also names the transition of a boundary layer. Propeller also names a protein fold, a molecular shape, a surgical flap and an imaging sequence, and propellers that drive pumps, mixers, water turbines, fans and robots are not aircraft propellers. Electric propulsion and launch escape systems of spacecraft, the aerodynamics of missiles, projectiles and fighters at high incidence, and the air traffic management, demand, market, acceptance and policy of urban air mobility are excluded as well. Trade news, forum keynotes, specifications, parts listings and book reviews are excluded for the same reason as the notices above. A signed comment on a paper, a discussion of a paper and its author’s closure, a reply to a comment and a signed letter on a research subject are research works, because each argues about a result, so each is admitted when its subject is this article’s, while an unsigned item of these kinds and a referee’s report on a manuscript are not. Glossaries and encyclopedia and dictionary entries of two pages or fewer are not admitted either, and nor is a second deposit of a document already held, such as a report-server copy of a meeting paper whose publisher record is kept, because counting it would count one work twice.

Some records of doubtful relevance are kept. Papers on permanent-magnet machines, a counter-rotating compressor, turbine vane cooling with one engine inoperative and rotating detonation engines are cited in the modern survey for the motors, blades, engine-out case and design methods of present vertical flight, and a blade-element method for axial-flow fans of high solidity is cited for the solidity of the blade. Each shares machinery or method with that field rather than its aerodynamics, so each is kept and a reader may weigh it accordingly. Curtiss-Wright’s papers on its rotating combustion engines are kept because the M-200 was first designed around four such engines, and a history of the company’s defence procurement is kept for the programme’s industrial setting. Handling qualities, stability and drag studies of conventional aircraft, and the transmissions and turboshaft engines of helicopters, are kept for the criteria, the trim and interference arithmetic and the drive that the article reasons with.

Every research title has been read for relevance, so the off-topic share that remains is a matter of reading judgement. Records read as off topic have been removed, together with other deposits of the same works.

Epistemic State

Historical fact, from the primary record. The X-19 made 50 flights totalling 3 hours 45 minutes, with 84 lift-offs, all on serial 62-12197. Flights before Flight 38 were made at Caldwell, New Jersey, and the rest at the National Aviation Facilities Experimental Center at Pomona, New Jersey, where the aircraft was lost on Flight 50. The conversion envelope reached 100 knots with the nacelles at 45 degrees, and the aircraft never flew with its nacelles fully down. Flight 50 ended when the cast magnesium housing carrying the No. 2 propeller failed under vibratory loads at twice propeller frequency, an emergency manoeuvre and a stress concentration the analysis had underestimated. Both crew ejected at about 400 feet and 120 knots and survived. The second airframe never flew. The aircraft began as Curtiss-Wright’s Model 200 executive transport, was redesigned around two T55-L-5 engines after a management change, and was funded under a tri-service agreement. The X-100 preceded it and was flown from hover to cruise.

Historical fact, from secondary sources only. The first hover on 20 November 1963 and the cancellation four months after the loss come from the museum and Vertipedia accounts. The X-100’s construction and hover dates, and its single transition on 13 April 1960, come from the Smithsonian.

Published figures taken as given. From the final report, gross weight 13,660 pounds, wing areas 56.1 and 98.5 square feet, spans to the nacelle centrelines of 19.5 and 21.5 feet, chords of 34.5 and 55.0 inches, a quarter-chord separation of 23 feet 4.1 inches, four three-blade propellers of 13 feet with 8.4 square feet of blade area per blade and an activity factor of 168, propeller speeds of 1,204 revolutions per minute in hover and 957 in cruise, cruise at 325 knots at 15,000 feet, and the design hover control moments and accelerations. From the Jane’s-derived specification, two engines of 2,650 shaft horsepower and a maximum speed of 400 knots at 20,000 feet. That specification names the T55-L-7 while the final report names the T55-L-5 and gives no rating, so the installed power rests on a source whose engine designation the primary record contradicts.

Engineering analysis. Wing loading of 88.4 pounds per square foot, stall at 136.5 knots, download of 14.1 percent, hover induced velocity of 78.6 feet per second, permitted cruise tip speed of 644.2 feet per second, blade loading of 0.097 in hover, in-plane recovery fraction of 0.263, cruise lift share of 29.0 percent, equivalent plain wing of 215 to 216 square feet, the corridor table, the model’s angles of attack at the documented flight points, tandem attitude penalty of 1.90 degrees, control accelerations, cross-shaft torques, and the free-fall budget are all computed here from the documented geometry and are not quoted from any source. The derived cruise propeller speed of 946 revolutions per minute agrees with the record’s 957 to 1.1 percent.

Assumed quantities, each of which moves the answers. Maximum lift coefficient of 1.4, helical tip Mach limit of 0.90, blade loading limit of 0.14 used only as a reference, hover figure of merit of 0.70, download drag coefficient of 1.20 with slipstream factor 1.5, propeller efficiency of 0.80 at maximum speed, span efficiencies, an effective tandem aspect ratio of 6.0, and the use of the quarter-chord separation for the propeller station separation. The inertias are those implied by the design control powers at 12,300 pounds and are applied at 13,660. That the 8.4 square feet of blade area is per blade is an inference from the activity factor.

One modelling inconsistency is carried openly. The momentum model treats the hover figure of merit and the propeller efficiency at maximum speed as a single quantity, yet the calculation assumes 0.70 for the one and 0.80 for the other. Evaluated across both values, the corridor’s low-speed boundaries are identical while its high-speed boundaries move by about 5 percent. The figure of merit implied by the qualification schedule’s hover power is 0.647, below both.

