The Rockwell-MBB X-31 answered its research question by fighting, and no other aircraft in this series answered its question that way. The X-29 measured a divergence boundary. The X-30 was cancelled because the quantity it existed to establish could not be established on the ground. The X-31 was built, two were flown, and the thing it was meant to settle was settled by flying it against other aeroplanes and counting who won. The definitive account is Joyce’s history of the programme, published by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA, and available in full, and the Dryden fact sheet and the inventory of X-vehicles carry the specifications, the latter also on the reports server. This is the thirty-second article in the X-Planes series, following the X-1, the X-2, the X-3, the X-4, the X-5, the X-6, the X-7, the X-8, the X-9, the X-10, the X-11, the X-12, the X-13, the X-14, the X-15, the X-16, the X-17, the X-18, the X-19, the X-20, the X-21, the X-22, the X-23, the X-24, the X-25, the X-26, the X-27, the X-28, the X-29, and the X-30.

The easy misreading of this aircraft is that it existed to find out whether thrust vectoring would work. It did not. Exhaust vanes deflecting a jet to produce a control force were first used in the mid-1940s on the German V-2 ballistic missile, a rotatable nozzle flew on the Hawker Siddeley Harrier in a different form, and paddles developed by the same manufacturer’s Columbus division were flown from 1986 to 1987 on an F-14 before the X-31 team adopted them. Nothing about the mechanism was in doubt.

What was in doubt was whether the resulting capability is worth having. An aircraft that can hold seventy degrees of angle of attack under control can point its nose a long way off its flight path. Whether that wins a fight is a different question from whether it is achievable, and no amount of wind-tunnel work can answer it. It has to be tried.

The Research Question

The keystone is the tactical utility of post-stall manoeuvring, and it is measured as a rate rather than as a quantity.

Every previous aircraft in this series was dimensioned against a number. The X-1 existed to measure a drag rise, the X-15 to measure heating, the X-29 to measure a divergence boundary. Each of those is a quantity with units, and an instrument can be pointed at it.

The standard treatment of close combat as a discipline is Shaw’s account of fighter tactics and manoeuvring, and it reaches its conclusions about positional advantage without any of the apparatus below.

The X-31’s question has no units. It asks whether an advantage exists, and the only instrument that can be pointed at it is a designed sequence of trials with an outcome recorded for each one. That makes the X-31 the first aircraft in this series whose keystone is an experimental design rather than a measurement, and it changes what the programme had to get right. A thermocouple in the wrong place gives a wrong temperature. A badly chosen starting condition gives a wrong answer about whether an entire class of aeroplane is worth building.

Why the Keystone Is Not the Vectoring

The vectoring system is a means. It produces a yawing or pitching moment when the aerodynamic surfaces cannot, and the size of that moment is computable from the thrust, the deflection angle and the moment arm. The flight reports do not state the arm, and the calculation later in this article turns instead on the speed above which no arm the fuselage could hold would have been long enough.

The vectoring exists because a wing at seventy degrees of angle of attack is not producing useful control forces, and seventy degrees of angle of attack was wanted because at that attitude the nose points where the aircraft is not going. The aim-off angle available to a pilot is the angle of attack itself. A conventional fighter limited to thirty degrees can aim thirty degrees away from its flight path. An aircraft that can hold seventy can aim seventy.

The forty degrees of difference is the entire product of the programme, and the question is what forty degrees of aim is worth.

The Question Behind the Question

There is a second layer, and the programme understood it. Post-stall manoeuvring costs energy, and energy is the currency of air combat. Rotating the nose forty degrees further round requires flying at an angle of attack that produces enormous drag, and the speed lost has to be bought back before the aircraft can do anything else. If the pointing advantage yields a firing solution before the energy deficit becomes fatal, the technique wins. If it does not, the aircraft has made itself slow in front of an opponent who is not.

The trade has no obvious sign, and the programme therefore ended with a set of adversarial engagements rather than with an envelope chart.

Programme Origin

The Argument That Started It

The case for post-stall manoeuvring that led to this aircraft was made in Germany. Wolfgang Herbst, at the German manufacturer, argued through the late 1970s and early 1980s that the decisive quantity in close combat was not sustained turn rate but the time taken to bring weapons to bear, and that an aircraft able to fly controllably past the stall could shorten that time by rotating rather than turning. The NASA history traces his conviction to the early 1970s and dates the post-stall research he led with Karl Knauer at the German manufacturer from 1977.

The manoeuvre that carries his name is a rapid reversal of flight path performed by pitching up past the stall, rolling about the velocity vector while the speed decays, and pitching back down on the new heading. Flown to an arbitrary heading change rather than a full reversal it is usually called a J-turn. The manoeuvre was named after Herbst, and the Dryden fact sheet records both names.

The wider literature on this subject is gathered in the cluster on post-stall manoeuvring in The Contemporary Literature. The records closest to this section are these.

An Institutional First

The X-31 was the first experimental aircraft programme administered by a United States government agency as an international effort, and the arrangement is part of what the programme demonstrated. Rockwell International’s North American Aircraft division built the fuselage, vertical tail and canards. Messerschmitt-Bolkow-Blohm, later Deutsche Aerospace and later still part of Daimler-Benz, built the wing and the thrust-vectoring paddles and wrote the integrated flight and propulsion control laws.

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency managed the programme, redesignated the Advanced Research Projects Agency from March 1993. The flight test organisation at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Dryden Flight Research Center was an International Test Organization of roughly one hundred and ten people, declining to about sixty as the programme matured, drawing on the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the United States Navy, the United States Air Force, Rockwell, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German manufacturer. Fourteen pilots from those organisations flew the aircraft.

The programme was a key effort of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization Cooperative Research and Development Program, and that cooperative programme supplied the formal frame for the arrangement.

What the Institutional Frame Cost and Bought

The flight-test report is unusually candid about the overhead. Roughly six months of working together passed before the team functioned as one, and the report attributes that to duplicated verification, with government engineers independently checking contractor results until trust was established. The recommendation drawn from it is that a team of this kind should be physically co-located at least three months before flying begins, and approximately ninety percent of the test team was on site at Dryden.

Six project pilots was not too many, against an early fear that so many could not be kept current for high angle of attack work. The report attributes that to experience, to proficiency flying in other types, and to unlimited simulator access.

Sizing From First Principles

This section derives the keystone, and the keystone is arithmetic about counted outcomes rather than about forces. Such a derivation is unusual for this series, but it treats honestly what the programme produced.

The Measure of Effectiveness

The quantity the programme reported is the exchange ratio, which belongs to the family of measures of effectiveness for general-purpose forces that the operations-research literature had been formalising since the early 1970s. Let $R$ be the number of losses suffered by the adversary, designated Red, and let $B$ be the number of losses suffered by the aircraft under test, designated Blue. Then

\[E = \frac{R}{B} \tag{1}\]

A value above one means the aircraft under test came off better. A value of one is parity. The definition is simple and the trouble begins as soon as more than one kind of fight is flown.

A kill was scored when the rule-of-thumb weapons criteria and envelope were met for the weapon selected, and a ground kill was additionally scored when an aircraft penetrated a hard deck ten thousand feet above ground level, on the reasoning that a pilot driven into the ground has been defeated whether or not a weapon was fired.

The Four Starting Conditions

The simulation programme, and the flight programme after it, flew four starting conditions.

Condition Setup Meaning
Defensive 325 knots calibrated, 3,000 feet nose-on range, adversary in firing range The aircraft under test begins already losing
Offensive The mirror image, with the aircraft under test in firing range The aircraft under test begins already winning
Slow-speed line abreast Parallel tracks 1,500 feet apart at 215 knots calibrated Neutral, and slow enough to use post-stall at once
High-speed line abreast Parallel tracks 3,000 feet apart at 325 knots calibrated Neutral, and too fast to enter post-stall

The two line-abreast conditions are the interesting ones because they are neutral by construction. Two aircraft of identical performance starting line abreast should produce an exchange ratio of one. Any departure from one is attributable to the difference between the aircraft rather than to the way the fight was set up.

The Published Results

For the X-31 with post-stall technology against the F/A-18, the reported figures are as follows.

Starting condition Exchange ratio
Defensive 0.36
Offensive 8.5
Slow-speed line abreast 16
High-speed line abreast 0.86
Overall 1.83

Two things in that table deserve attention before any analysis.

The first is that the aircraft loses in two of the four conditions. At 0.36 in the defensive start and 0.86 in the high-speed line-abreast start, the X-31 with every advantage its designers gave it comes off worse than the F/A-18 it is fighting. The popular account of this programme does not usually mention that.

The second is that the overall figure of 1.83 is far below the average of the four. The gap is neither a rounding artefact nor a mistake, and it is the most important piece of arithmetic in the article.

Why the Overall Figure Is Not the Average

The arithmetic mean of the four condition ratios is

\[\bar{E} = \frac{0.36 + 8.5 + 16 + 0.86}{4} = 6.43 \tag{2}\]

and the published overall figure is 1.83. The two differ by a factor of 3.514. A reader who computed the average from the table and a reader who took the published overall would come away with completely different impressions of the same experiment.

The reason is that a pooled exchange ratio is not a mean of ratios. Confusing the two is the aggregation hazard that the statistical literature on combining proportions across strata exists to warn about. The pooled figure is a ratio of sums,

\[E_{\text{pool}} = \frac{\sum_i R_i}{\sum_i B_i} \tag{3}\]

and substituting $R_i = E_i B_i$ gives the identity that governs everything that follows,

\[E_{\text{pool}} = \frac{\sum_i E_i B_i}{\sum_i B_i} \tag{4}\]

The pooled ratio is the mean of the per-condition ratios weighted by the losses of the side in the denominator. A condition in which the aircraft under test was shot down fourteen times counts fourteen times as heavily as a condition in which it was shot down once.

The weighting is no defect of the measure. It is what a pooled ratio means, and the correct figure to report if the question is how the aircraft fared across the whole campaign. But it makes the headline figure depend on the distribution of engagements as much as on the aeroplane, and nothing in the published figure tells the reader which.

What the Weights Must Have Been

The identity can be inverted. The per-condition ratios and the pooled ratio are published, the counts are not, and the weights are therefore unknown. But they are not unconstrained.

Let $w_i$ be the fraction of the test aircraft’s total losses that occurred in condition $i$, so that the weights sum to one and the identity reads

\[E_{\text{pool}} = \sum_i w_i E_i \tag{5}\]

Partition the conditions into those below parity and those above it. The construction is a two-point mixture and the arithmetic is elementary, so the result is robust. To reach a pooled value as low as 1.83 with as little weight as possible on the losing conditions, put all the winning weight on the smaller of the two winning ratios and all the losing weight on the smaller of the two losing ratios. That gives the minimum share,

\[w_{\min} = \frac{E_{\text{win,min}} - E_{\text{pool}}}{E_{\text{win,min}} - E_{\text{lose,min}}} = \frac{8.5 - 1.83}{8.5 - 0.36} = 0.819 \tag{6}\]

and pairing the two largest instead gives the maximum,

\[w_{\max} = \frac{E_{\text{win,max}} - E_{\text{pool}}}{E_{\text{win,max}} - E_{\text{lose,max}}} = \frac{16 - 1.83}{16 - 0.86} = 0.936 \tag{7}\]

Between 81.9 and 93.6 percent of the X-31’s simulated losses occurred in the two starting conditions where it was behind. That bracket is derived from published numbers alone. It assumes nothing about the counts, nothing about the number of engagements, and nothing about the aircraft.

A bound that owes nothing to a model is the strongest kind of result available here, and this one says something the programme’s own summaries do not. The headline 1.83 is dominated by the conditions in which post-stall manoeuvring did not help.

The Headline Result Sits on a Knife Edge

The same identity answers a question the programme never asked, with an uncomfortable result. Rather than solving for the weight that reproduces 1.83, solve for the weight that would have driven the pooled figure to parity,

\[w_{\text{tip}} = \frac{E_{\text{win,min}} - 1}{E_{\text{win,min}} - E_{\text{lose,min}}} = \frac{8.5 - 1}{8.5 - 0.36} = 0.9214 \tag{8}\]

A losing share above 92.14 percent would have put the overall exchange ratio below one, and so would have reversed the programme’s headline conclusion from an advantage into a disadvantage.

The bracket established above runs from 81.9 to 93.6 percent, and it contains that threshold. The published result is therefore consistent with weight distributions that produce an overall advantage and with distributions that produce an overall disadvantage, and the published figures do not distinguish between them.

None of this claims that the programme was wrong. The point concerns what its headline number establishes on its own, which is less than it appears to. The flight testing that followed settles the question, and it settles it conditionally, as the arithmetic predicts.

The Same Arithmetic Applied to the Other Two Comparisons

The programme published two further sets. Without post-stall technology, the X-31 against the F/A-18 gave 0.20, 1.25, 0.25 and 0.85 across the four conditions with an overall of 0.37. The X-31 with post-stall technology against an identical X-31 without it gave 0.27, 23, 6.67 and 2.8 with an overall of 2.67.

Applying the same bracket to each gives a sharp contrast. The two-point extremes are the same construction in each case,

\[w_{\min} = \frac{E_{\text{win,min}} - E_{\text{pool}}}{E_{\text{win,min}} - E_{\text{lose,min}}} \qquad w_{\max} = \frac{E_{\text{win,max}} - E_{\text{pool}}}{E_{\text{win,max}} - E_{\text{lose,max}}} \tag{9}\]

and the width of the answer depends entirely on how far the winning ratios sit from the pooled value.

Comparison Mean of the four Pooled Losing-condition share
With post-stall against the F/A-18 6.43 1.83 81.9 to 93.6 percent
Without post-stall against the F/A-18 0.6375 0.37 83.8 to 100.0 percent
With post-stall against without 8.185 2.67 5.1 to 89.4 percent

The third row shows that the method has teeth. The X-31-against-X-31 comparison constrains the weights hardly at all, because one of its winning ratios, 2.8, sits close to the pooled value of 2.67 and can therefore carry almost any weight. The same calculation that pins the F/A-18 comparison to a narrow band says almost nothing about the other. A method that returns a wide answer when the data are uninformative is behaving correctly.

The topic is surveyed more fully in the cluster on rates, proportions and their intervals in The Contemporary Literature, and the records bearing most directly on the discussion here follow.

What the Sample Size Supports

The second question is harder, and the programme raised it in print only to note that a limited number of flight engagements would make an increase in winning difficult to quantify statistically. An exchange ratio estimated from a finite number of engagements is an estimate, and estimates have intervals.

Model each scored outcome as a Bernoulli trial in which the adversary is lost with probability $p$. The exchange ratio and that probability are the same quantity in different clothing,

\[E = \frac{p}{1 - p} \qquad \text{and} \qquad p = \frac{E}{1 + E} \tag{10}\]

so an interval for $p$ maps directly onto an interval for $E$. The standard references for inference on rates are Fleiss on statistical methods for rates and proportions and Agresti on categorical data. The interval used here is the Clopper-Pearson interval, defined by inverting the binomial tail. For $k$ adversary losses in $n$ scored outcomes the lower endpoint is the value of $p$ satisfying

\[\sum_{i=k}^{n} \binom{n}{i} p^{i} (1 - p)^{n - i} = \frac{\alpha}{2} \tag{11}\]

and the upper endpoint the value satisfying

\[\sum_{i=0}^{k} \binom{n}{i} p^{i} (1 - p)^{n - i} = \frac{\alpha}{2} \tag{12}\]

The construction goes back to the classical work on interval estimation for a binomial proportion. This interval is conservative, guaranteeing at least the nominal coverage rather than exactly it, and conservatism is the right choice here. The claim being tested is that an advantage exists, and a conservative interval will not manufacture one that the data do not support.

The counts are not published. The question is therefore asked the other way round. For a stated number of scored outcomes per condition, what does each published ratio establish? A ratio and a sample size together fix the split, since the adversary losses are

\[k = \operatorname{round}\left( \frac{n E}{1 + E} \right) \qquad \text{and} \qquad b = n - k \tag{13}\]

and the test applied to the resulting interval is whether it contains parity,

\[\text{separates} \iff 1 \notin [E_{\text{lo}}, E_{\text{hi}}] \iff \tfrac{1}{2} \notin [p_{\text{lo}}, p_{\text{hi}}] \tag{14}\]
Condition Ratio 12 outcomes 24 outcomes 48 outcomes
Defensive 0.36 includes parity excludes parity excludes parity
Offensive 8.5 excludes parity excludes parity excludes parity
Slow-speed line abreast 16 excludes parity excludes parity excludes parity
High-speed line abreast 0.86 includes parity includes parity includes parity

At twelve scored outcomes the defensive result of 0.36 carries an interval running from 0.058 to 1.34, which includes parity, so at that sample size the apparent disadvantage in the defensive start establishes nothing at all.

The high-speed line-abreast condition is the striking case. At 0.86 it is so close to parity that no feasible experiment could separate it. Scanning upward through sample sizes, the smallest number of scored outcomes at which a ratio of 0.86 could be distinguished from one at the conventional level is 691. The simulation design allowed 48 engagements for each case, twelve in each condition.

The finding does not criticise the programme. It reads the result correctly. The published commentary describes the high-speed line-abreast case as showing “more evening”, an apt description of a result that establishes nothing. The arithmetic here puts a number on how much nothing.

What the Design Could and Could Not Have Settled

Running the same scan for each condition gives the sample size at which each published ratio becomes separable from parity.

Condition Ratio Scored outcomes needed
Slow-speed line abreast 16 6
Offensive 8.5 9
Defensive 0.36 20
High-speed line abreast 0.86 691

The experiment was well matched to two of its four conditions and hopeless for a third. The slow-speed line-abreast result, the one the programme identified as its highest priority for flight testing, needs six scored outcomes to establish itself. The high-speed line-abreast result needs more than a hundred times as many.

The programme reached that conclusion by judgement and reached it correctly. The flight-test priority order it settled on was slow-speed line abreast first, then defensive, then high-speed line abreast, then offensive. The first two are exactly the two conditions where a modest number of engagements can resolve something, and the NASA history records the ordering as arrived at from which conditions showed the largest difference between the two configurations and from practical limits such as the entry-speed restriction, with statistical difficulty raised only as a caution about the offensive condition.

The Vehicle

The X-31 was small, single-engined, and closer to parity with its adversary than the popular account suggests. The published table is unusually complete for a research aircraft, because the NASA history reproduces the type’s entry in the standard reference work, the 1996 to 1997 edition of Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft.

Quantity Value Metric
Wing span 23 ft 10 in 7.26 m
Wing area 226.3 sq ft 21.02 m²
Wing aspect ratio 2.51  
Wing leading-edge sweep 56.6 degrees at the root, cranked to 45 degrees outboard  
Canard span 8 ft 8 in 2.64 m
Canard area 23.60 sq ft 2.19 m²
Fin including dorsal 28.87 sq ft 2.68 m²
Rudder 8.68 sq ft 0.81 m²
Length excluding probe 43 ft 4 in 13.21 m
Fuselage excluding probe 40 ft 8 in 12.39 m
Height 14 ft 7 in 4.44 m
Empty weight equipped 11,410 lb 5,175 kg
Fuel 4,136 lb 1,876 kg
Normal flying weight 14,600 lb 6,622 kg
Maximum takeoff weight 15,935 lb 7,228 kg
Engine One General Electric F404-GE-400  
Afterburning thrust 16,000 lbf 71 kN
Design load factor Plus nine, minus four  
Maximum operating altitude 40,000 ft 12,200 m
Highest speed attained Mach 1.28 at 38,000 ft  

A Consistency Check on the Published Table

The table checks against itself in three places, a test that matters because a specification sheet transcribed through several publications acquires errors.