The corridor needs both equilibrium equations. Solving the vertical balance for thrust and then testing that same balance is satisfied identically at any speed, and it would place the lower boundary near zero at every nacelle angle. Eliminating thrust between the vertical and horizontal balances is what gives the corridor its lower boundaries.

The model disagrees with the record by about 2 degrees. At the two documented conversion points the model’s angle of attack is about 2 degrees below the pilot’s estimates and the company’s calculation, and at the 160-knot design point it is 4.2 degrees below the company’s figure. Whether the model overstates the radial lift force or the angles are referred to different datums is not settled by the record.

Inference, not established. That the conditions flown depended on the radial lift force holds within this model only. That the seats fired the crew partly toward the ground is inferred from the recorded roll angle.

Unresolved conflict in the record. The final report gives the contract flight time as 3 hours 44 minutes in one place and 3 hours 38 minutes in another. Its company account of the crash places the impact in a swamp and its theodolite analysis in a dried reservoir bed. The X-100’s flight time is 10 hours in the final report and fourteen in the Smithsonian’s account. The final report states the speed objective as 400 miles an hour and as Mach 0.65, which cannot both hold.

Written from present knowledge. The contemporary material postdates the editorial date of this article.

Out of Scope

Blade element analysis of the propellers, including the twist distribution and the compressibility behaviour of a wide chord at the tip. Structural design of the wings and the nacelle pivots. Aeroelastic behaviour of a heavy nacelle on a short wing, which Loewy and Yntema 1958 indicates is not trivial. Gear tooth stress and lubrication, and the fatigue analysis of the propeller housing, which the final report treats only in summary. Acoustic behaviour, which the M-200 design meant to keep low with lightly loaded propellers at low tip speed. The autorotation and engine-out descent case. Ground effect and recirculation during vertical landing, which Huston and Winston 1960, O’Bryan 1961, Pruyn and Taylor 1970 and Renselaer 1975 address for adjacent configurations. Cockpit workload and the pilot’s task during a conversion that was never completed.

Conclusion

The X-19 asked whether a propeller could be counted on for lift, and the answer computed here is that it can, to the tune of about thirty percent of the lift slope in cruise, which is enough to build a wing loading of 88 pounds per square foot on where 63 would otherwise be needed. Curtiss-Wright’s design figure was at least 20 percent of the cruise lift.

That answer was never confirmed in cruise by the aircraft that asked the question. Fifty flights and 3 hours 45 minutes took the conversion to 100 knots with the nacelles at 45 degrees and no further, and the airframe was destroyed before the nacelles were ever fully down. The two conversion points the final report documents fall inside the model’s corridor only when the radial lift force is counted, and the model’s angles of attack there run about 2 degrees below what the pilot and the company estimated. The confirmation of a complete conversion belongs to the X-100, a smaller and lighter demonstrator that transitioned once in 1960.

Three conclusions survive the analysis and two do not. The wide propeller blade was bought for radial force, as the final report states, and hovering at a higher propeller speed than it cruised at kept that blade lightly loaded. The tandem layout supplied for nothing the pitch control that the X-18 required a turbojet to obtain, and supplied a hover yaw control that its designers judged unacceptable for an operational aircraft. The interconnected drive cured the X-18’s fatal engine-out asymmetry, at the cost of a transmission that had to be uprated beyond the weight it was drawn for.

The first conclusion that does not survive is the one the marketing rested on. The radial lift force did not make this aircraft possible. The corridor closes without it at higher speeds. What it made possible was a smaller wing and, in the model, the slower conversion speeds at which the aircraft flew. The second is the familiar account of the loss. The X-19 was not destroyed by its gearbox. The final report names a cast magnesium propeller housing that failed under vibratory loads at twice propeller frequency, loads that arose in conversion, that were as large as the steady load beside them, and that no method of the period could calculate.

The contemporary literature adds a final observation that changes the verdict on the programme rather than on the physics. Every argument Curtiss-Wright made about the steady force has held. The radial lift force is real and is now a routine term. The configuration of several propellers at two longitudinal stations with a small wing describes a large part of the current electric vertical take-off field, and electric motors have abolished the transmission whose design the company argued over. What destroyed the aircraft was the unsteady side of the same oblique flow that produces the radial lift force, and modern methods now compute that unsteady load in advance.

An aircraft can be correct in the argument it makes about the steady force and still be destroyed by the unsteady one.

References

Books

• Jenkins Landis and Miller 2003 American X-Vehicles, An Inventory X-1 to X-50
• Miller 2001 The X-Planes, X-1 to X-45

Reference

• Curtiss-Wright
• Curtiss-Wright X-100
• Curtiss-Wright X-19
• European Union Aviation Safety Agency, Prototype Technical Design Specifications for Vertiports, 2022
• European Union Aviation Safety Agency, Special Condition for VTOL and Means of Compliance, 2025
• Lombaerts, Kaneshige and Feary, Control Concepts for Simplified Vehicle Operations of a Quadrotor eVTOL Vehicle, 2020
• National Museum of the United States Air Force, Curtiss-Wright X-19
• Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, Curtiss-Wright X-100
• tiltrotor
• V-22
• Vertipedia, Curtiss-Wright X-100
• Vertipedia, Curtiss-Wright X-19
• X-22
• XC-142

Related Post

• X-1
• X-10
• X-11
• X-12
• X-13
• X-14
• X-15
• X-16
• X-17
• X-18
• X-2
• X-3
• X-4
• X-5
• X-6
• X-7
• X-8
• X-9
• X-Planes series

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