The aspect ratio implied by the span and the area is

\[A = \frac{b^{2}}{S} = \frac{23.83^{2}}{226.3} = 2.509 \tag{15}\]

against a published 2.51. The wing loading at normal flying weight is

\[\frac{W}{S} = \frac{14{,}600}{226.3} = 64.52 \ \text{lb/ft}^{2} \tag{16}\]

against a published 64.52, which agrees exactly. The thrust-to-weight ratio at normal weight is 1.096 and at maximum takeoff weight it is 1.004, against a published power loading of one pound per pound of static thrust at maximum weight.

The last of those is the number that shaped the programme. The design study had established that the concept needed a thrust-to-weight ratio of at least one, and the airframe gained weight during construction until it reached roughly sixteen thousand pounds and the ratio fell to about unity. Radar, air-refuelling capability and the ability to carry a fighter weapons load were deleted to hold the line. The aeroplane that flew the combat evaluation was therefore at the bottom edge of its requirement, and the NASA history is blunt about the consequence, calling the airframe underpowered against a more powerful F/A-18 with a wing better suited to conventional turning.

What the Lift Curve Has to Be

A number the programme never published can be recovered from something a test pilot said out loud. Reviewing the accident that destroyed the first aircraft, one of the project pilots observed that anybody on the programme would know that twenty degrees of angle of attack corresponds to about 135 to 140 knots, a remark the NASA history quotes.

That statement is a trim point, and a trim point determines a lift-curve slope. The relations used through this section are the standard ones set out in Etkin on the dynamics of flight, Nelson on flight stability and Cook on flight dynamics principles. In level flight the lift equals the weight, so

\[C_L = \frac{W}{q S} \qquad \text{with} \qquad q = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho_0 V_c^{2} \tag{17}\]

At 137.5 knots calibrated and a weight near 14,000 pounds late in a sortie the dynamic pressure is 64.0 pounds per square foot and the lift coefficient is 0.9665. Dividing by twenty degrees gives

\[C_{L\alpha} = 0.04833 \ \text{per degree} = 2.769 \ \text{per radian} \tag{18}\]

That number can be checked against two formulae that never saw the aeroplane. For an unswept wing of low aspect ratio the Helmbold relation gives

\[C_{L\alpha} = \frac{\pi A}{1 + \sqrt{1 + (A/2)^{2}}} = \frac{\pi (2.51)}{1 + \sqrt{1 + 1.575}} = 3.027 \ \text{per radian} \tag{19}\]

and for a swept wing of low aspect ratio the standard compressible form, as tabulated in the stability and control handbook of the period, gives

\[C_{L\alpha} = \frac{2 \pi A}{2 + \sqrt{\dfrac{A^{2} \beta^{2}}{\kappa^{2}} \left(1 + \dfrac{\tan^{2} \Lambda}{\beta^{2}}\right) + 4}} = 2.278 \ \text{per radian} \tag{20}\]

at 56.6 degrees of leading-edge sweep. The inferred whole-aircraft value of 2.769 sits between them, 21.5 percent above the swept-wing figure, and the canard accounts for the difference in the right direction. A surface ahead of the wing contributes to the whole-aircraft slope in proportion to its own area and its own slope, referred to the wing reference area and scaled by an efficiency that accounts for upwash,

\[\Delta C_{L\alpha} = \eta \, \frac{S_c}{S} \, C_{L\alpha,c} \tag{21}\]

The canard is 10.4 percent of the wing area, and at a slope near 2.5 per radian with an efficiency of 1.2 it contributes 0.313, giving 2.591 against an inferred 2.769, a difference of 6.4 percent.

Comparing the inferred value against the unswept formula alone and explaining the disagreement by appealing to the canard would be backwards. A canard in trim carries positive lift and therefore raises the whole-aircraft slope. Sweep is what lowers it, and this aeroplane has a great deal of sweep. The two formulae bracketing the answer is a much stronger statement than either one alone.

The broader record appears under the cluster on canard and delta configurations in The Contemporary Literature. These records bear most closely on the argument above.

Dependent Systems

Thrust Vectoring and the Moment It Produces

Three carbon-carbon thrust-vectoring paddles were mounted around the nozzle and driven into the exhaust by actuators. The concept came from Rockwell’s earlier work for the Navy, flight tested on an F-14 with paddle-like vanes on either side of the speed brake housing, and it was selected over a multi-axis vectoring nozzle for reasons that were mostly financial. The paddles saved approximately sixty million dollars in development against an axisymmetric vectoring nozzle.

The mass accounting gives the clearest justification the choice has.

Item Weight
Three carbon-carbon paddles 103 lb
Aft-fuselage supporting frame 28 lb
Vectoring hardware support 30 lb
Flight control system components 79 lb
Total 240 lb

against a four-hundred-pound fully axisymmetric nozzle on the later F-16 multi-axis thrust vectoring programme. Carbon-carbon was chosen over the Inconel used on the F/A-18 High Alpha Research Vehicle specifically to avoid nose ballast, because the paddles sit far aft and every pound there costs several forward. The Inconel-vaned research aircraft required a large amount of ballast and lost performance for it.

Paddle deflection was originally limited to 26 degrees and later increased to 35, which produced a jet deflection of 16 degrees. Vane travel was separately increased from 27 degrees to 34 after an early departure, the 27-degree limit having existed to stop the vanes striking one another. The paddle and vane figures are those of the NASA history. The maximum jet deflection rate was 40 degrees per second, as the review of high angle of attack control system performance states.

The yawing moment available from vectoring is the side component of thrust acting on a moment arm,

\[N_{\text{tv}} = T \sin \delta_j \, \ell_v \tag{22}\]

and expressing it as a coefficient in the usual way gives

\[C_{n,\text{tv}} = \frac{T \sin \delta_j \, \ell_v}{q S b} \tag{23}\]

The important feature of that expression is that dynamic pressure appears in the denominator and nowhere else. An aerodynamic control surface produces a moment proportional to dynamic pressure, so its coefficient is independent of speed. A vectored moment is fixed by thrust, so its coefficient falls as one over dynamic pressure. The two mechanisms have opposite dependences on speed, and that single fact organises everything else in this section.

Readers wanting more can turn to the clusters on thrust vectoring and on fluidic thrust vectoring in The Contemporary Literature. The following records sit nearest to this discussion.

The Unreported Moment Arm

The distance from the centre of gravity to the vane station is not given in the flight reports, and the departure record does not supply it.

The envelope expansion report records that the departure from controlled flight at 58 degrees of angle of attack during a split-S was caused by a yawing-moment asymmetry so large that it overcame the available thrust-vectoring authority. The asymmetry report places the same event on the second aircraft, during a 2-g split-S to 60 degrees with grit strips on the forebody and noseboom, and computes the maximum asymmetry during that manoeuvre as a yawing-moment coefficient of 0.125. The NASA history quotes the flight-test engineer’s account, which puts the manoeuvre at 35,000 feet and Mach 0.4 with maximum afterburner set. The asymmetry report also bounds the second aircraft’s asymmetry in steady decelerations, with the forebody unmodified, at about 0.080.

A departure says only that the asymmetry exceeded the authority, so the vectoring relation, solved for the arm, gives an upper bound and not a value,

\[\ell_v < \frac{C_{n0} \, q S b}{T \sin \delta_j} \tag{24}\]

At 35,000 feet the standard atmosphere set out in the next section gives $\theta = 0.7594$ and $\delta = 0.2353$, and a speed of sound of 972.9 feet per second, so Mach 0.4 is 389.1 feet per second true. The dynamic pressure follows from the pressure and the Mach number,

\[q = \tfrac{\gamma}{2} \, p_0 \, \delta \, M^{2} = 0.7 \times 2{,}116.22 \times 0.2353 \times 0.4^{2} = 55.77 \ \text{psf} \tag{25}\]

and the thrust lapsed with the pressure ratio is $16{,}000 \times 0.2353 = 3{,}765$ pounds. The bound is then

\[\ell_v < \frac{0.125 \times 55.77 \times 226.3 \times 23.83}{3{,}765 \times \sin 16^{\circ}} = \frac{37{,}594}{1{,}037.8} = 36.2 \ \text{feet} \tag{26}\]

That bound excludes only a centre of gravity within about four and a half feet of the nose of a fuselage 40.67 feet long, which the geometry excludes already. It is also soft. The thrust-lapse exponent of the model is not measured, and moving it from 0.8 to 1.2 moves the bound from 27.1 to 48.4 feet. The departure record therefore does not determine the arm. The one value found is in a study of differential canard deflection, Whiting 1996, which tabulates for the full-scale aircraft a centre of gravity at fuselage station 269.2 inches and a vane centre of pressure at 480 inches, an arm of 17.57 feet. At that arm the vectoring could supply a yawing-moment coefficient of only about 0.061 at the departure condition, consistent with the departure. What the flight record does support is the question the next section asks, namely how long an arm would have had to be.

The Departure Boundary

Without a flight-report value for the arm, the available authority cannot be tabulated as a coefficient. What can be tabulated is the arm the vectoring would have needed to hold a given asymmetry, which uses only the thrust, the deflection and the dynamic pressure, and which can be set against the length of the fuselage. Thrust is lapsed with the pressure ratio of the standard atmosphere, the working approximation for a turbofan at fixed Mach number.

The atmosphere model is the 1976 standard troposphere and the density and pressure ratios it supplies are what the thrust lapse and the true-airspeed conversions rest on, so the relations are given rather than left implicit. The tabulated form goes back to the altitude-pressure tables of the 1930s and was standardised internationally in the civil aviation atmosphere. Writing the temperature, pressure and density ratios against their sea-level values,

\[\theta = \frac{T}{T_0} = 1 - 6.87535 \times 10^{-6} \, h \qquad \delta = \frac{p}{p_0} = \theta^{5.2559} \qquad \sigma = \frac{\rho}{\rho_0} = \frac{\delta}{\theta} \tag{27}\]

and the speed of sound follows from the temperature alone,

\[a = \sqrt{\gamma R T} = \sqrt{\gamma R T_0 \theta} \tag{28}\]
Altitude Density ratio Pressure ratio
10,000 ft 0.7385 0.6877
20,000 ft 0.5328 0.4595
30,000 ft 0.3741 0.2970
35,000 ft 0.3099 0.2353

Thrust is lapsed with the pressure ratio. A turbofan at fixed Mach number carries thrust roughly in proportion to the ambient pressure, so the working model is the simplest member of a family that runs from Bronz et al. 2017 through identified engine performance models,

\[T(h) = T_{\text{SL}} \, \delta(h)^{n} \tag{29}\]

with the exponent near unity. The exponent is carried explicitly so that its effect on the answer can be reported.

The arm needed to hold an asymmetry $C_{n0}$ is the vectoring relation solved at equality,

\[\ell_{\text{req}} = \frac{C_{n0} \, q S b}{T \sin \delta_j} \tag{30}\]

and it is tabulated against the steady bound of 0.080 and against the departure’s 0.125.

Altitude Calibrated airspeed Dynamic pressure Thrust Arm needed against 0.080 Arm needed against 0.125
10,000 ft 150 kt 76.2 psf 11,003 lb 10.8 ft 16.9 ft
10,000 ft 200 kt 135.4 psf 11,003 lb 19.3 ft 30.1 ft
10,000 ft 250 kt 211.6 psf 11,003 lb 30.1 ft 47.0 ft
20,000 ft 150 kt 76.2 psf 7,353 lb 16.2 ft 25.3 ft
20,000 ft 200 kt 135.4 psf 7,353 lb 28.8 ft 45.0 ft
20,000 ft 250 kt 211.6 psf 7,353 lb 45.0 ft 70.4 ft
30,000 ft 150 kt 76.2 psf 4,751 lb 25.1 ft 39.2 ft
30,000 ft 200 kt 135.4 psf 4,751 lb 44.6 ft 69.7 ft
30,000 ft 250 kt 211.6 psf 4,751 lb 69.7 ft 108.9 ft

Two entries worked through show the arithmetic,

\[\ell_{\text{req}}^{20{,}000,\,150} = \frac{0.080 \times 76.2 \times 226.3 \times 23.83}{7{,}353 \times \sin 16^{\circ}} = \frac{32{,}874}{2{,}026.8} = 16.2 \ \text{ft} \qquad \ell_{\text{req}}^{30{,}000,\,250} = \frac{0.080 \times 211.6 \times 226.3 \times 23.83}{4{,}751 \times \sin 16^{\circ}} = \frac{91{,}288}{1{,}309.6} = 69.7 \ \text{ft} \tag{31}\]

Where the needed arm exceeds the 40.67 feet of the fuselage, no placement of the vanes could have held the asymmetry, whatever the real arm is. At thirty thousand feet and 250 knots even the steady bound of 0.080 needs an arm $69.7 / 40.67 = 1.71$ times the length of the aeroplane. Setting the needed arm equal to the fuselage length $L$ gives the calibrated airspeed above which that is so,

\[q_{L} = \frac{L \, T \sin \delta_j}{C_{n0} \, S b} \qquad V_{c,L} = \sqrt{\frac{2 q_{L}}{\rho_0}} \tag{32}\]

and at twenty thousand feet against the departure’s asymmetry

\[q_{L} = \frac{40.67 \times 7{,}353 \times \sin 16^{\circ}}{0.125 \times 226.3 \times 23.83} = \frac{82{,}428}{674.09} = 122.3 \ \text{psf} \qquad V_{c,L} = 320.8 \ \text{ft/s} = 190.0 \ \text{knots} \tag{33}\]
Altitude Thrust Speed above which no arm suffices, against 0.080 Against 0.125
10,000 ft 11,003 lb 290.6 kt 232.5 kt
20,000 ft 7,353 lb 237.6 kt 190.0 kt
30,000 ft 4,751 lb 191.0 kt 152.8 kt
35,000 ft 3,765 lb 170.0 kt 136.0 kt

The shape of that table is the content. The ceiling on speed falls with altitude because thrust does, and the departure’s asymmetry lowers it by a factor of $\sqrt{0.125 / 0.080} = 1.25$ at every height. Below those speeds whether the vectoring sufficed depends on the arm. The departure itself, at an equivalent airspeed of 128.3 knots against a ceiling of 136.0 knots at 35,000 feet, sits below its own threshold, so it bounds the arm rather than showing that no arm would have done.

Its equivalent airspeed follows from the dynamic pressure computed above,

\[V_e = \sqrt{\frac{2 q}{\rho_0}} = \sqrt{\frac{2 \times 55.77}{0.0023769}} = 216.6 \ \text{ft/s} = 128.3 \ \text{knots} \tag{34}\]

The measured asymmetries themselves were worse than the round number suggests. In the unmodified forebody configuration on the second aircraft the maximum was bounded at 0.080 with no distinguishable trend against angle of attack, each manoeuvre producing what the asymmetry report describes as a random pattern. Adding boundary-layer transition strips to the forebody and noseboom made the asymmetry more regular and simultaneously made it larger, reaching almost 0.100, and in the worst single case, with the forebody strips alone, the asymmetry swung from 0.077 in one direction at 52 degrees to 0.088 in the other by 55 degrees, a total change of

\[\Delta C_n = 0.165 \ \text{across three degrees of angle of attack} \tag{35}\]

The coefficient is a moment divided by a scale, so the disturbance the control system faces at a given flight condition is

\[N_{0} = C_{n0} \, q S b \tag{36}\]

which at twenty thousand feet and 150 knots calibrated is 4,108 foot-pounds for every hundredth of coefficient, so the measured bound of 0.080 is 32,863 foot-pounds and the worst observed swing of 0.165 is 67,780 foot-pounds, delivered across three degrees of angle of attack.

A yawing moment coefficient that reverses sign and changes by 0.165 over three degrees is not a disturbance a control system rejects. It is a cliff.

The cluster on yaw asymmetry and forebody flow in The Contemporary Literature holds the wider literature, and these records lie closest to the present subject.

What Fixed It

The fix was aerodynamic and it was small. Narrow quarter-inch grit strips were added to the nose to regularise the vortices. Nose strakes six tenths of an inch wide and twenty inches long were added, and the nose tip was blunted from an essentially sharp point to a radius of three quarters of an inch. The blunting was the more significant of the two.

The measured effect was to raise the angle of attack at which asymmetry begins by seven to twelve degrees, to reduce the maximum asymmetry, and, most usefully, to eliminate the random variation and make the asymmetry repeatable. A longer forty-six-inch strake was tried and changed the one-g deceleration asymmetries very little, shifting their onset about two degrees higher.

An error in manufacture turned into a measurement. The modified nose tip on the second aircraft was found late in testing to be one inch in diameter rather than the one and a half inches specified and built on the first. That unintended difference is a data point on the sensitivity of the phenomenon to a dimension of about half an inch on a forty-foot aeroplane.

There is a second and stranger case. The two aircraft did not fly alike, and the second was known on the programme as the evil twin. Testing it with several lengths of extended nose established that eight and a half inches of added strake length made the two fly identically, as direct a demonstration of forebody sensitivity as the programme produced.

The Altitude Effect the Engineers Reported and Never Wrote Down

The flight-test report contains an observation presented as a lesson about test technique. The traditional build-up approach completes a block of testing at high altitude and repeats it lower, on the reasoning that control power at low airspeed is a function of dynamic pressure and the same calibrated airspeed therefore gives the same control power at any height. The report observes that this reasoning fails when a large share of control power comes from the engine, and that manoeuvres impossible at thirty thousand feet became possible at twenty thousand.

That observation follows directly from the opposite speed dependences noted above, and the arm is not needed to compute it. At constant calibrated airspeed the aerodynamic authority is constant by construction, since dynamic pressure referred to sea-level density is what calibrated airspeed measures. The vectored authority moves with thrust, and thrust at fixed Mach number moves with the ambient pressure ratio, while the unknown arm cancels,

\[\frac{C_{n,\text{tv}}(h_2)}{C_{n,\text{tv}}(h_1)} = \frac{T(h_2)}{T(h_1)} \approx \frac{\delta(h_2)}{\delta(h_1)} \tag{37}\]

Between twenty thousand and thirty thousand feet that ratio is 0.6462, a loss of 35.4 percent of the vectored control authority for no change of airspeed whatever. The sensitivity to the lapse model is modest, giving 0.7052 at an exponent of 0.8 and 0.5922 at an exponent of 1.2.

The test team responded by starting each block at thirty thousand feet, watching control margins on the control-room strip charts, and restarting lower when the margins ran out. Where the margins allowed, they went on to seventy degrees of angle of attack at twenty thousand feet on blocks that might have stopped at fifty degrees ten thousand feet higher. The quantitative explanation is a one-line ratio, and the programme found the answer empirically because nobody had written the ratio down.

Why the Advantage Is Not a Smaller Turn Radius

Several accounts of this aircraft, including official ones such as the NASA history, attribute its combat performance partly to a smaller turning radius. The arithmetic does not support that.

Turn radius in a level turn is

\[r = \frac{V^{2}}{g \sqrt{n^{2} - 1}} \tag{38}\]

which falls with speed and rises when the available load factor falls. A post-stall aircraft has both a low speed and a very low available load factor, and the two effects work against each other.

The load factor a wing can produce is the lift it can produce divided by the weight,

\[n = \frac{q S C_L}{W} \tag{39}\]

and setting that to one gives the slowest speed at which the aircraft can hold a given angle of attack in level flight,

\[V_{\text{level}} = \sqrt{\frac{2 W}{\rho_0 S C_L}} \tag{40}\]

Taking a lift coefficient of 1.00 at seventy degrees of angle of attack, which is past the vortex-lift peak and is an estimate rather than a measurement, the available load factor and the resulting radius are as follows.

Calibrated airspeed Dynamic pressure Load factor available Radius Turn rate
120 kt 48.8 psf 0.76 descending not applicable
155 kt 81.3 psf 1.26 2,771 ft 5.4 deg/s
175 kt 103.7 psf 1.61 2,155 ft 7.9 deg/s
225 kt 171.4 psf 2.66 1,821 ft 11.9 deg/s

Level flight at seventy degrees of angle of attack requires 138.0 knots calibrated, and below that the manoeuvre is a descending transient rather than a turn. The level-flight relation at the normal flying weight and the assumed lift coefficient gives

\[V_{\text{level}} = \sqrt{\frac{2 \times 14{,}600}{0.0023769 \times 226.3 \times 1.00}} = 233.0 \ \text{ft/s} = 138.0 \ \text{knots} \tag{41}\]

Every radius in the table exceeds the 1,171 feet available at corner speed, which is derived below. The post-stall regime is not where this aeroplane turns most tightly.

The primary sources are largely consistent with that reading even where the summaries are not. The tactical utility paper describes post-stall manoeuvring as a repositioning tool and a way to rotate and point, and where it speaks of smaller-radius turns it describes a descending funnel in which the X-31 is slower than its opponent, not a sustained level turn.

What the Advantage Is

The nose leads the flight path by exactly the angle of attack. The statement defines angle of attack, and it describes the whole mechanism. An aircraft limited to thirty degrees can aim thirty degrees off its velocity vector and an aircraft that holds seventy can aim seventy, so the capability bought is

\[\Delta \psi_{\text{aim}} = \alpha_{\max} - \alpha_{\text{conv}} = 70 - 30 = 40 \ \text{degrees} \tag{42}\]

The agility-metrics literature of the period was trying to name that quantity. The work on Skow et al 1985 and the later assessment of the proposed metrics were contemporaneous with this programme.

A conventional aircraft can obtain the same forty degrees of aim only by turning its velocity vector through forty degrees, and the time that takes follows from the turn rate,

\[t = \frac{\Delta \psi}{\omega} \qquad \text{with} \qquad \omega = \frac{g \sqrt{n^{2} - 1}}{V} \tag{43}\]
Condition Turn rate Time to buy forty degrees
172 kt at 2.25 g 12.80 deg/s 3.13 s
250 kt at 4.00 g 16.92 deg/s 2.36 s
343.9 kt at 9.00 g 28.41 deg/s 1.41 s

Between one and a half and three seconds, depending on where in the envelope the fight is. In a slow fight it is three seconds, and three seconds inside gun range is a long time.

That is the product. Not a tighter turn, not a higher rate, but two to three seconds of pointing that the opponent cannot match, available at the moment the pilot chooses to spend the energy.

Corner Speed, and the Energy the Pointing Costs

The performance relations here follow Anderson on aircraft performance and design and Raymer on conceptual design, with the pilot-facing treatment in the standard naval aerodynamics manual and the configuration argument in Stinton’s anatomy of the aeroplane. The corner speed is where the lift limit meets the load-factor limit,

\[V^{*} = \sqrt{\frac{2 n_{\max} W}{\rho_0 S C_{L\max}}} \tag{44}\]

Taking the lift coefficient at the thirty-degree conventional limit from the inferred lift curve, 1.4498, and the design load factor of nine, the corner speed is 343.9 knots calibrated. There the instantaneous turn rate is 28.40 degrees per second, the radius is 1,171 feet, and a one-hundred-and-eighty-degree reversal takes 6.34 seconds.

Pointing costs energy and the cost is large. Specific energy is

\[E_s = h + \frac{V^{2}}{2 g} \tag{45}\]

and falling from corner speed to a post-stall exit at 120 knots, both calibrated, at 20,000 feet gives up the energy between the corresponding true airspeeds. The corner speed is fixed by a dynamic pressure, and the article reads every calibrated figure as the equivalent airspeed that gives the same dynamic pressure at sea-level density, so the true airspeed at height follows from the density ratio,

\[V = \frac{V_e}{\sqrt{\sigma}} \qquad V^{*} = \frac{580.5}{\sqrt{0.5328}} = 795.3 \ \text{ft/s} = 471.2 \ \text{knots} \qquad V_1 = \frac{202.5}{\sqrt{0.5328}} = 277.5 \ \text{ft/s} = 164.4 \ \text{knots} \tag{46}\]

The corner speed is Mach 0.767 at that height. The energy given up is then

\[\Delta E_s = \frac{V^{*2} - V_1^{2}}{2 g} = \frac{795.3^{2} - 277.5^{2}}{2 \times 32.174} = \frac{555{,}496}{64.348} = 8{,}630 \ \text{feet} \tag{47}\]

Recovering it takes time, and the time must be integrated rather than estimated, because specific excess power at the slow end bears no relation to its value once the aircraft has accelerated. The specific excess power is

\[P_s = \frac{V (T - D)}{W} \qquad \text{with} \qquad D = q S \left( C_{D0} + \frac{C_L^{2}}{\pi A e} \right) \tag{48}\]

This is the specific-excess-power accounting that underlies every energy-manoeuvrability comparison, a method the flight-test community was using to improve in-flight performance through the period, and the parabolic polar is the standard approximation to it.

At twenty thousand feet with a zero-lift drag coefficient of 0.022 and an efficiency factor of 0.70, the specific excess power at the slow end is 68.6 feet per second, with a lift coefficient of 1.323 and a drag of 3,743 pounds, and at the fast end it is 268.7 feet per second with a lift coefficient of 0.161 and a drag of 2,420 pounds. With thrust lapsed to 7,353 pounds and a density ratio of 0.5328, the slow end works out as

\[q = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho_0 \sigma V_1^{2} = 48.75 \ \text{psf} \qquad C_L = \frac{14{,}600}{48.75 \times 226.3} = 1.323 \qquad P_s = \frac{277.5 \, (7{,}353 - 3{,}743)}{14{,}600} = 68.6 \ \text{ft/s} \tag{49}\]

and the fast end as

\[q = 400.5 \ \text{psf} \qquad C_L = \frac{14{,}600}{400.5 \times 226.3} = 0.161 \qquad P_s = \frac{795.3 \, (7{,}353 - 2{,}420)}{14{,}600} = 268.7 \ \text{ft/s} \tag{50}\]

At constant altitude $dE_s = V \, dV / g$, so the recovery time is

\[t = \int_{V_1}^{V^{*}} \frac{V \, dV}{g \, P_s(V)} = 46.0 \ \text{s} \qquad \text{against} \qquad \frac{\Delta E_s}{P_s(V_1)} = \frac{8{,}632.7}{68.60} = 125.8 \ \text{s} \tag{51}\]

Integrating gives 46.0 seconds, evaluated by midpoint quadrature over 4,000 speed steps. A single-point estimate at the slow end would have said 125.8 seconds, wrong by a factor of $125.8 / 46.0 = 2.74$, so the integration is not optional. The answer is insensitive to the drag model, giving 44.5 seconds at a zero-lift drag coefficient of 0.018 and 47.6 seconds at 0.026.

Forty-six seconds is half of the ninety seconds after which an undecided flight engagement was scored as a draw. The pointing advantage is bought with a debt that is hard to repay inside the fight it was spent in, and the debt gives quantitative form to the programme’s own conclusion that post-stall manoeuvring works only when used selectively and in a timely manner.

The Flight Control System

Four digital fly-by-wire flight control computers, with no analogue or mechanical reversion of any kind. Three synchronous main computers drove the surfaces and a fourth acted as a tie-breaker when the three disagreed. The aircraft had thirty-two software releases over the course of the programme.

The control-law conventions and the simulation practice behind them are set out in Stevens and Lewis on aircraft control and simulation and in McRuer on aircraft dynamics and automatic control. The control laws, written by the German manufacturer, were of the predictive type, using a model of the flight path to map pilot commands and flight conditions onto surface deflections and thrust vectoring, where the American partner favoured a reactive type based on measured response, as the NASA history describes, and they ran in an integrated flight and propulsion control system that included the canard. The programme claimed as a first the integration of vectoring as an equivalent moment generator in pitch and yaw, transparent to the pilot, and the review of high angle of attack control system performance records 180 flight hours of trouble-free operation of the vectoring system.

Lateral stick commanded roll rate about the velocity vector rather than about the body axis. Velocity-vector roll is the correct command variable at high angle of attack, and it makes the manoeuvre flyable. The distinction is not cosmetic and the kinematics say why. A roll about the velocity vector is a combination of body-axis roll and yaw rates weighted by the angle of attack,

\[p_w = p \cos \alpha + r \sin \alpha \tag{52}\]
Angle of attack Roll-rate share Yaw-rate share
20 degrees 0.9397 0.3420
30 degrees 0.8660 0.5000
70 degrees 0.3420 0.9397

At seventy degrees the two weights are

\[\cos 70^{\circ} = 0.3420 \qquad \sin 70^{\circ} = 0.9397 \tag{53}\]

so at seventy degrees a roll about the velocity vector is 94.0 percent yaw rate. That single line explains a sentence in the programme’s own conclusions which otherwise reads as a correction of itself, where the main advantage is described as an apparent directional nose-pointing rate which is, in actuality, yaw rate or velocity-vector roll capability. At seventy degrees those are the same manoeuvre, and the yaw axis has to supply it. That axis is precisely the one whose aerodynamic control has been lost and whose vectored control the paddles restore. The maximum roll rate that could be commanded depended on the control power available at the flight condition, meaning on altitude, Mach number, dynamic pressure and angle of attack together.

Two control-law responses to the asymmetry problem stand out. Integrators were added to the roll-rate and sideslip feedbacks to tighten control of sideslip and velocity-vector roll rate in the presence of aerodynamic asymmetries, and the wind-axis roll rate command was limited in the post-stall regime, which the control system review describes as an acceptable compromise of roll performance against controllability.

A pilot-selectable angle of attack limiter, settable in five-degree increments between thirty and seventy degrees, was added after an inadvertent overshoot to 62 degrees when the limit was still fifty. It improved the repeatability of the data as much as it improved safety, which simplified the analysis.

The wider literature on this subject is gathered in the cluster on flight control system design, actuation and allocation in The Contemporary Literature. The records closest to this section are these.

Whether the Vectoring Was Fast Enough

The question usually asked of an actuation system is whether it is fast enough. The more useful question is which of its two limits binds first, because a system that saturates in position behaves differently from one that saturates in rate.

Full jet deflection travel is 16 degrees at 40 degrees per second, so full travel takes 400 milliseconds. A sinusoidal command of amplitude $A$ at frequency $\omega$ demands a peak rate of $A \omega$, so the amplitude at which the rate limit binds is

\[A_{\text{bind}} = \frac{\dot{\delta}_{\max}}{\omega} \tag{54}\]

At the frequency of the tailless divergence derived below, 2.390 per second, that amplitude is 16.74 degrees, and the position limit of 16 degrees is reached first. The system is position limited rather than rate limited at the frequency that matters, by a margin of 1.046 in amplitude.

The frequency at which the two limits coincide is 2.500 per second, or 1.05 times the divergence eigenvalue. The coincidence is very close, and the two numbers have nothing to do with each other, the ratio of a rate limit to a travel limit on one hand and a measured aerodynamic instability on the other. It is recorded as an observation and not as a claim about design intent, because nothing in the record says the sizing was done that way.

The Quasi-Tailless Experiment

In 1994 the aircraft was used to fly an aeroplane it was not, by destabilising itself in yaw with its own rudder to the level a smaller fin would have produced, and then holding the result with thrust vectoring.

The method was possible without major software change because the vectoring was already integrated into the control laws. The existing rudder augmentation could be reduced to any desired level or switched off entirely, a destabilising feedback to rudder and ailerons was introduced using sideslip, roll rate and yaw rate, the augmentation and forward-path command were redistributed to thrust vectoring, an additional lead-lag filter was placed in the vectoring feedback path to improve stability margins, and a safety disengagement reverted the aircraft automatically on a system failure or an envelope exceedance. Destabilisation gains corresponding to different simulated tail sizes were selectable by the pilot in flight, which gave a build-up capability within a single sortie.

The aerodynamic database was built by adding increments for tail-off and reduced-tail configurations to a basic model that had itself been corrected against flight-derived parameter identification results.

The reported result is the most quantitatively useful thing the experiment produced. Above thirty percent tail reduction the destabilised aircraft has a positive eigenvalue. The instability grows rapidly between thirty and seventy percent, and at complete tail removal it reaches a time to double amplitude of 290 milliseconds, demonstrated at a supersonic flight condition.

What 290 Milliseconds Determines

A divergent mode grows as $e^{\lambda t}$, so a time to double gives the eigenvalue directly. The practical consequences of flying an aircraft with such a root were worked out for statically unstable configurations under displacement and rate saturation and for the close-coupled canard with relaxed static stability that the X-31 resembles,

\[\lambda = \frac{\ln 2}{t_2} = \frac{0.6931}{0.290} = 2.3902 \ \text{per second} \tag{55}\]

For a yaw-only divergence the eigenvalue and the aerodynamic stiffness are related through the yaw inertia, in the form the flight measurement of lateral and directional stability literature established,

\[\lambda^{2} = -\frac{q S b \, C_{n\beta}}{I_z} \tag{56}\]

A single time to double fixes the ratio of stiffness to inertia and cannot fix either factor, and the flight reports omit the yaw inertia. The ratio is therefore reported first. The condition is quoted as Mach 1.2 at 38,000 feet in the quasi-tailless flight test report, and the relation needs a dynamic pressure, so the conversion runs through the speed of sound and the density ratio, using the axis and airspeed conventions that the Altman 1952 literature fixed long before this aeroplane,

\[V_{\text{true}} = M a \qquad V_{\text{eq}} = V_{\text{true}} \sqrt{\sigma} \qquad q = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho_0 \sigma V_{\text{true}}^{2} = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho_0 V_{\text{eq}}^{2} \tag{57}\]

The last equality is the check. Both routes must give the same dynamic pressure, and worked first at thirty thousand feet, inside the troposphere that the relations above describe, the speed of sound is 994.8 feet per second, so Mach 1.2 is a true airspeed of 1,194 feet per second and an equivalent airspeed of 730.1 feet per second, or 432.6 knots, and both routes return 633.4 pounds per square foot. Substituting gives

\[-\frac{C_{n\beta}}{I_z} = 1.6724 \times 10^{-6} \ \text{per slug foot squared per radian} \tag{58}\]

Assuming a yaw inertia gives a directional stiffness, and the sensitivity is linear.

Assumed yaw inertia Implied $C_{n\beta}$ per radian Per degree
15,000 slug ft² −0.02509 −0.000438
20,000 slug ft² −0.03345 −0.000584
25,000 slug ft² −0.04181 −0.000730

Those are plausible magnitudes for a tailless delta. At the demonstration altitude of 38,000 feet, above the tropopause where the temperature is constant at 389.97 degrees Rankine, the pressure ratio is 0.2038 and the dynamic pressure 434.7 pounds per square foot, which raises the ratio to $2.437 \times 10^{-6}$. The full-scale yaw inertia of 35,200 slug feet squared that Whiting 1996 tabulates then gives $C_{n\beta} = -0.0858$ per radian, or $-0.00150$ per degree, larger in magnitude than any row of the table because both the inertia and the altitude exceed the values assumed there.

The Comparison With the X-29

The previous article in this series measured an instability in pitch and this one measures an instability in yaw, and the two numbers can be put side by side.

The X-29A doubled in 101 milliseconds in pitch, an eigenvalue of 6.861 per second. The X-31 simulating a complete absence of vertical tail doubled in 290 milliseconds in yaw, an eigenvalue of 2.390. The X-29’s instability was 2.87 times faster.

There is a useful bound attached to each. A first-order unstable plant with a pure time delay cannot be stabilised by a proportional loop of any gain once the delay approaches the reciprocal of the unstable pole,

\[\tau_{\max} \approx \frac{1}{\lambda} \tag{59}\]

which gives 418 milliseconds for the X-31 case and 146 for the X-29. Neither aircraft was anywhere near that bound, and the point of computing it is to establish that neither instability was hard in the sense of being close to a fundamental limit. Both were hard in the practical sense of demanding reliable computers.

Air Data, and the Probe That Solved One Problem and Created Another

In the X-31’s air data system the programme’s care and its worst failure meet, and they meet in the same component.

Below thirty degrees of angle of attack the noseboom updated the inertial navigation unit with air data. When the pilots began flying extended periods above thirty degrees the inertial unit began computing large and entirely fictitious sideslip values as the wind changed in direction and magnitude. The aircraft’s basic stability at high angle of attack gave it a low tolerance for sideslip, so a false sideslip was not a cosmetic problem.

The solution was a Kiel probe in place of the standard pitot-static tube, bent ten degrees downward from the standard configuration, with the sideslip vane rotated twenty degrees down from the noseboom to remove an oscillation that appeared at 62 degrees, both changes the envelope expansion report describes. A Kiel probe carries a shroud around the pressure port and is insensitive to flow angle over a wide range, the property an aircraft flying at seventy degrees of angle of attack needs. With those changes the air data was accurate throughout the angle of attack envelope.

It was also unheated. The decision not to fit heat was conscious, taken because the team did not want to wait for a heated Kiel probe to be manufactured, and because the flight-test environment does not mandate provision for pitot heat. The cockpit switch was disabled, but the work order for the probe called only for its circuit breaker to be collared and did not call for the switch to be placarded inoperative. It was not placarded, and it remained clearly marked “Pitot heat”. At the time of the accident four of the five active pilots believed the pitot heat worked.

The Failure Mode Nobody Analysed

The probe measures a pressure difference, and everything downstream is derived from it. The impact pressure is the difference between total and static pressure,

\[q_c = p_t - p_s = p_0 \left[ \left( 1 + \tfrac{\gamma - 1}{2} M^{2} \right)^{\frac{\gamma}{\gamma - 1}} - 1 \right] \tag{60}\]

and calibrated airspeed is defined as the speed that would produce that impact pressure at sea-level conditions. Ice in the probe corrupts the total pressure and therefore corrupts everything derived from it at once. At 170 knots calibrated the impact pressure is 99.47 pounds per square foot and at 48 knots it is 7.81, a ratio of 12.735, the same factor as the loop-gain error computed below because at these speeds the compressible and incompressible forms agree to within two percent.

Pitot pressure fed two air data computers, each supplying two of the four flight control computers. A disagreement between the two air data computers would raise a fault and a reversion request. A shared error would not, because both computers received the same pneumatic signal from the same single probe and computed the same wrong answer from it.

The hazard analyses had assumed that false pitot information would be obvious. They had been performed when the aircraft carried a heated probe, and they were not repeated when the unheated Kiel probe was fitted. The Mishap Investigation Report is quoted in the NASA history as recording that the only means by which the flight control system was designed to detect degradation of air data was disagreement between the two air data computers, that there was a misconception among the test team and system safety engineers that the system could identify abrupt changes in air data signals, and that no flight control code implementing such a safeguard could be found and the board concluded that it did not exist.

The topic is surveyed more fully in the cluster on analytical redundancy and sensor fault detection in The Contemporary Literature, and the records bearing most directly on the discussion here follow.

How an Airspeed Error Becomes a Stability Error

The flight control gains were scheduled on measured airspeed, and that schedule is the mechanism that destroyed the first aircraft.

Control surface effectiveness rises with dynamic pressure. A gain schedule therefore reduces gain as speed rises, so that the loop gain stays where the designer put it. If the measured speed is low and the true speed is not, the schedule selects gains for the slower condition while the surfaces are producing the moments of the faster one. The loop gain is multiplied by the ratio of true to indicated dynamic pressure, equal to the square of the airspeed ratio,

\[\frac{K_{\text{actual}}}{K_{\text{design}}} = \frac{q_{\text{true}}}{q_{\text{indicated}}} = \left( \frac{V_{\text{true}}}{V_{\text{indicated}}} \right)^{2} \tag{61}\]

On the accident flight the indicated airspeed fell to between 48 and 100 knots calibrated while the actual airspeed was 170.

Indicated True Loop gain factor In decibels
100 kt 170 kt 2.890 9.22 dB
48 kt 170 kt 12.543 21.97 dB

A gain margin is quoted in decibels and the relation is

\[\text{dB} = 20 \log_{10} \left( \frac{K_{\text{actual}}}{K_{\text{design}}} \right) \tag{62}\]

A conventional six-decibel gain margin is a factor of 1.995. The least severe reading of the error exceeded the entire design gain margin by a factor of 1.445, and the most severe exceeded it more than sixfold. The aircraft did not encounter a marginal condition. It encountered one that was outside the design margin by any reading of the data.

The broader record appears under the cluster on gain scheduling and stability margins in The Contemporary Literature. These records bear most closely on the argument above.

The Cross-Check the Cockpit Already Contained

The finding that matters most in this section is that the failure was detectable from information already displayed.

Angle of attack and airspeed are not independent quantities in level flight. They are linked by the lift equation, and either one predicts the other. Using the lift-curve slope inferred earlier,

\[\alpha = \frac{W}{q S C_{L\alpha}} \tag{63}\]
Indicated airspeed Implied angle of attack at one g
207 kt 8.82 degrees
170 kt 13.08 degrees
137.5 kt 20.00 degrees

The pilot called out a reading of 277 knots, corrected himself to 207 knots at 20 degrees of angle of attack, and then continued with the test point, as the NASA history transcribes it. Those two readings disagree by 11.2 degrees of angle of attack. No atmospheric condition, no manoeuvre and no instrument tolerance produces an eleven-degree mismatch between a vane and an airspeed indicator on an aircraft in level flight. Against the table above, the displayed speed and the true one give

\[\Delta \alpha_{207} = 20.00 - 8.82 = 11.2 \ \text{degrees} \qquad \Delta \alpha_{170} = 20.00 - 13.08 = 6.9 \ \text{degrees} \tag{64}\]

Expressed the other way, twenty degrees implies 137.5 knots against the 207 displayed, so the display was high by a factor of 1.505 in speed and 2.266 in dynamic pressure. Comparing that against the six-decibel margin factor of 1.995 gives the coldest number in this article,

\[\frac{207}{137.5} = 1.505 \qquad \left( \frac{207}{137.5} \right)^{2} = 2.266 \qquad 10^{6/20} = 1.995 \tag{65}\]

At the moment the pilot spoke the words aloud, the loop gain error had already exceeded the design gain margin. The aircraft was flown for some time after that, and at the actual airspeed of 170 knots the disagreement was still 6.9 degrees.

The redundancy needed to catch this failure was analytical rather than physical, and it was available for the cost of an arithmetic comparison between two signals the aircraft already had. A second probe would have been heavier. A comparison of angle of attack against airspeed through a lift curve would have weighed nothing.

There were further clues. The flutter test excitation box was inhibited above two hundred knots calibrated and refused to operate, which the pilot remarked on and did not pursue. A separate standby airspeed indicator on a simple pitot tube sat near the pilot’s right knee and would probably have read close to the truth. It was not checked.

Propulsion Integration

An articulating inlet cowl that could open to thirty degrees depending on angle of attack was fitted to keep the engine supplied at seventy degrees, and the programme claimed it as a first. No dependent system on the aircraft is less discussed, and the problem is not small. An inlet designed for flight along the free stream is presented at seventy degrees with a flow it was never shaped for, and a compressor stall in an aircraft whose control authority comes partly from thrust is a control failure as well as a propulsion failure.

Readers wanting more can turn to the cluster on propulsion integration at extreme attitude in The Contemporary Literature. The following records sit nearest to this discussion.

Instrumentation and the Scoring System

The scoring apparatus deserves to be treated as a dependent system, because the keystone is a measured rate and the scoring is the instrument that measures it.

Both the X-31 and the adversary aircraft were instrumented, and both carried C-band beacons to improve ground radar tracking accuracy. Aircraft and space-position data were combined to determine valid firing positions for simulated missile shots, which allowed the test team to tell the pilots within seconds of a trigger squeeze whether a kill had been scored.

The purpose was efficiency and the effect was on the data. Pilots knocked off an engagement as soon as a kill was scored, which allowed many more engagements per flight. An engagement terminated at first kill is a different experimental unit from one flown to a conclusion, and the choice has consequences for what the exchange ratio counts. The programme does not appear to have discussed it in those terms.

Pseudo three-dimensional visualisation tools showed what both aircraft were doing during close-in combat, used in real time to improve situational awareness in the control room and afterwards for debriefing.

The cluster on weapons, displays and the off-boresight problem in The Contemporary Literature holds the wider literature, and these records lie closest to the present subject.

The Flight Test Record

The programme flew 580 flights, an X-plane record, comprising 559 research missions and 21 in Europe for the 1995 Paris Air Show, with fourteen pilots.

The headline totals are published. The distributions are not, and they can be recovered by counting the per-flight log in the appendix of the NASA history. That log carries a flight identifier, a date, a pilot and a purpose for every sortie of both aircraft, and parsing it returns quantities nobody tabulated.

Quantity Value
Flight records parsed 661 across both programmes
Records in the 1990 to 1995 programme 578
Published total for that programme 580
Highest sequence, first aircraft 292
Highest sequence, second aircraft 372
First flight parsed 11 October 1990
Last flight parsed 29 April 2003
Distinct flying days 349
Days carrying more than one flight 187
Busiest day 4 flights

The parse recovers 578 of a published 580, and the three sequence numbers it could not recover account for the difference. That is 99.66 percent of the published total, which is close enough to treat the extraction as sound and far enough from exact to say so.

The tempo follows from the counts and the span. The computation is bookkeeping rather than flight-test technique but is reported with the same care,

\[\dot{N} = \frac{N}{\Delta t} \qquad \text{and} \qquad \frac{N}{D} = \text{flights per flying day} \tag{66}\]

which over the 1,712 days from first flight to the end of the first programme gives 10.28 flights per month and 1.66 flights per distinct flying day.

The annual distribution shows the shape of the programme.

Year Flights
1990 9
1991 98
1992 64
1993 160
1994 181
1995 66
2001 10
2002 41
2003 32

The 1992 dip is the move from Palmdale to Dryden and the reorganisation under the International Test Organization. The 1993 and 1994 peaks are envelope expansion and the tactical utility testing. The gap from 1995 to 2001 is the six years between the end of the first programme and the start of the second.

The longest intervals with no flight by either aircraft are similarly informative.

Gap From To What it is
2,077 days 19 June 1995 24 February 2001 Between the two programmes
406 days 6 April 2001 17 May 2002 Within the second programme
94 days 20 January 1992 23 April 1992 The move to Dryden
84 days 19 January 1995 13 April 1995 The stand-down after the accident
59 days 21 November 1990 19 January 1991 Before the second aircraft flew

The eighty-four-day stand-down falls out of the arithmetic rather than out of the narrative, and it dates the programme’s recovery from the loss of the first aircraft to within a day.

The Milestones

Date Event
11 October 1990 First flight of the first aircraft, 38 minutes, 10,000 feet, from Palmdale
19 January 1991 First flight of the second aircraft
April 1992 First flight from Dryden under the International Test Organization
6 November 1992 Controlled flight at 70 degrees angle of attack, and a velocity-vector roll at 70 degrees
29 April 1993 Minimum-radius 180-degree turn using a post-stall manoeuvre, the Herbst manoeuvre
June 1993 First tactical manoeuvre against a cooperative F/A-18
November 1993 Start of unchoreographed close-in combat testing
1994 Quasi-tailless demonstration
19 January 1995 Loss of the first aircraft
June 1995 Paris Air Show, and the end of the programme

Before the move to Dryden the aircraft flew 108 test missions at Palmdale, achieving thrust vectoring in flight and expanding the post-stall envelope to forty degrees of angle of attack.

The wider literature on this subject is gathered in the cluster on high angle of attack aerodynamics in The Contemporary Literature. The records closest to this section are these.

The Tactical Utility Flight Test

The flight programme flew 87 sorties in the tactical utility phase, of which 80 were scored. Those produced 407 engagements, of which 325 were scored. Pinball II had recommended that each of the six pilots of the International Test Organization fly every starting condition. Reducing those counts to rates,

\[\frac{80}{87} = 92.0 \ \text{percent of sorties scored} \qquad \frac{325}{407} = 79.9 \ \text{percent of engagements scored} \tag{67}\] \[\frac{407}{80} = 5.09 \ \text{engagements per scored sortie} \qquad \frac{325}{80} = 4.06 \ \text{scored engagements per scored sortie} \tag{68}\]

Four scored engagements per sortie is a high rate, the direct product of the real-time kill determination described above. It is also the reason the flight programme reached a few hundred engagements rather than a few dozen.

The flight programme could not reproduce the simulation exactly, and the most consequential difference is an envelope restriction. The aircraft was limited to a post-stall entry speed of 225 knots calibrated maximum, against 325 knots in the simulation, and the programme’s own analysis put the effect of that restriction alone at a thirty percent reduction in post-stall use, according to the NASA history. Only the slow-speed line-abreast condition was substantially unaffected.

A later series raised the entry speed. The flight-test conclusion was that 265 knots calibrated was slightly better than 225 and that 300 knots would be desirable for a future fighter, a finding that the demonstrator was constrained below the useful value of its own capability. The NASA history lists that finding among the flight-test conclusions.

What the Flight Testing Concluded

The conclusions of the tactical utility flight test, as the NASA history sets them out, are quoted here in structure because they are more careful than the summaries built on them.

  • Post-stall close-in combat at seventy degrees of angle of attack had overwhelming success.
  • Flying the aircraft conventionally, limited to thirty degrees, showed that the benefits of post-stall technology were greater than expected.
  • Operational guest pilots with minimal training could fight effectively using post-stall technology.
  • The aircraft was very successful against the then front-line Navy fighters, the F-14D and the F/A-18C.
  • Against opponents with superior thrust-to-weight ratios it was far less successful. The Air Force F-15C and F-16C would not enter the close-in arena and escaped to an altitude sanctuary.
  • Limiting the aircraft to 45 degrees of angle of attack was insufficient and 70 should be used.
  • Advanced short-range missiles with greater angle of attack and off-boresight launch capability are highly desirable for an aircraft with post-stall technology.

The fifth of those is the most important sentence the programme produced, yet it is almost never quoted. A manoeuvre advantage that applies inside a particular arena is worth nothing against an opponent who declines to enter that arena. The F-15C and F-16C pilots of the 422nd Test and Evaluation Squadron exploited their thrust-to-weight advantage to stay above the fight.

The result exposes no limitation of post-stall technology as implemented. It shows what kind of advantage the technology confers. An exchange ratio describes an engagement more than an aeroplane, and the adversary gets a vote on which engagement occurs.

The topic is surveyed more fully in the cluster on air combat effectiveness, simulation and measurement in The Contemporary Literature, and the records bearing most directly on the discussion here follow.

What the Pilots Said

The pilots’ own summary is more restrained than the fact sheet built on it, and the divergence between the two is documented.

The flight-test paper delivered in July 1994 records that all the pilots on the programme had strong military backgrounds and that one point they agreed on is that the aircraft does not necessarily represent a total revolution in air combat. They would not advocate trading away other important fighter characteristics to acquire the capability. What they concluded was that enhanced pitch pointing and velocity-vector manoeuvring opened new options in close-in combat, as a repositioning tool to drive the fight or as a way to rotate and point for a weapons employment the opponent cannot counter, and that it must be used selectively and in a timely manner to succeed.

The NASA fact sheet on the aircraft opens the corresponding passage by stating that the X-31 constituted a revolution in air combat in the post-stall region, and then reproduces the pilots’ qualifications immediately afterwards. The two statements sit in consecutive sentences and the first inverts the source of the second. No accusation of bad faith is intended. The inversion is ordinary and very common when a careful conclusion is summarised, and it is recorded here because the summary is far more widely read than the paper.

There is a second observation from the same paper that has aged well. Carefree handling removed the pilot’s cues about energy state. A conventional fighter warns its pilot through buffet and degrading handling that the energy is going. An aircraft that remains docile throughout its envelope gives no such warning, and the report names restoring those cues as a challenge for future designs.

The broader record appears under the clusters on handling qualities of highly augmented aircraft and on agility as a measured quantity in The Contemporary Literature. These records bear most closely on the argument above.

Comparison With Ground Prediction

The X-31 is unusually well placed for this comparison because it ran the same experiment twice, once in a simulator and once in the air, and then ran the simulator experiment twice as well.

The Simulation Campaigns

Two manned simulation campaigns, called Pinball I and Pinball II, preceded the flight testing. The design was systematic. Four pilots flew each week, one flying the adversary and the other three flying the X-31 with post-stall technology, which gives four groups of three pairings and therefore twelve pilot combinations per week. Twelve combinations across four starting conditions gives 48 engagements for each of six cases, and 240 engagements were flown with the baseline configuration against 192 with a modified high-lift configuration.

Where the Two Simulations Disagreed With Each Other

The two campaigns disagreed sharply, and that disagreement is data about the method rather than about the aeroplane.

Starting condition Pinball I Pinball II
Defensive 1.2 0.47
Offensive 22 23
Slow-speed line abreast 20 6.67
High-speed line abreast 1.5 2.8

Taking the ratio of one campaign to the other condition by condition puts a number on the disagreement, the comparison that the measures-of-effectiveness literature would call a repeatability check,

\[\rho_i = \frac{E_i^{\text{I}}}{E_i^{\text{II}}} \tag{69}\]
Condition Pinball I Pinball II Ratio
Defensive 1.2 0.47 2.553
Offensive 22 23 0.957
Slow-speed line abreast 20 6.67 2.999
High-speed line abreast 1.5 2.8 0.536

The offensive condition reproduced to within 4.3 percent and the slow-speed line-abreast condition differed by a factor of 2.999. Writing $\bar{E}$ for the mean of a campaign’s four conditions, the comparisons are

\[1 - \frac{22}{23} = 0.043 \qquad \frac{20}{6.67} = 2.999 \qquad \frac{2.8}{1.5} = 1.867 \qquad \frac{\bar{E}^{\text{I}}}{\bar{E}^{\text{II}}} = \frac{(1.2 + 22 + 20 + 1.5)/4}{(0.47 + 23 + 6.67 + 2.8)/4} = \frac{11.175}{8.235} = 1.357 \tag{70}\]

The defensive condition differed by a factor of 2.553 in one direction and the high-speed line-abreast by 1.867 in the other. The means of the two campaigns are 11.175 and 8.235, a ratio of 1.357, so the campaigns agree far better in aggregate than they do anywhere in particular. That pattern is the signature of sampling variation rather than of a systematic difference.

The programme’s explanation for the defensive disagreement is that the use of post-stall technology on the initial move differed. In Pinball I a standard initial move was used that usually neutralised the attacker’s advantage and turned a defensive start into an offensive situation. In Pinball II that move was used only occasionally.

That explanation is almost certainly correct, and for the measure it is devastating. It means that the exchange ratio in the defensive condition is a measurement of pilot technique rather than of aircraft capability, and that a change in the tactics the pilots chose moved the reported number by a factor of two and a half with the same aeroplane and the same simulator.

Set that beside the interval arithmetic above. At twelve scored outcomes the defensive condition cannot separate 0.36 from parity anyway. The two campaigns disagreeing by a factor of two and a half is therefore not evidence that one of them is wrong. It is what a quantity with that much sampling variation looks like when measured twice.

The Simulation Also Disagreed With the Flight Data in a Way That Mattered

The single most important disagreement is that the simulation did not predict the departure. The flight-test report states it plainly. The fidelity of the simulation was described as quite good and it always lagged behind the flight data, and the report says the failure to predict the departure ahead of time is the most dramatic illustration of that lag.

The lag has a nameable mechanism. The aerodynamic model was built from wind tunnel data and corrected by parameter identification from flight, so the simulation could only know about an aerodynamic effect after the aircraft had flown into it. For a phenomenon like forebody vortex asymmetry, which is sensitive to a half-inch of nose radius and to Reynolds number, that is a structural limitation rather than a modelling shortfall.

The Wind Tunnel Did Not Give the Complete Picture

The flight-test report’s first technical lesson is exactly that sentence, and the report specifies where the tunnel fell short. Above fifty degrees of angle of attack the aircraft encountered lateral kicks the pilots called lurches, which had not appeared on the small-scale model. The asymmetry data showed no distinguishable trend against flight condition across a Reynolds number range of 1.5 to 4.0 million based on a forebody diameter of about 3.2 feet, as the asymmetry report gives it. The range is narrow, and its narrowness is one reason the tunnel could not have settled the question.

The comparison of flight against wind tunnel and water tunnel yawing-moment asymmetries became a research subject in its own right, with reports published in 1994 and revisited in 2001 and again in 2003.

A Negative Result on High Lift

A modification that should have helped did not, and the programme cancelled it on the evidence. Flight researchers recognised that a high-lift configuration would give the aircraft dramatically more lift below thirty degrees of angle of attack. Without post-stall technology the high-lift aircraft outperformed the baseline against the F/A-18, as expected.

With post-stall technology the high-lift aircraft was slightly less effective, because pilots gave up post-stall opportunities trying to fly in the high-lift mode. The pattern was that a pilot able to exploit high lift would fly post-stall until the fight went low and then drop below thirty degrees to use high lift and avoid the hard deck, which turned the fight conventional. Since the aircraft’s advantage was in post-stall flight, the international test community decided against implementing high lift.

A capability that improves the aircraft in isolation and degrades it in combination is a real finding, of a kind that only a manned simulation with free tactics can produce.

Readers wanting more can turn to the cluster on flight test, parameter identification and aerodynamic modelling in The Contemporary Literature. The following records sit nearest to this discussion.

What the Data Changed

The Capability Was Adopted and the Aircraft Was Not

Thrust vectoring entered production, and it did so on aircraft that did not need the X-31 to prove it was possible. The F-22 carries two-dimensional vectoring nozzles. The F-16 multi-axis thrust vectoring programme demonstrated three-dimensional vectoring on a production airframe during the X-31’s own flight programme, and the X-31 flight-test report cites it as evidence that incorporation is achievable without significant trade-offs.

What the X-31 contributed was not the mechanism but the evidence about employment, and the evidence is more qualified than the reputation. Post-stall manoeuvring supplements conventional performance and does not replace it. It wins where the fight is slow and close and loses where the opponent can decline that fight.

The Quasi-Tailless Result Outlived Everything Else

The quasi-tailless demonstration is the part of this programme with the longest reach, and it was almost an afterthought. It established that an aircraft with no vertical tail at all could be held at supersonic speed by thrust vectoring, at a divergence rate of 290 milliseconds to double.

A smaller or absent vertical tail also reduces radar cross-section, an advantage the quasi-tailless flight test report lists beside lower drag, weight and structural complexity. The question of how to control yaw without a fin is now the central configuration question of unmanned combat aircraft design, and the answers in current use are split effectors, differential drag devices and vectoring. The X-31’s contribution was to establish that the vectoring answer works at a measured level of instability rather than an assumed one.

There is a second and less-noticed result from the same programme. Differential canard deflection was studied as a yaw generator with and without the vertical tail, a redundant-effector question of the kind that modern control allocation exists to solve.

The cluster on unmanned combat aircraft and the tailless problem in The Contemporary Literature holds the wider literature, and these records lie closest to the present subject.

The Accident Changed the Air Data System, Eventually

The aircraft that was destroyed by a probe returned with redundant air data. The second aircraft flew again from 2001 to 2003 in the Vectoring Extremely Short Takeoff and Landing Control Tailless Operations Research programme, which used thrust vectoring to fly approaches at high angle of attack. The NASA history records that it first flew with the original Kiel probe, this time heated, and a second heated probe feeding an additional air data computer that monitored the first, and that it tested a flush air data system of pressure ports in the nose with no protruding probe to ice.

The arc is satisfying, but it should not be overstated. The flush system was a separate experiment by the European manufacturer flown in parallel, and the X-31’s second life was a separate programme with its own objectives. But the pairing is real, and the added monitor addresses the exact failure mode that destroyed the first aircraft, because a second, independent pneumatic path can reveal a blockage that a single probe shares with every computer downstream.

The Mishap Board’s recommendations were institutional rather than technical for the most part. It recommended that the system safety analyses be redone with a focus on single-point failures, that a mitigation for the loss of raw pitot-static data be found and verified in simulation, that temporary operating procedures be reviewed and controlled, that all cockpit switches and displays be audited for correct function and labelling, that programme personnel be trained in the basics of system safety, and that the parachute be replaced with one of slower descent rate.

The last of those is no control-system finding, but it belongs in the record. The pilot descended under a seventeen-foot canopy at approximately 28.3 feet per second, a rate typical for naval aircraft that operate mostly over water, and was injured on the hard playa surface.

The wider literature on this subject is gathered in the cluster on air data, icing and flush air data sensing in The Contemporary Literature. The records closest to this section are these.

What Some Test Team Members Thought the Report Missed

Not everyone accepted the Mishap Report’s emphasis, and the disagreement is instructive. Team members felt that large airspeed errors and suspected icing should have mandated stopping the test until the discrepancy was understood, and that the report placed too little weight on the test team’s own methodology. One is quoted saying that the test pilot and flight control engineers ought to understand the importance of the right gains, and another that seventy-knot errors and icing conditions are not acceptable for good flight tests.

The lesson the programme’s pilots drew was procedural rather than technical. Rogers Smith put it to the Society of Experimental Test Pilots in 1996 as an instruction to speak up, stop the tests and think when something does not make sense, and Ken Szalai, the Dryden director at the time, put it as calling a halt for anything that does not sound, feel or smell right.

Both formulations are about a failure of attention rather than a failure of engineering, and the arithmetic in this article supports that reading. The information needed to detect the failure was displayed, spoken aloud, and independently available on a second instrument.

The Contemporary Literature

Cluster Records
Air combat effectiveness, simulation and measurement 287
Air combat decision making by learned policies 125
Rates, proportions and their intervals 349
Uncertainty quantification 53
Pursuit, evasion and differential games 166
Agility as a measured quantity 76
Post-stall manoeuvring 103
High angle of attack aerodynamics 552
Yaw asymmetry and forebody flow 91
Canard and delta configurations 288
Thrust vectoring 209
Fluidic thrust vectoring 137
Control power and effector sizing 60
Engine thrust with altitude 13
The standard atmosphere 10
Propulsion integration at extreme attitude 326
Axis transformations and the velocity-vector roll 43
Flight control system design, actuation and allocation 491
Gain scheduling and stability margins 97
Unstable dynamics 65
Handling qualities of highly augmented aircraft 245
Envelope protection and loss of control 86
Unmanned combat aircraft and the tailless problem 289
Machine learning in flight control and aircraft modelling 203
Clearing a learned controller for flight 37
Air data, icing and flush air data sensing 391
Airspeed systems as a measurement discipline 21
Analytical redundancy and sensor fault detection 231
Flight test, parameter identification and aerodynamic modelling 480
Structures, materials and the airframe 88
Weapons, displays and the off-boresight problem 76
Missile guidance and interception 95
Missile autopilots and missile flight control 20
Rotorcraft flight dynamics and control 56
Multirotor flight control 38
The vehicle’s own literature 36
Other aerodynamic and flight mechanics literature 341
The general control literature 410
Total 6,684

The X-31 flew before three of the fields that now own its questions existed. This section surveys the modern literature on each, written from current knowledge rather than from the editorial date of the article.

Air combat effectiveness, simulation and measurement

The keystone’s own literature. Measures of effectiveness, combat models, piloted and constructive air combat simulation, and the evaluation of fighters in engagements.

The measure the programme reported has a literature of its own, and very little of it names the measure. Measures of effectiveness and combat effectiveness appear in 38 of the 287 titles, and the measures of effectiveness for general-purpose forces that the exchange ratio belongs to are part of it. Beyond-visual-range combat appears in 21 titles, while the exchange ratio, the kill ratio and the loss exchange together appear in five, so the quantity the keystone section analyses is almost never the subject of a title.

287 records. 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[Cetin and Kandemir 2017] [Chae and Choi 2018] [Chan and Vogel 1988] [Chang et al. 2022b] [Chao Feng and Peng Yao 2016] [Chaoran et al. 2021] [Chen et al. 2017f] [Chen et al. 2022a] [Chen et al. 2024c] [Chen et al. 2025e] [Ciavarelli and Brictson 1978] [Connelly and Myers 1992] [Hague 1983] [Costes 1988] [Covino and Healy 1991] [Coward and Rupp 1982] [Cowdale 2014] [Cox and Roy 1988] [Dantas et al. 2021] [Dees and Cornett 1989] [Dees and Cornett 1990] [Development of Air Combat 2017] [Dewangga and Sasongko 2019] [Dixon et al. 1989] [Dong et al. 2015b] [Dong et al. 2025a] [Dou et al. 2023] [Drenth et al. 2024] [Dupuy 1986] [Mitchell] [Endsley 1993] [Engel 1963] [Exchange Ratios] [Fenghua He and Yu Yao 2010] [Flynn 1987] [Fu and Wang 2011] [Fu et al. 2015] [Fu Li et al. 2008] [Poropudas and Virtanen 2009] [Gao et al. 2022d] [Gao et al. 2023] [Gao et al. 2025a] [Geiselman and Osgood 1995] [Goodrich et al. 1992] [Goodrich et al. 1995] [Grimm and Well 1987] [Gyue-jeong et al. 2025] [Ha et al. 2015] [Ha et al. 2018] [Hague and Hague 1987] [Haichao et al. 2023] [Han et al. 2019] [Hankins 1976] [Hankins 1979] [Haoyu et al. 2018] [Hara 1964] [Harris et al. 1985] [Hayslip et al. 1990] [Hayward 1968] [Head 1981] [Heng et al. 2023] [Herrick 1985] [Herrick 1988b] [Herrick 1988a] [Herrick 1990] [Hooks and Huff 1968] [Houck et al. 1989] [Hu et al. 2018b] [Huang et al. 2020a] [Hutchins and Jones 1975] [Hutchins 1978] [Huynh et al. 1987] [Lane 1986] [İşci and Günel 2021] [Jarmark 1976] [Ja¨rmark 1989] [Jefferies and Pinney 1990] [Jia et al. 2023a] [Jia et al. 2025] [Jian et al. 2024] [Jiang et al. 2023] [Jiang et al. 2024] [Jiaqi et al. 2023] [Johnson 1984] [Kaplan et al. 1994] [Katz 1994] [Kelley and Lefton 1977] [Kelley and Lefton 1979] [Kelly 1988a] [Kelly et al. 1979] [Ketchel 1977] [Kim and Lee 2022] [Kitowski 1992] [Krause 1997] [Kruk and Runnings 1989] [Kung and Chiang 2015] [Lafferty et al. 1991] [Leatham and Linch 1974] [Lee et al. 2022a] [Lewis 1986] [Lewis and Yeo 1985] [Lewis and Aiken 1985] [Lewis et al. 1987b] [Lewis et al. 1987a] [Li and Fan 2018] [Li and wang 2021] [Li et al. 2020c] [Li et al. 2021a] [Li et al. 2022a] [Li et al. 2022d] [Li et al. 2022l] [Li et al. 2022m] [Li et al. 2022b] [Li et al. 2022c] [Li et al. 2022j] [Li et al. 2022r] [Lim and Park 2012] [Liqun et al. 2017] [Liu et al. 2022e] [Liu et al. 2022f] [Liu et al. 2023b] [Liu et al. 2025f] [Luhn 1988] [Luo et al. 2025e] [Ma et al. 2020] [Macone 1996] [Macone 2000] [Malone et al. 1987] [Mansikka et al. 2023] [Marchi and Sweeney 1992] [McGuinness et al. 1981] [McKee 1998] [Measures of Effectiveness 1995] [Meng et al. 2022a] [Mentz et al. 2006] [Merz 1989] [Miller and Hadley 1983] [Minglang et al. 2018] [Moroney et al. 1979] [Stark 1976] [Muhl 1989] [Neuman 1987] [Nichols 1998] [Oran 1999] [Pan et al. 2017b] [Panec 1991] [Park et al. 2016a] [Parrott 1978] [Pennington and Meintel 1980] [Persing et al 2005] [Petty and Barbosa 2016] [Pohlmann and Reed 1978] [Prilliman et al 1969] [Pugh 1973] [Pugh and Mayberry 1973] [Ramteke et al. 2022] [Ramírez López and Żbikowski 2018] [Rao and Fu 1989] [Austin et al. 1991] [Real-Time Knowledge Based System 1991] [Reinisch et al. 2022] [Ren et al. 2023] [Rogers et al 1973] [Ruther et al. 2022] [Saied et al. 2018] [Scukins et al. 2023b] [Scukins et al. 2024] [Hoffren and Vilenius 1998] [Shakir 1996] [Shi et al. 2018b] [Shi et al. 2018c] [Shinar 1986] [Shinar and Davidovitz 1987] [Shinar et al. 1989a] [Shull and Griffin 1990] [Simkins and Breyer 1989] [Simpson 1976] [Howells et al. 1997] [Skowronski 1988] [Smullen and Nowak 1994] [Sobel 2015] [Sovelius et al. 2019] [Sternberg et al 1994] [Sun et al. 2020b] [Suseno and Sasongko 2016] [Glaerum] [Tan et al. 2022] [Tan et al. 2025] [Lazarus] [Thomas 1999] [Hague 1982] [Portrey et al] [Topbaş et al. 2024] [Torrance et al 1957] [UML-Based Combat Effectiveness Simulation 2018] [Ummah et al. 2020] [Viken and Burley 1992] [Warner et al. 1993] [Waag and Bell 1997a] [Waag and Bell 1997b] [Wallace and Bowers 1982] [Wang and Tian 2025] [Wang et al. 2017h] [Wang et al. 2019c] [Wang et al. 2020h] [Wang et al. 2022d] [Wang et al. 2023e] [Wang et al. 2024g] [Wang et al. 2025g] [Wang et al. 2025l] [Washington Univ Seattle Dept Of Statistics 2007] [Weckl 1987] [Weilin et al. 2018] [Wenham 1970] [Wentao et al. 2022] [White and Olmstead 1997] [Wilson 1989] [Woodruff and Oliver 1971] [Wooldridge et al. 1982] [Wu et al. 2015a] [Wu et al. 2018] [Xi et al. 2023a] [Xi et al. 2024] [Xie et al. 2025] [Xu et al. 2018a] [Yagci and Nikbay 2022] [Yang et al. 2020a] [Yang et al. 2022b] [Yang et al. 2024a] [Yang et al. 2025b] [Yang et al. 2025e] [Yoo et al. 2021b] [Zhang and Shang 2023] [Zhang et al. 2015b] [Zhang et al. 2022e] [Zhang et al. 2023l] [Zhao and Huang 2018] [Zhao et al. 2017a] [Zhao et al. 2024f] [Zhen-ning et al. 2020] [Zheng and Feiguo 2017] [Zhong et al. 2022] [Zhou et al. 2026b] [Zhu et al. 2020] [Zoujie and Wuwei 2016]

Air combat decision making by learned policies

Air combat flown by software. Manoeuvre decision making, situation assessment and engagement tactics produced by reinforcement learning, neural networks and other learned agents.

The question the X-31 answered with six test pilots and a scoring radar is now answered with learned policies. Of these 125 records, 77 name reinforcement learning or one of its algorithms, and 101 were published from 2022 onward. Beyond-visual-range engagements are named in 25 titles and within-visual-range, close-range or one-to-one engagements in 19. An agent trained against one adversary policy and one distribution of starting conditions learns an advantage conditional on both, and the aggregate win rate it reports is the same weighted mean this article has spent its keystone section unpacking.

The modern work has one advantage the X-31 did not. It can fly ten thousand engagements rather than four hundred, which moves the high-speed line-abreast case from unresolvable to routine.

125 records. [Jiang et al. 2025a] [Wu et al. 2025b] [Smith and Dike] [Crumpacker et al. 2022] [Jun Fang et al. 2016] [Kaneshige and Krishnakumar 2007] [Zhang et al. 2025b] [Bae et al. 2023] [Baykal and Baspinar 2023] [Cao et al. 2023] [Chen et al. 2023d] [Chen et al. 2025b] [Costa et al. 2025] [Dantas et al. 2022b] [Dantas et al. 2022a] [Dantas et al. 2023] [Dantas et al. 2025] [Eilbert and Hayslip 1989] [Ernest and Carroll 2016] [Salhi et al. 2026] [Fan et al. 2022] [Floyd et al. 2017] [Fu and Yang 2026] [Gao et al. 2024c] [Gong et al. 2022] [Gu et al. 2025] [Guo et al. 2022] [Guo et al. 2026a] [Guo et al. 2026b] [Haci et al. 2026] [Han et al. 2025a] [Hao et al. 2026] [He et al. 2025a] [Selmonaj et al. 2023] [Hong et al. 2022] [Hu et al. 2021a] [Hu et al. 2022a] [Hu et al. 2025d] [Huo et al. 2025] [Zhang et al. 2023h] [Isci and Koyuncu 2022] [Jia et al. 2023b] [Jiandong et al. 2021] [Jiang et al. 2022c] [Jing et al. 2024] [Keles et al. 2025] [Kong et al. 2020b] [Kong et al. 2020a] [Kong et al. 2023] [Kuroswiski et al. 2023] [Kuroswiski et al. 2025] [Lei et al. 2022] [Li et al. 2020b] [Li et al. 2022e] [Li et al. 2022f] [Li et al. 2024d] [Li et al. 2024b] [Li et al. 2025e] [Li et al. 2025f] [Li et al. 2025g] [Liang et al. 2024] [Lima Filho et al. 2021] [Liu et al. 2025c] [Liu et al. 2026g] [Liu et al. 2026f] [Mu et al. 2026] [Jiang et al. 2025b] [Gunsch et al] [Park et al. 2021] [Peng et al. 2024] [Pengzhuang and Hanwen 2023] [Piao et al. 2020] [Qiu et al. 2020] [Quan et al. 2026] [Zhang et al. 2023k] [Rodin and Massoud Amin 1992] [Ruan et al. 2022] [Saldiran et al. 2023] [Saldiran et al. 2024] [Schosser et al. 2026] [Scukins et al. 2023a] [Shalumov 2020] [Sheeba et al. 2025] [Shin et al. 2026] [Sun et al. 2025] [Tan et al. 2024] [Tasbas and Aydinli 2021] [Chen et al. 2024g] [Wang and Wang 2024] [Wang et al. 2020d] [Wang et al. 2021b] [Wang et al. 2023c] [Wang et al. 2024e] [Wang et al. 2024c] [Wang et al. 2024d] [Wang et al. 2024m] [Wang et al. 2024b] [Wang et al. 2025f] [Wang et al. 2025s] [Wu et al. 2025a] [Xie et al. 2020] [Yang et al. 2019c] [Yang et al. 2020b] [Yang et al. 2022c] [Yang et al. 2024b] [Yang et al. 2025a] [Yang et al. 2025c] [Yang et al. 2025g] [Yao et al. 2026] [Yin et al. 2022] [Zhang et al. 2022b] [Zhang et al. 2023i] [Zhang et al. 2024c] [Zhang et al. 2024a] [Zhang et al. 2026a] [Zhang et al. 2026d] [Zhao et al. 2023b] [Zhao et al. 2024d] [Zhao et al. 2024e] [Zheng and Duan 2023] [Zheng et al. 2024b] [Zheng et al. 2024a] [Zhou et al. 2024a] [Zhu et al. 2024c] [Zhu et al. 2024a]

Rates, proportions and their intervals

The arithmetic behind the keystone’s second question. Interval estimation and hypothesis tests for a binomial proportion, for two proportions and for rates, together with the choice of sample size.

Much of this literature was written for medicine. Of the 349 records, 199 name a binomial or a proportion, and 90 appeared in medical, epidemiological or biometric venues, which is one of the places where the inference on small counts that an engagement campaign needs has been worked out most carefully.

349 records. [Wani and Lo 1975] [Pigeot 1990] [Singh 2012] [Khare et al. 2021] [Hauck 1984] [Eberhardt and Fligner 1977] [Gray and Lewis 1967] [Bedrick 1987] [Mulekar and Young 1993] [Mickey and Elashoff 1985] [Guan 2012] [Turpin et al. 2023] [Zhou and Qin 2005] [Phillips and Holland 1986] [Pervaiz et al. 2021] [Subramani 2016] [Flanders 1985] [Wallenstein 1997] [Holland 1989] [Kim et al. 2022] [Gupta et al. 2024b] [Gupta 2024] [Ryu 2009] [Donald and Donner 1987] [Ramanana-Rahary et al. 2009] [Agresti and Coull 1998] [Hill 1970] [Almendra-Arao et al. 2023] [Mantel and Hauck 1986] [Enang et al. 2014] [Raja and Maqbool 2020] [Misra et al. 2021] [Reiczigel et al. 2008] [Plante 1991] [Andersson 2022] [Andersson 2024b] [Angus 1987] [Khamkong 2012] [Ting and Graybill 1991] [Aranishi and Ikeda 2015] [Asrabadi 1985] [Bae et al. 2017] [Bahrampour et al. 2022] [Bandyopadhyay et al. 2017] [Bandyopadhyay et al. 2024] [Basu et al. 2026] [Shi and Bai 2008] [Joseph and Bélisle 2019] [Rahardja et al. 2021] [Bayesian Inference for Binomial 2004] [Rahardja and Zhao 2012] [Joseph et al. 2008] [Sambucini 2017] [Beal 1987] [Berkachy and Donzé 2019] [Liu 2026] [Nam 1993] [Волков 2012] [Boiculese and Dimitriu 2015] [Braun and Pregibon 1984] [Breebaart 2015] [Brenner and Quan 1990] [Burstein 1973] [Böhning 1988] [Calvez 2022] [Cao et al. 2024] [Cao et al. 2026a] [Thakkar 2025] [Katakam 2025] [Kadhim 2020] [Chan and Zhang 1999] [Chandra et al. 2019] [Chang et al. 2022a] [Chen 1977] [Chen 1984] [Chen 1997] [Chen et al. 2015a] [Chen et al. 2026e] [Mantel 1963] [Bu and Sun 2024] [Berg 2001] [Goldstein and Langholz 2007] [Jaech 1970] [Kabaila 2007] [Comparison of Accuracy Properties 2021] [Jin and Lu 2009] [Sakakibara 2014] [Kaya et al. 2021] [Comparison of Two Means 2012] [Andersson 2024a] [Altman 2000] [Confidence Interval for Survival 2015] [Chen et al. 2004a] [Pradhan and Banerjee 2008] [Fishman 1986] [Price and Bonett 2008] [Confidence Intervals 2012] [Graybill and Wang 1979] [Li et al. 2013] [George 2012] [Lee 2010] [Koopman 1984] [Kharrati-Kopaei and Dorosti-Motlagh 2019] [Confidence Intervals 1971] [Kahle et al. 2016] [Lloyd 1990] [Sato 1990] [Nam 1995] [Conlon and Thomas 1990] [Almendra-Arao et al. 2016] [Yamauchi] [Copas 1992] [Pradhan et al. 2013] [Ding 2024] [Cothran 1979] [Wang and Rousseau 2021] [Crane 1974] [Daly 1992] [Dang and Krishnamoorthy 2021] [David Sotres-Ramos and Jesus Rivera-Cortez 2020] [de Paula Castro et al. 2021] [Dean and Pagano 2015] [Deep et al. 2022] [Determining Sample Sizes Needed 2003] [Anderson and Burstein 1970] [Disney 2016] [Dong and Glynn 2019] [Dozzi and Riedwyl 1984] [Duan et al. 2016] [Edwardes and Vollset 1994] [Nazman and OlmuŞ 2020] [Ekpenyong 2014] [Qin 1999] [Böhning et al. 2022] [Hauck 1987] [Donner and Hauck 1988] [Pal and Singh 2019] [Rao 1981] [Phillips and Holland 1987] [Frey and Pérez 2012] [Somerville and Brown 2013] [Xiao et al. 2017] [Jäntschi and Bolboacă 2010] [Storer and Kim 1990] [Shao et al. 2024] [Ironyt and Pereirat 1986] [Liang 1987] [Krishnan and Suresh 2025] [Fagan 1996] [Fagan 1999] [Fairweather 1972] [Feng et al. 2022] [Fujino 1980] [Garthwaite et al. 2023] [Gelfand and Thomas 1974] [Puza and O’neill 2006] [Davis 1985] [Singh et al. 2016a] [Greenland 1989] [Subramani 2013] [Gillett 1989] [Goldman 1963] [Gould 1983] [Graybill 1958] [Graybill and Morrison 1960] [Green 1982] [Halperin 1980] [Hao et al. 2016] [Hasan and Krishnamoorthy 2023] [Hauck and Anderson 1986] [Hawila and Berg 2022] [Herrmann and Szatrowski 1982] [Herrmann and Szatrowski 1984] [Liu and Pierce 1993] [Triveni and Danish 2023] [Deely and Gupta 1988] [Hirose et al. 2021] [Hohls 1998] [Holladay and Schilling 2024] [Yanagawa and Fujii 1990] [Percus and Percus 2010] [Hung 1997] [Nijimbere 2017] [A Bayesian Analysis 1998] [Belhaj 2018] [Lin and Yang 2006] [Tryon and Lewis 2007] [Hong 2002] [Pigeot and Strugholtz 1994] [Janze 2017] [Jȩdrzejczak et al 2022] [Jia 2020] [Jin et al. 2017] [Reed 2004] [Joseph et al. 1995] [Jäntschi 2021] [Jäntschi 2025] [Khandeparkar and Sabnis 2025] [Kikuchi et al. 2015] [Kokaew et al. 2021] [Kokaew et al. 2022] [Krippendorff 1970] [Kudô 1956] [Lawson and Ahlstrom 2021] [Lloyd and Kabaila 2010] [Liang 1989] [Lin 1995] [Liu et al. 2018f] [Locke 1984] [Malinowski 2005] [L’Ecuyer et al. 2023] [Malekzadeh and Mahmoudi 2020] [Zhang and Boos 1997] [Rahardja and Yang 2015] [McGrath and Burke 2024] [McGrath and Irving 1973] [McHugh 1961] [McNickle et al. 1996] [Rao 2002] [Honglei and Sigui 2019] [Habtzghi et al. 2014] [Fosgate 2005] [Müller and Bertsche 2019] [Nawa 2022] [Kang 2008] [Zhou et al. 2004] [Vallejo et al. 2013] [Ngamkham et al. 2016] [Niwitpong 2015] [Coolen and Coolen-Schrijner 2007] [Berger and Gold 1973] [Banerjee and Biswas 2014] [Klein and Linton 2013] [Banerjee and Biswas 2012] [Wang 2010] [Gupta and Liang 1988] [Turpin and Jens 2018] [Buhrman 1973] [Soulakova and Roy 2012] [Berengut and Petkau 1979] [Frishman 1971] [Wallenstein and Berger 1981] [García-Pérez 2005] [Guilbaud and Hauck 1983] [Moore and Nickens 1968] [Orawo 2021] [Ouellette 2025] [Ožbot and Škrjanc 2024] [Fujii and Yanagimoto 2005] [Park 2019] [Park and Leemis 2019] [Parker 1996] [Peer and Azriel 2024] [Peng et al. 2019] [Peskun 1993] [Nebenzahl and Sobel 1972] [Emily and Friguet 2016] [Abdullahi et al. 2023] [Yanagawa and Fujii 1995a] [Yanagawa and Fujii 1995b] [Mantel 1985] [Lee 1984] [Rahardja 2019] [Rahardja and Young 2021] [Rahardja et al. 2016] [Kadilar et al. 2007] [Marsaglia 1965] [Reeve 2016] [Remund and Kitto 2011] [Roy 1993] [Bourke 2001] [Afshartous 2008] [Katsis 2005] [Magaret and Stanaway 2011] [Gonçalves et al. 2012] [Guenther 1974] [Samuels and Lu 1992] [Sandelius 1952] [Santner 1998] [Sargent et al. 1992] [Schader and Schmid 1990] [Scheffe 1944] [Khare et al. 2022] [Udomprasertgul 2001] [Cho 2007] [Shao and Ye 2026] [Shen 1998] [Shiffler and Adams 1987] [Shukla and Subrahmanyam 1999] [Smithpreecha et al. 2016] [Sobel and Groll 1966] [Krishnamoorthy and Peng 2007] [Halls 2004] [Nadarajah and Kotz 2006] [Li and Ma 2022] [Statistical Inference for Two Proportions] [Nelson 1972] [Steiger and Wilson 1999] [Yu et al. 2013] [Sungboonchoo and Paichit 2023] [Sungboonchoo et al. 2021a] [Sungboonchoo et al. 2021b] [Tableman 1987] [none 1957] [Faust 1990] [Tanaka 1961] [Tang 2020] [Tang et al. 2015a] [Tango 1998] [Consonni and La Rocca 2008] [Thangjai et al. 2023] [Hauck and Donner 1988] [The Comparison of Proportions 2003] [Bettin 2021] [Thulin 2014] [Somes 1986] [Hauck 1979] [Donner and Hauck 1986] [The Logrank and Mantel-Haenszel 1998] [Brumback and He 2011] [Basilevsky 1980] [Vitaliano 1979] [Zieliński 2009] [Zieliński 2022] [Breslow and Liang 1982] [Andersson 2023] [Witkovský and Wimmer 2007] [Lee 2006] [Pigeot and Strugholtz 1998] [Easterling 2015] [Thong and Shan 2015] [Martín Andrés and Álvarez Hernández 2012] [Martín Andrés and Herranz Tejedor 2003] [El-Neweihi and Proschan 1979] [Buchanan 1961] [Vollset 1993] [Olivier and May 2006] [Pradhan et al. 2014] [Weinberger and Yemini 2022] [Wiley et al. 2021] [Wilkinson 1961] [Williams 1988] [Wu and Shan 2024] [Xiang et al. 2018] [Xue 2015] [Yan and Xu 2016] [Yarandi 1994] [Zielińska-Kolasińska and Zieliński 2023] [Zieliński 2018]

Uncertainty quantification

Intervals on computed quantities. Uncertainty quantification and sensitivity analysis in aerodynamic, structural, propulsion and simulation models.

A result with an interval attached is a modern expectation and it was not a 1993 one. The X-31 published point estimates of exchange ratios with no uncertainty statement, and the arithmetic in this article’s keystone section is an attempt to supply retrospectively what the discipline now supplies as a matter of course.

53 records. [Лейбов and Гуревич 2023] [Asouti et al. 2023] [Barthelemy and Bergen 1989] [Bellosta et al. 2021] [Bhardwaj and Kapania 1995] [Campbell et al. 2026] [Capiez-Lernout and Soize 2017] [Covella and Fantuzzi 2023] [Dalle et al. 2018] [Denham et al. 2018] [Eldredge and Mousavi 2026] [Wang and Tang 2004] [Ezvan et al. 2016] [Favaregh et al. 2016] [Fravolini et al. 2017] [Freitas 2020] [Gießler et al. 2025] [Giunta 1999] [Głębocki and Jacewicz 2020] [Holifield and Tufts 2024] [Jiang and Li 2018] [Jung and Baeder 2019] [Jung and Baeder 2023] [Khurana et al. 2023] [Kraft 2018] [Li et al. 2018a] [Liu et al. 2017a] [Liu et al. 2026j] [Maes et al. 2015] [Magrini et al. 2021] [Misra and Bai 2019] [Nakamura-Zimmerer et al. 2023] [Nelson 2018] [Chen et al. 2004b] [Papoutsis-Kiachagias et al. 2021] [Phillips and West 2018] [Qiao et al. 2026] [Rosić and Diekmann 2015] [Schaefer et al. 2015] [Schaefer et al. 2019] [Schaefer et al. 2024] [Stoldt et al. 2021] [Suga and Yamazaki 2015] [Tang et al. 2015b] [Thomas and Dowell 2025] [van den Brandt and de Visser 2018] [Wignall and Houlden 2020] [Willier et al. 2024] [Xiao Jiaping and Shen Zuojun 2016] [Yang and Yee 2023] [Ye et al. 2022] [Yuan et al. 2022a] [Zang et al. 2015]

Pursuit, evasion and differential games

The formal theory of the engagement. Differential games, pursuit and evasion, capture and the value of a game, for aircraft, missiles, spacecraft and generic agents.

The mathematical treatment of one-versus-one air combat as a differential game predates the X-31 by decades, with Isaacs on differential games as its founding text, and the programme’s reports do not appear to draw on it. Of the 166 records, 54 predate 1990, the year the X-31 first flew, and they are the part of the literature the programme could have read. That literature poses the engagement as a two-sided optimisation with a value function, and the value at a given starting state is precisely the quantity the exchange ratio estimates by sampling.

A formal treatment would have said in advance that the value depends on the starting state, which is the article’s central finding arrived at by arithmetic on published outcomes. The two literatures were solving the same problem in different buildings.

166 records. [Abbas Badakaya et al. 2022] [Adams et al. 2025] [Al-Talabi 2017b] [Al-Talabi 2017a] [Al-Talabi and Schwartz 2016] [Alexopoulos et al. 2017] [Altaher et al. 2020] [Ardema and Rajan 1987] [Ardema et al. 1987] [Asgharzadeh-Bonab et al. 2026] [Азамов et al. 2020] [Azamov and Ibaydullayev 2021] [Badakaya et al. 2021] [Barron and Jensen 1995] [Becerra et al. 2015] [Ben-Asher 1994] [Ben-Asher 1996] [Berkovitz 1985] [Berkovitz 1986] [Bernhard 1987] [Bernhard and Pourtallier 1994] [Bertram and Wei 2021] [Bopardikar et al. 2008] [Bugnon and Mohler 1988] [Calise and Yu 1985] [Camci and Kayacan 2016] [Carr et al. 2018] [Chen and Guo 2025] [Chen et al. 2017d] [Chentsov 2020] [Chentsov 2021] [Chentsov and Khachai 2020] [Chentsov and Khachay 2019] [Chentsov and Khachay 2020] [Chukanov et al. 2024] [Cline and Vincent 1988] [Cui et al. 2020] [de Villiers et al. 1987] [De Villiers et al. 1988] [Dong Chyung 1970] [An et al. 2011] [Fang et al. 2020] [Fisac and Sastry 2015] [Friedman 1973] [Fuchs et al. 2018] [Galperin and Skowronski 1987] [Galperin and Zheng 1989b] [Galperin and Zheng 1989a] [Garcia et al. 2021] [Gard 2023] [Guelman 1993] [Guelman and Shinar 1988] [Guelman et al. 1990] [Hao Chen et al. 2015] [Hayoun et al. 2015] [Hayoun et al. 2016] [Henareh and Norouzi 2016] [Hexner et al. 2019] [Ho et al. 1965] [Hsueh and Ling 2017] [Hu and Zhou 2017] [Hu et al. 2024b] [Ibragimov et al. 2023] [Ibragimov et al. 2026] [Imado 1990] [Imado 1993] [Imado and Ishihara 1993] [Ivanov 2021] [Ja. Rubinovich 2018] [King and Peterson 2019] [Lagunov 1977] [Leitmann 1969a] [Leitmann 1969b] [Liang et al. 2022] [Liao et al. 2021] [Medveď 1978] [Meier 1969] [Menon 1989] [Menon 1991] [Menon and Chatterji 1996] [Menon and Cheng 1990] [Menon and Duke 1990] [Menon and Duke 1992] [Merz 1975] [Merz and Hague 1977] [Meschler et al. 1967] [Miloh 1982] [Moritz et al. 1987] [Nikoukhah and Delebecque 1992] [St. Petersburg Federal Research Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences and St. Petersburg Institute of Informatics of the Russian Academy of Sciences 2021] [Olsder and Papavassilopoulos 1986] [Lee et al. 2017b] [Duan et al. 2024] [Pachter and Yavin 1981] [Pachter and Yavin 1983] [Pachter and Yavin 1986b] [Pachter and Yavin 1986a] [Pan et al. 2026] [Pashkov and Sinitsyn 1995] [Pham 2021] [Platzer 2012] [Pontryagin and Mishchenko 1988] [Prasad and Rajan 1987] [Rao and Shaiju 2023] [Wang et al. 2023j] [Sun et al. 2009] [Xie et al. 2014] [Ji et al. 2018] [Rodin 1990] [Sahin and Kumbasar 2020] [Segal and Miloh 1995] [Segal and Miloh 1996] [Segal and Miloh 1999] [Lin et al. 2007] [Sharifi et al. 2022] [Shinar and Glizer 1992] [Shinar and Glizer 1999] [Shinar et al. 1989b] [Shishkina 1987] [Sinar and Farber 1982] [Skowronski and Stonier 1987a] [Skowronski and Stonier 1987b] [Sun and Tsiotras 2015] [Sun et al. 2016] [Sun et al. 2017b] [Sun et al. 2017a] [Sun et al. 2019a] [Sweriduk and Calise 1994] [Szots and Harmati 2019] [Tamer and Max 1973] [Tang et al. 2023] [Turetsky and Glizer 2022] [Turetsky and Shima 2016b] [Turetsky and Shima 2016a] [Umar et al. 2024] [Wang and Liu 2025] [Wang et al. 2019a] [Wang et al. 2026j] [Wei and Yang 2018] [Weintraub et al. 2020] [Williams et al. 1989] [Xi and Cai 2024] [Xi et al. 2023b] [Xie and Ma 2025] [Xie and Ma 2026] [Xu et al. 2022c] [Yan 1995] [Yang et al. 2022a] [Yang et al. 2024c] [Yang et al. 2024d] [Yavin 1985] [Yavin 1986c] [Yavin 1986a] [Yavin 1986b] [Yavin 1987b] [Yavin 1987c] [Yavin 1987a] [Yavin 1988] [Yavin 1991] [Yavin and De Villiers 1988] [Yavin and Miloh 1987] [Yavin et al. 1987] [Ye and Liu 2016a] [Yong 1987] [Yu et al. 2018b] [Zemskov and Pashkow 1997]

Agility as a measured quantity

The vocabulary of the pointing advantage. Agility metrics, their evaluation by optimal trajectory analysis, and the manoeuvres that test them.

The vocabulary of agility metrics was being invented while the X-31 flew, and the modern literature has largely settled on the distinctions the period was reaching for, separating pointing agility from axial and torsional agility. The X-31’s contribution to that vocabulary was to make the pointing component large enough to measure cleanly.

The subject is concentrated in the decade of the programme. Of the 76 records, 37 were published from 1985 to 1996 and 19 from 2015 onward.

76 records. [Gedeon and Takahashi 2014a] [Wang et al. 2026k] [Takahashi 2012] [Avanzini et al. 1998] [Baumann and Gal-Or 1992] [Beaufrere 1988] [Beck and Cord 1995] [Bitten 1989] [Bitten 1990] [Caddy and Arnold 1988] [Cliff and Thompson 1992] [Kish et al. 2019] [Cord 1989] [Kutschera and Render 2003] [Cox and Downing 1992] [Drajeske and Riley 1990] [Dung 2026] [Pruitt and Moroney 1980] [Zagalsky et al. 1971] [Bryson et al. 1969] [Yajnik 1977] [Schaefer and Lutze 1991] [Kim and Choi 2008] [Gal-Or 1992] [Gal-Or 1995a] [Padfield et al. 1993] [Guang et al. 2014] [Guang et al. 2015] [Hodgkinson et al 1988] [Incorporating Agility Flight Test 1994] [Jaeger and Hemati 2025] [Jaeger et al. 2026] [Johnson 1972] [Kalviste 1990] [Kish et al 1996] [Klyde et al. 1995] [Liefer et al 1990] [Liefer et al 1992] [Liefer 1990] [Liefer et al 1990] [Liu and Li 2024] [Liu et al. 2018a] [Loh and Lusty 1974] [Mazza 1992] [Miralles et al. 1989] [Gedeon and Takahashi 2014b] [Murphy et al. 1991] [Oruc and Baklacioglu 2022] [Oruc and Baklacioglu 2023] [Paranjape and Ananthkrishnan 2023] [Pons and Cirak 2023] [Riley and Drajeske 1989] [Riley and Drajeske 1990] [Ryan and Downing 1994] [Ryan and Downing 1995] [Ryan and Downing 1992] [Ryan and Downing 1993] [Schrage 1990] [Skow et al 1985] [Smith and Valasek 1999] [Smith and Valasek 2000] [Parlier 1986] [Stewart et al. 1975] [Stutz and Price 1964] [Bryson and Desai 1968] [Choi et al. 2008] [Jung et al. 2021] [Verbeke and Schutter 2017] [Wallace et al. 2024] [Wang et al. 2020e] [Wilson et al 1993] [Wilson et al. 1993a] [Wrestler and Clifton G. 1965] [Zalewski piotr.zalewski@wat.edu.pl et al 2025] [Zhang et al. 2023j] [Zheng et al. 2026b]

Post-stall manoeuvring

Flight past the stall. Supermanoeuvrability, post-stall manoeuvre control, post-stall aerodynamics and its models, and flow control at post-stall angles.

The post-stall literature after the programme turned to control laws and to models of the regime. The post-stall pitching manoeuvre and the Herbst manoeuvre are now control-design problems, and post-stall aerodynamic models are built for upset-recovery training and for simulation. The manoeuvre has not moved to small aircraft in this literature. Of the 103 titles, one names a small or unmanned aircraft, a micro air vehicle or a perching manoeuvre.

103 records. [Chiang et al. 1993a] [Chiang et al. 1990] [Chiang et al. 1993b] [Abdullina and Efanov 2019] [Galkov] [Altunkaya and Özkol 2025] [Ananda and Selig 2016] [Anderson 2004] [Mukherjee et al. 2016] [Bagherzadeh 2026] [Basescu et al. 2023] [Besnard et al. 2000] [Bihrle 1993] [Buffington et al. 1993b] [Buzica et al. 2018] [Cebeci et al. 1993] [Cebeci et al. 1995] [Cord and Suchomel 1984] [Cunis et al. 2019] [Cunis et al. 2020c] [Cunis et al. 2020a] [de Nicola et al. 2005] [Dias 2015b] [Dias 2016] [Dorozhko et al. 2019] [Ericsson 1993b] [Ericsson 1995a] [Esfahani et al. 2018] [Esfahani et al. 2019] [Ye et al. 2014] [Gal-Or 1990a] [Gallaway and Osborn 1985] [Garrard and Enns 1991] [Ghosh et al. 2026] [Graham and Yeow 1990] [Grant et al. 2017] [Grant et al. 2018] [Gungordu 2026] [Gwilliam and Howard 1991] [Hassan 2005] [Hassan 2006] [He and Kral 2000] [He et al. 2001] [Hipp et al. 2015] [Hoburg and Tedrake 2009] [Hreha and Lutze 1984] [Huang 1990] [Izquierdo and Marques 2021] [Jaermark 1983] [Khanna and Mukherjee 2021] [Kutschera and Render 1999] [Leknys et al. 2018] [Li et al. 2025c] [Linton 1993] [Liu et al. 2019d] [Lyu et al. 2018a] [Lyu et al. 2019] [Ma et al. 2019c] [Mendenhall and Perkins 1999] [Milillo 1972] [Myose et al. 1996] [Nguyen et al. 1979] [Nial 1972] [Ogunka et al. 2022] [Pachter and Chandler 1996] [Pierre et al. 2012] [Ransom 1983] [Rao 1992] [Ray 1965] [Raymer 1991] [Roach 1988] [Rohith and Sinha 2020] [Roza et al. 2017] [Rullan et al. 2003] [Rullan et al. 2004] [Saraf et al. 1998] [Saraf et al. 1999] [Schoenstadt 1975] [Shen and Chen 2022] [Shen and Chen 2024] [Snell 1993] [Tan et al. 2018] [Tan et al. 2021] [Tan et al. 2023] [Telionis 1995] [Telionis 2001] [Teng et al. 2015] [Teng et al. 2016] [Gal-Or 1990b] [Vlachos et al. 1999] [Wang et al. 2021h] [Wang et al. 2025o] [Rockwell 1992] [Wong et al. 1993] [Wu et al. 2017b] [Yang and Chang 2024] [Yongxi Lyu et al. 2016] [Yoshioka et al. 2026] [Zhang et al. 2018e] [Zhang et al. 2019c] [Zhang et al. 2019a] [Zhang et al. 2022d] [Zhang et al. 2023e]

High angle of attack aerodynamics

The flow the aircraft flew in. Vortex flows, vortex breakdown, wing rock, strakes and the aerodynamics of whole configurations at high angle of attack, measured and computed.

The flow the X-31 could not predict is now computed, and 60 of the 552 titles name a computation or a simulation. Analyses of the flow around the X-31 itself at high angle of attack have been published as validation cases more than a decade after the aircraft stopped flying, and they are listed under the vehicle’s own literature below. That is a fitting use of the data. An aircraft that flew because the tunnel could not settle a question has become the benchmark against which the calculation that replaced the tunnel is judged.

The reservations are real. Forebody vortex asymmetry is sensitive to a nose radius of half an inch, to boundary-layer transition state and to Reynolds number, and those are the three things computation finds hardest.

552 records. [Prakash et al. 2009] [A Feasibility Review 2019] [A Generalization for Model 2020] [Abed 1989] [Abed and Lee 1990] [Abène 2015] [Abney and McDaniel 2005] [Agnone 1984] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1991] [Almosnino 1983] [Almosnino 1985] [Aloui et al. 2024] [AlQadi and Eljack 2016] [An Investigation of Strake 1990] [Anderson 1979] [Anderson 1984] [Anderson 1985] [Anderson et al. 1983] [Andrievsky et al. 2020] [Anglin 1978] [Araujo and Singh 1998] [Arena et al. 1995] [Arena et al. 1993] [Arena and Nelson 1989] [Arena and Nelson 1991] [Asbury and Capone 1995] [Atesoglu and Özgören 2007] [Axelson 1977] [Ayoub and McLachlan 1987] [Bacon et al. 1996] [Baer 2014] [Bagheri and Danesh 2025] [Bagherzadeh et al. 2025] [Bai and Wu 2016] [Bai et al. 2018b] [Bai et al. 2025c] [Baigang and Jingyi 2021] [Banks 1988] [Batterson and Klein 1989] [Batterson and Morelli 1996] [Bauer et al. 1995] [Berger 1988] [Berger 1989] [Beyers 1995] [Bigler 1986] [Bihrle and Barnhart 1982] [Bihrle and Barnhart 1983] [Bihrle and Billy 1980] [Blake and Barnhart 1990] [Blake et al. 1992] [Boalbey et al. 1993] [Boschetti et al. 2022] [Boulouma et al. 2017] [Bowers et al. 1994] [Bowers et al. 1996] [Boyum et al 1994] [Boyum et al. 1995] [Brandon and Nguyen 1986] [Brody and Fagley 2024] [Bruns and Smith 1992] [Buffington and Adams 1995] [Bunge and Kroo 2018] [Bunge et al. 2015] [Burris and Hutchins 1970] [Butler and Bons 2024] [Buzica et al. 2017] [Canin 2019] [Chaderjian 1992] [Chambers 1980] [Chambers and Bowman 1971] [Chaparro et al. 2016] [Chen et al. 2016b] [Chen et al. 2016a] [Chen et al. 2025d] [Cho and Cho 1995] [Chung et al. 2019] [Chunzhi et al. 2015] [Cooper and Fansler 1997] [Cornelius and Lucius 1993a] [Cornelius and Lucius 1994] [Cornelius et al. 1992] [Cornelius et al. 1994] [Cotton and Bjarke 1994] [Cui and Khoo 2023] [Cui et al. 1993] [Cunis et al. 2020b] [Dantsker and Selig 2015] [Darden et al. 1995] [Fisher et al. 1992] [Davidson et al. 1998] [Dawson et al. 2016] [Del Frate and Zuniga 1990] [Dexter 1993] [Dhaigude et al. 2021] [Dias 2015a] [Dias and Almeida 2013] [DiCarlo et al. 1985] [Dong et al. 2019] [Dong et al. 2024b] [Durston and Schreiner 1983] [Düssler and Palacios 2024] [Elzebda et al. 1989b] [Elzebda et al. 1989a] [Epikhin 2021] [Erickson and Gilbert 1983] [Ericsson 1985] [Ericsson 1989b] [Ericsson 1989c] [Ericsson 1989a] [Ericsson 1991a] [Ericsson 1993a] [Ericsson 1995c] [Ericsson 1995b] [Ericsson 1997c] [Ericsson 1998] [Ericsson and Beyers 1995] [Ericsson and Beyers 1996] [Ericsson and Hanff 1994b] [Ericsson et al. 1996] [Eriksson and Rizzi 1984] [Experimental Investigation of Synthetic 2023] [Falunin et al. 1968] [Fan and Lutze 1996] [Fang et al. 2022] [Farcy et al. 2020] [Faure et al. 2019] [Favier et al. 1987] [Taira et al. 2010] [Feistel et al. 1981a] [Fisher et al. 1998] [Flaherty 1977] [Font et al. 1998] [Fouda and Taha 2021] [Fresconi and Celmins 2018] [Fu et al. 2017] [Fujii 1985] [Gangulee and Ng 1994] [Gangulee and Ng 1995] [Gendel et al. 2015] [Geng et al. 2015] [Gera et al. 1981] [Ghee and Hall 2000] [Ghosh et al. 2023] [Gilbert and Nguyen 1978] [Gilbert et al. 1976] [Gittner and Chokani 1991] [Golovkin et al. 2019] [Goman and Khrabrov 1994] [Goman et al. 1992] [Goman et al. 1994] [Gordon 1990] [Greenwell and Wood 1993] [Gross et al. 2017a] [Gursul 1994] [Gursul 1995] [Gursul 2001] [Gursul and Wang 2010] [Guvernyuk et al. 2020] [Hadidoolabi and Ansarian 2017] [Hahne 1985] [Hall 1986] [Hall 1987] [Hall and Banks 1994] [Harloff 1987] [Hassell and Hewes 1960] [Hauch et al. 1996] [He and Williams 2020] [Hebbar and Leedy 1990] [Hebbar and Leedy 1992] [Hebbar et al. 1996] [Helliwell and Dickinson 1980] [Hernandez Gelado and Ramesh 2022] [Hewes 1959] [Hirato et al. 2019] [Hitzel 2017] [Hitzel and Osterhuber 2018] [Hoeijmakers and Van Den Berg 1991] [Hopwood et al. 2023] [Hosseinzadeh and Mansour 2018] [Huang and Knowles 1990] [Huang et al. 2016] [Hubner and Komerath 1995] [Hummel and Oelker 1994] [Hummel and Srinivasan 1967] [Hwang 1986] [Hyde et al. 2018] [AlQadi 2019] [Ignatyev and Khrabrov 2015] [Ignatyev and Khrabrov 2018] [Imbrie 1981] [Wang et al. 2022e] [Irving 1933] [Izadbakhsh and Jabbari Asl 2025] [Jaiswal et al. 2024] [Jaramillo et al. 1995] [Jarrah 1989] [Ji et al. 2026] [Johnson and Willen 1976] [Johnson et al. 1981] [Johnston and Hogge 1974] [Johnston and Hogge 1976] [Johnston et al. 1974] [Joshi et al. 1998] [Jouannet and Krus 2007] [Jun and Nelson 1987] [Kamakoli and Mansour 2021] [Kandil and Flanagan 1994] [Kandil and Salman 1992] [Kandil et al. 1995a] [Kandil et al. 1996b] [Katz 1999] [Katz and Feistel 1987] [Katz et al. 1986] [Katz et al. 1996] [Kegelman and Roos 1991] [Wichman et al. 1996] [Keller et al. 2018] [Kern 1993] [Khanna and Mukherjee 2020] [Klopfer and Nielsen 1979] [Klute et al. 1996] [Kobayakawa et al. 1993] [Konstadinopoulos et al. 1985] [Konstantinovskaya et al. 2024] [Kostić et al. 2015] [Krasil’nikov 1969] [Krekeler et al. 1990] [Kroo et al. 1991] [Kumar 2020b] [Kumar and Ghosh 2015] [Kumar et al. 2020a] [Kumar et al. 2021a] [Kumar et al. 2021c] [Kurade et al. 2021] [Lee 2016] [Lee and Abed 1991] [Lee and Batina 1991] [Lee and Ko 2018] [Lee and Singh 2017] [Lee et al. 2024c] [Lee et al. 2024a] [Lemay and Rogers 1990] [Lesieutre et al. 1996] [Lhopiteau et al. 2025] [Li 2025] [Li and Wu 2016] [Li and Yang 2016] [Li and Yang 2017b] [Li and Yang 2017a] [Li et al. 2017b] [Li et al. 2021c] [Li et al. 2021d] [Li et al. 2022n] [Li et al. 2023i] [Li et al. 2023d] [Lian et al. 2023] [Littleboy and Patel 1998] [Liu et al. 2018b] [Liu et al. 2019c] [Liu et al. 2020b] [Liu et al. 2020e] [Liu et al. 2024a] [Liu et al. 2026d] [Liu et al. 2026e] [Lowson and Ponton 1991] [Lowson and Riley 1995] [Nguyen et al. 1980b] [Luckring 1986] [Luo and Lan 1993] [Ma et al. 2015] [Ma et al. 2025a] [Mabey 1997] [Magness et al. 1993] [Mahgoub and Cortelezzi 2020] [Mahmood 2025] [Mahmood and Iqbal 2025] [Malcolm 1979] [Malcolm and Skow 1986] [Malcolm et al. 1989] [Malcolm et al. 1990] [Malekzadeh et al. 2015] [Malfa et al. 1991] [Manor and Wentz 1985] [Manzoor et al. 2016] [Marchman 1981] [Martínez et al. 2022] [Mendenhall and Perkins 1996] [Meng et al. 2018a] [Menner and Lavretsky 2026] [Menon and Yousefpor 1996] [Meyer et al. 1989] [Mi et al. 2024a] [Midhat 2017] [Miller and Gile 1992] [Mitchell et al. 1980] [Mobayen and Izadbakhsh 2025a] [Mobayen and Izadbakhsh 2025b] [Modi et al. 1981] [Modi et al. 1984] [Mohankumar et al. 2020] [Mohankumar et al. 2021] [Mohankumar et al. 2022] [Monahemi et al. 1995] [Monteiro et al. 2025] [Moore and McInville 1995] [Morelli 1996] [Mosbarger 1994] [Mosbarger 1995] [Muir et al. 2017] [Murman 1994] [Murman et al. 1994] [Murphy 1987] [Murphy 1989] [Murri et al. 1995] [Murri and Rao 1987] [Murri et al. 1993] [Murri et al. 1994] [Narain 1991] [Narayanan et al. 2026] [Nelson 1985] [Nelson 1988] [Nelson and Mouch 1978] [Ng et al. 1993] [Ng et al. 1994a] [Nguyen 1974] [Nguyen 1979] [Nguyen et al. 1976] [Nguyen et al. 1980a] [Nguyen et al. 1985] [Niranjana et al. 1993] [Numerical Analysis 2017] [Obeid and Alqadi 2017] [Obeid and AlQadi 2018] [Obeid et al. 2019] [Oberkampf and Nicolaides 1971] [Ogburn et al. 1988] [Orkwis 1995] [Orlik-Ruckemann 1983] [Osipov 2017] [Osipov 2019b] [Osipov 2019a] [Ostroff 1998] [Ostroff et al. 1994] [Owen and Johnson 1978] [Oyewola 2026] [Pacheco dos Santos et al. 2018] [Pahle et al. 1991] [Pahle et al. 1996b] [Pamadi et al. 1994] [Panaras 2015] [Papageorgiou and Glover 1997] [Patten 1988] [Patterson and Watts 1985] [Patterson and Watts 1986] [Pedreiro et al. 1998] [Pedreiro et al. 1995] [Peng et al. 2025b] [Perrier 1993] [Pittman 1983] [Planeaux 1991] [Planeaux and Barth 1988] [Prediction of Vortex Breakdown 1994] [Prizirembel and Wen 1978] [Przirembel and Shereda 1979] [Purvis 1981] [Pusztai et al. 2024] [Qi and Zhongke 2015] [Qi et al. 2018c] [Qi et al. 2021] [Raj et al. 1988] [Ramachandran and Galloway 1982] [Rao 1989] [Rao and Huffman 1981] [Rao and Huffman 1982] [Rao and Murri 1986] [Rao and Sharma 1994] [Rao 1978] [Raza et al. 2024] [Redding et al. 2025] [Reddy 1981] [Reddy 1989] [Rediniotis et al. 1991] [Regenie et al. 1992b] [Regenie et al. 1992a] [Regenie et al. 1994] [Reshotko et al. 2016] [Reznick and Flores 1989] [Richards 1979] [Richwine and Fisher 1991] [Rizzetta 1996] [Rizzetta 1997] [Rockwell 2001] [Rogalski et al. 2020] [Rohith and Sinha 2017] [Rom 1992a] [Rom 1992b] [Rom 1992c] [Rom 1992d] [Rom 1992e] [Rom and Gordon 1988] [Rom et al. 1987] [Roos 1996a] [Rose and Pittman 1989] [Rose and Pittman 1993] [Ross et al. 1987] [Ross et al. 1991] [Running et al. 2017] [Rusak et al. 2015] [Russell et al. 2022] [Sahin et al. 2026] [Sahu et al. 2000] [Salahudden et al. 2021] [Salahudden et al. 2022b] [Salehian et al. 2022] [Salehian et al. 2024] [Salehian et al. 2025] [Sandlin and Ramirez 1991] [Schiff et al. 1980] [Schmidt et al. 2025] [Sedlacek et al. 2022] [Seraj and Martins 2021] [Setoguchi and Kanazaki 2020] [Seyedtabaii and Delavari 2018] [Sha et al. 2017] [Shahriar et al. 2023] [Shen and Qin 1986] [Shen and Wen 2018] [Shen et al. 2016] [Shi et al. 2015] [Shi et al. 2019b] [Shigemi 1993] [Shirokov and Elizarova 2026] [Shivam and Verma 2019] [Shojae et al. 2025] [Shojae et al. 2026] [Shukla and Woolsey 2018] [Simon 1992] [Simon and Blake 1999] [Sinha et al. 2017] [Smith et al. 1994] [Snell et al. 1991] [Son et al. 2015a] [Son et al. 2015b] [Stahl 1989] [Stahl et al. 1992] [Stalford 1979] [Stalford 1987] [Stalford 1990] [Staples and Nagati 1990] [Starikovskiy 2017] [Starikovskiy et al. 2017] [Stephen and McLaughlin 2017] [Stephens 1936] [Stollery 1992] [Suarez et al. 1993a] [Sugiura et al. 2021] [Surzhikov 2023] [Svoboda and Rozehnal 2018] [Synolakis et al. 1993] [Tahir et al. 2026] [Tajfar and Lamont 1997] [Takagi et al. 2020] [Tanno 2021] [Tarn and Hsu 1993] [Taylor and Skow 1988] [Theisen et al. 1973] [Thomas 1991] [Thompson et al. 1990] [Thukral and Innocenti 1998] [Tindell and Hill 1993] [Tinger 1989] [Tinoco 2020] [Tischler and Barlow 1981] [Tischler and Barlow 1982] [Tobak and Schiff 1974] [Tong et al. 1993] [Traub and van der Merwe 1994] [Tu et al. 2019] [Valasek and Walchli 1998] [Van Den Berg et al. 1992] [Van Tuyl 1988] [Venugopal and Krishnamurthy 1995] [Vidhya et al. 2023] [Visbal 1994] [Viswanath and Patil 1994] [Vlahostergios et al. 2018] [Walchli et al. 1992] [Walsh et al. 1998] [Wan et al. 2023] [Wang et al. 2015c] [Wang et al. 2016a] [Wang et al. 2017g] [Wang et al. 2023h] [Wang et al. 2025k] [Wang et al. 2025m] [Wang et al. 2026c] [Ward and Stout 1986] [Ward et al. 1976] [Wardlaw 1974] [Wardlaw et al. 1975] [Webster and Shang 1989] [Wei and Chen 2023] [Wei et al. 2017a] [Wei et al. 2024b] [Weick and Harris 1934] [Weick and Noyes 1933] [Weijiang et al. 1995] [Weissman 1973] [Weissman 1975] [Wendel et al. 1991] [Weng and Guo 1994b] [Weng and Guo 1994a] [White et al. 1976] [Wibowo et al. 2018b] [Widing 1993] [Williams and Garry 1996] [Wilson et al. 1991] [Wilson et al. 1994b] [Wood and Miller 1985] [Wood and Roberts 1987] [Wu and Wu 1993] [Wu et al. 2017a] [Wu et al. 2020b] [Xieyuan 1985] [Xu et al. 2016] [Xu et al. 2022d] [Yang et al. 1994] [Yang et al. 2023a] [Yang et al. 2025j] [Yang et al. 2025k] [Yavuz 2020] [Ye and Zhao 1990] [Ye and Zhao 1994] [Ye et al. 2015] [Yip et al. 1992] [Yuan and Yarusevych 2020] [Yuan et al. 2018] [Zakir et al. 2024] [Zhang 2026b] [Zhang and Cheng 2024] [Zhang and Samtaney 2016] [Zhang et al. 2017b] [Zhang et al. 2022g] [Zhao et al. 2025a] [Zheng et al. 2025a] [Zhongyang et al. 2017] [Zhou et al. 2018b] [Zhou et al. 2019b] [Zhu 2020] [Zhu et al. 2015] [Zhu et al. 2022] [Zohar and Er-El 1988]

Yaw asymmetry and forebody flow

The cliff in the departure analysis. Asymmetric forebody vortices, their sources, and their control by strakes, blowing and nose shape.

This is a literature of the programme’s own period. Of the 91 records, 56 were published from 1985 to 1996, when forebody vortex control was being tried on the F/A-18 and the F-15 as well as on the X-31.

91 records. [Asghar et al. 1994] [Ayoub and McLachlan 1988] [Bernhardt and Williams 1993] [Bernhardt and Williams 1993a] [Bernhardt and Williams 1995] [Bernhardt and Williams 1998] [Brandon and Nguyen 1988] [Brown et al. 2022] [Chen and Ng 1994] [Chen et al 1995] [Computational Investigation 1972] [Darden and Komerath 1995] [Darden and Komerath 1997] [Degani 1991] [Ericsson 1971] [Ericsson 1990] [Ericsson 1991b] [Ericsson 1992b] [Ericsson 1992a] [Ericsson and Reding 1985] [Flick et al. 1996] [Gao et al. 2026] [Gebert and Maynes 1995] [Gee et al. 1991] [Gee et al. 1992] [Gee et al. 1993] [Gittner and Chokani 1992] [Gittner and Chokani 1994] [Godavarty and Orkwis 2000] [Hodgkin and Wood 1998] [Huang et al. 2026b] [Iwanski and O’Rourke 1995] [Iwanski and O’Rourke 1996] [Kandil et al. 1995b] [Kramer et al. 1993] [Kramer et al. 1994a] [Kramer et al. 1994b] [Lanser and Meyn 1992] [Lanser and Meyn 1994] [Lee et al. 2021a] [Lemay et al. 1992] [Lesieutre and Hall 2024] [Mahadevan et al. 2017] [Mahadevan et al. 2018] [Malcolm 1991] [Malcolm 1993] [Malcolm and Ng 1989] [Malcolm and Ng 1990b] [Malcolm and Ng 1990a] [McKeehen and Cord 1997] [Moore et al. 1980] [Ng 1990] [Ng 1992] [Ng and Malcolm 1992] [Ng et al. 1991b] [Ng et al. 1991a] [Ng et al. 1994b] [Norris and Lan 1991] [Orkwis et al. 1997] [Pedreiro 1997] [Qi and Wang 2019] [Rao et al. 1987] [Roos 1996b] [Rosen and Davis 1990] [Ross and ORourke 1997] [Sampath Kumar et al. 2020] [Sampath Kumar et al. 2021] [Sato et al. 2016] [Sedor 1996] [Sidharth and Dwivedi 2026] [Skow et al. 1982] [Stahl 1990] [Suarez et al. 1992a] [Suarez et al. 1992b] [Suarez et al. 1993b] [Taligoski et al. 2015] [Valasek and Downing 1995] [Viswanath 1995] [Wang et al. 2018a] [Wilkerson et al. 2024] [Wilkerson et al. 2026] [Williams and Papazian 1991] [Wood and Crowther 1994] [Wood et al. 1990] [Wu et al. 2017c] [Zhai et al. 2016] [Zheng et al. 2015] [Zheng et al. 2020] [Zheng et al. 2026a] [Zong et al. 2021] [Zong et al. 2025]

Canard and delta configurations

The configuration. Delta wings, canards and their interference, close-coupled canard-wing-body aerodynamics, three-surface layouts and the lift-curve slope of low aspect ratio wings.

288 records. [Shankar and Goebel 1983] [Gloss and Washburn 1979] [Raikar 2024] [Abed et al. 2024] [Lacey 1979] [Agrell and Elmeland 1985] [Alahmadi 2025] [Aliaga et al. 2022] [Almuradi 2025] [Sirbaugh 1983] [Kida 1982] [Aparinov et al. 1982] [Bandyopadhyay 1989] [Bandyopadhyay 1991] [Bantscheff and Breitsamter 2023] [Bass et al. 1993] [Bass et al. 1995] [Bay and Kara 2026] [Betyaev and Brysov 1994] [Biswas et al. 2023] [Borisov 2025] [Brody et al. 2025] [Brown and Kunz 2023] [Burkhalter 1993] [Lowe 1988] [Chung 2007] [Gloss and McKinney 1973] [Erickson et al. 1990] [Carine Viola Dsouza et al. 2015] [Chang and Lei 1996] [Chao and Zhenghong 2019] [Chen et al. 2021] [Calarese 1982] [Smith 1990] [Pandya and Aftosmis 2001] [Shankar and Malmuth 1982] [Cowling 1987] [Croom et al. 1982] [Das and Longo 1995] [de Silva and Carmichael 1978] [Di Fabbio et al. 2022] [Dong et al. 2023b] [Draz et al. 2020] [Dwivedi et al. 2022b] [Dwivedi et al. 2022a] [Gloss 1974b] [Gloss 1975] [Ma et al. 2004] [Ekaterinaris et al. 1995] [Er-El 1988] [Er-El et al. 1989] [Ericsson 1996] [Ericsson 1997a] [Ericsson 1997b] [Ericsson and Hanff 1994a] [Ericsson and King 1993] [Hauptman 1987] [Fan et al. 2025] [Mahdavi and Reza 2021] [Fawcett et al. 1992] [Feng et al. 2024] [Bridges 2005] [Friehmelt 1997] [Gad-el-Hak and Ho 1985] [Gao et al. 2019c] [Gao et al. 2019b] [Ghasemzadeh and Banazadeh 2025] [Ghoreyshi et al. 2017] [Goetzendorf-Grabowski and Antoniewski 2016] [Gopesh. M. P et al. 2016] [Goucem and Khiri 2023] [Greenwell and Wood 1994] [Grismer and Nelson 1994] [Grismer et al. 1995] [Gupta 2023] [Gupta et al. 2023] [Gupta et al. 2024a] [Gupta et al. 2025] [Hadidoolabi and Ansarian 2018] [Hanff and Huang 1991] [Hanff and Jenkins 1990] [Hao and Chen 2017] [Harrison et al. 2016] [Hashemi et al. 2026] [He et al. 2019a] [Hilgenstock 1991] [Hong and Roberts 1995] [Hong et al. 1996] [Hooker 2023] [Howard and Kersh 1991] [Howard and O’Leary 1993] [Howard and O’Leary 1994] [Howard et al. 1995] [Huijts and Voskuijl 2015] [Ingram et al. 1986] [Ito and Iwashita 2017] [Iwamoto et al. 2019] [Jenn and Nelson 1988] [Jenn and Nelson 1989] [Jesus et al. 2021] [Jiang et al. 2022a] [Kalugin et al. 2022] [Kandil and Chuang 1989] [Kandil and Chuang 1990a] [Kandil and Chuang 1990b] [Kandil et al. 1993] [Katz and Levin 1986] [Katz and Levin 1991] [Keith and Selberg 1984] [Keith and Selberg 1985] [Khan and Mueller 1989] [Kim and Kang 2025] [Kiselev et al. 1994] [Kiseleva and Lukeshevich 2019] [Kjelgaard et al. 1986] [Komarov and Zinchenko 2023] [Konstantinovskaya et al. 2025] [Kuntjoro et al. 2015] [Kunwar et al. 2024] [Lai 2024] [Landa et al. 2018] [Landfield and Rajkovic 1986] [Lathasree et al. 2019] [Le and Hoang 2026] [Le Provost et al. 2018] [Lee and Ko 2017] [Lei and Zha 2021] [Levin 1997] [Li et al. 2016d] [Li et al. 2017d] [Li et al. 2020e] [Nonweiler 1960] [Laitone 1989] [Lijewski 1987] [Lijewski 1988] [Lin et al. 1994] [Gloss and Washburn 1977] [Lombardi 1995] [Lombardi and Morelli 1994] [Lombardi et al. 1996] [Long and Yi 2021] [Longo and Das 1990] [Lunte et al. 2018] [Lv et al. 2015] [Ma et al. 2017b] [Mahdavi Zafarghandi and Reza Soltani 2024] [Manshadi et al. 2016] [Marion and Sharma 2025] [Mayya et al. 2022] [McCutchen 1980] [McKlNNEY and DOLLYHlGH 1971] [Meng et al. 2018b] [Miller and Williamson 1995] [Mkoyan et al. 2023] [Mochizuki and Yamada 2018] [Mohamed et al. 2022] [Mouch et al. 1989] [Mukherjee et al. 2021] [Naigle et al. 2022] [Nasuhbeyoglu and Akça 2024] [Ng and Malcolm 1990] [Finkleman 1971] [Numerical and Experimental Determination 2019] [Octavio Dias dos Santos and de Almeida 2017] [Oelker and Hummel 1989] [Oguz Tasci et al. 2022] [Oh and Tavella 1986] [Frolov 2021] [Ostowari and Naik 1986] [Owens and Perkins 1996] [Patel 1980] [Pfeiffer 1988] [Pollak and Lan 1995] [Traub 1997] [Probst et al. 2019] [Qin et al. 2017] [Qin et al. 2018b] [Raikar et al. 2024] [Raisinghani and Kumar 1995] [Rajkumar et al. 2024] [Rao 1971] [Remneff and Amitay 2025] [Research on Combination 2019] [Rizzi and Purcell 1986] [Rom et al 1989] [Rose et al. 1988] [Jeon 2008] [Roy et al. 2023] [Rozema et al. 2020] [Ruetten and Zastrow 2022] [Sahu and Fresconi 2017] [Sahu and Fresconi 2018] [Sahu et al. 2019] [Sahu et al. 2020] [Said et al. 2015] [Saisuryateja et al. 2022] [Sajjad et al. 2021] [Satrianto and Firmanto 2023] [Schuette and Ghoreyshi 2026] [Schuette and Hummel 2022] [Schulz 1931] [Seginer and Salomon 1986] [Selberg and Rokhsaz 1985] [Selberg and Rokhsaz 1986] [Seraj and Martins 2022] [Seraj and Martins 2023] [Seraj and Martins 2025] [Shah and Ahmed 2023] [Shahjahan and Ahuja 2026] [Shahjahan et al. 2026] [Shams Taleghani and Ghajar 2024] [Sharma et al. 2016] [Shen and Alonso 2026] [Shen et al. 2018] [Shergill and Milanovic 2025] [Shoaib et al. 2019] [Shrivastava and Mohite 2015] [Silton and Fresconi 2015a] [Silton and Fresconi 2015b] [Silton et al. 2014] [Singh et al. 1994] [Spearman and Driver 1959] [Dollyhigh 1971] [Stephen 1995] [Szklarski and Głębocki 2025] [Tahani et al. 2017] [Tai et al. 1994] [Takahashi 2021b] [Takahashi 2021a] [Takahashi et al. 2023] [Tasci et al. 2021] [Tasci et al. 2022] [Tedder and Walker 2022] [Gloss 1974a] [The Effects of Canard-Wing 1988] [Jalil et al. 2024] [Theerthamalai et al. 2025] [Thorell et al. 2016] [Thrust-Induced Effects on Pitching-up 1994] [Toyoda et al. 2015] [Transition Aerodynamics for Close-Coupled 1979] [Shankar and Goebel 1985] [Tromp 1999] [Trussa et al. 2021] [Trussa et al. 2022] [Trussa et al. 2026] [Tu 1991] [Tu 1992c] [Tu 1992a] [Tu 1992b] [Tu 1994a] [Tu 1994b] [Tu 1996] [Tumse et al. 2021] [Tumse et al. 2022] [Tuncer and Platzer 1996] [Tuncer and Platzer 1998] [Van Dommelen 1995] [Varun and Dwivedi 2022] [Vasile 2017] [Vaughan and Wood 1995] [Visonneau and Guilmineau 2024] [Visonneau et al. 2022] [Константиновская et al. 2025] [Комаров and Зінченко 2019] [Calarese 1987] [Griffin et al. 1983] [Wang et al. 2018f] [Wang et al. 2025n] [Wei et al. 2019b] [Werner et al. 2022] [Werner et al. 2024] [Wibowo et al. 2018a] [Wibowo et al. 2019] [William Ruffles and Sam M. Dakka 2016] [Feistel et al. 1981b] [Mason 1982] [Yaniktepe et al. 2016] [Yaniktepe et al. 2025] [Yoo et al. 2023] [Yutuk et al. 2021] [Zamzuddin et al. 2023] [Zhang and Yuan 2019] [Zhang et al. 2015a] [Zhang et al. 2017a] [Zhang et al. 2026f] [Zharfa et al. 2016] [Zwerger et al. 2015]

Thrust vectoring

The means. Mechanical thrust vectoring by vanes, paddles and vectoring nozzles, its integration with the airframe and its effect on manoeuvre.

The X-31’s mechanism is a small part of the vectoring literature. Vanes or paddles are named in 7 of the 209 titles, and the rest concern vectoring nozzles, their integration and their effect on manoeuvre.

209 records. [Ahmed et al. 2025a] [Alcantara et al. 2017] [Amoozgar et al. 2024] [Anderson 1967] [Andrisani and Jones 1994] [Anna and Kidman 1994] [Aroussi 2026] [Asbury and Capone 1992] [Atesoglu and Ozgoren 2011] [Baldini et al. 2026] [Bandi et al. 2025] [Barham 1994] [Barnhouse et al. 2025] [Baskaran et al. 2018] [Berens 2019] [Bergman 1979] [Berrier and Mason 1987] [Berry 1998] [Bhabar and Sharma 2025] [Biberstein et al. 2021] [Bindu Mounica et al and Tjprc 2020] [Bolitho and Jacob 2008] [Bowers and Pahle 1996] [Bowers et al 1991] [Bronz 2019] [Buffington et al. 1993a] [Buffington et al. 1994] [Bursey and Dickinson 1990] [Capone and Mason 1986] [Capone et al. 1992] [Capone and Bare 1987] [Carr 1986] [Chang et al. 2015] [Chawla and Van Dalsem 1992] [Cheatham et al. 1991] [Chen Jie et al. 2012] [Chi et al. 2022] [Chih and Peng 2026] [Cohn et al. 1985] [Cornelius and Lucius 1993b] [Cornelius and Lucius 1995] [Counter and Brinton 1975] [Crandall et al. 1973] [Crawford et al. 2026] [Culpepper et al. 2021] [Culpepper et al. 2022] [Daljit Majil 2016] [Das et al. 2025b] [Davis and Hines 1976] [Dhamodaran and Thanigaiarasu 2025] [Dhanya et al. 2023] [Dong et al. 2025c] [Dwyer and Lutze 1993] [Dynamic Thrust Control 2023] [Ellis and Kearney 1982] [Enenakpogbe et al. 2025] [Erwin et al. 1964] [Esker and Sedrick 1972] [Thillaikumar et al. 2020] [Fazeli Asl and Moosapour 2017] [Ferlauto et al. 2021a] [Fosnight 1968] [Friehmelt 1996] [Gal-Or 1994] [Gal-Or 1995b] [Gal-Or and Sherbaum 1993] [Gal-Or et al. 1993] [Gal-Or et al. 1995] [Ghosh et al. 2006] [Gill 1973] [Gill 1974] [Gourcerol et al. 2025] [Granasy 1995] [Ha et al. 2025] [Hall 1965] [Hammond et al. 1995] [Hardy 1987] [Harisrinivasan et al. 2018b] [He et al. 2025c] [Herrick 1992] [Hirano et al. 2019] [Hoskin et al. 1991] [Hosseini et al. 2026] [Ikaza and Rausch 2000] [Iliff and Wang 1997b] [Imlay 1986] [Intelligent Hierarchical Thrust Vector 1994] [Invernizzi and Lovera 2018] [Islam and Islam 2017] [Islam et al. 2018b] [Islam et al. 2018a] [Jenie et al. 2019] [Jiméneze and Icaza 2000] [Johnson 1990] [Jones and Jia-Richards 2025] [Jones and Jia-Richards 2026] [Jyothy and John Wessley 2023] [Kara and Erpulat 2021] [Kasem and Megahed 2025] [Kentfield 1975a] [Kentfield 1975b] [Kikkawa and Uchiyama 2017] [Kim 2026a] [King and Schnelker 1970] [King et al. 1991] [Klafin 1988] [Kuang and Zhu 2015] [Kumar et al. 2020b] [Kumar et al. 2021b] [Lallman 1985] [Lallman et al. 1998] [Lampard 1978] [Lee and Lan 1992] [Lee and Lee 2019] [Lee et al. 2016] [Lee et al. 2018a] [Leitner 1986] [Leovan 2019] [Levi and Stahlhuth 1977] [Lewis 1990] [Li et al. 2019b] [Li et al. 2020a] [Lin and Sheehan 2018] [Liu et al. 2020c] [Liu et al. 2022b] [Liu et al. 2022g] [Liu et al. 2024e] [Lowe 1985] [Luo et al. 2025d] [Lutze et al. 1991] [Mace et al. 1989] [Mahmoud et al. 2025] [Mareca Rios et al. 2023] [Margetts et al. 2015] [Marubashi and Miwa 2016] [Mason et al. 1992] [Miller 1986] [Miwa 2021] [Miwa and Maruhashi 2016] [Mubarok and Jatmiko 2020] [Muir and Bradshaw 1996] [Nafi and Hasan 2019] [Nagabhushan and Faiss 1984] [Nagaral et al. 2023] [Nauparac et al. 2018] [Nayebi and Taeibi Rahni 2024] [Nguyen et al. 2025a] [Nie et al. 2026] [Nocoń et al. 2023] [Oganyan and Loginov 2025] [Orme and Sims 1999] [Ornob et al. 2025] [Pahle et al. 1996a] [Petit and Scholey 1973] [Phillips et al 1968] [Postma 1970] [Prothin et al. 2016] [Reigelsperger et al. 1995] [Resemini and De Souza Costa 2018] [Resta et al. 2024] [Rolls and Aoyagi 1977] [Roush et al. 2020] [Ruetten 2018] [Salahudden et al. 2025b] [Sanders 1997] [Schirmer and Capone 1989] [Shandor and Walker 1962] [Sharjad et al. 2022] [Shebl 2026] [Sherbaum and Lichtsinder 1998] [Shneider and Macheret 2005] [Shumeiko et al. 2022a] [Shumeiko et al. 2022b] [Snow 1990] [Soufivand et al. 2024] [Soundararajan and Sridhar 2022] [Soundararajan and Sridhar 2024] [Srivastava and Jayachandran 2023] [Stalford and Hoffman 1989] [Steer 2000] [Wu et al. 2023] [Surapaneni et al. 2016] [Suñol et al. 2015] [Swaraj et al. 2023] [Sweeney and Gerzanics 1994] [Syed et al. 1992] [Tamrat and Antani 1988] [Tang 2025] [Tape et al. 1987] [The Hawker P1127 Vectored 1990] [Thrust Vectoring 2020] [Tseng and Lan 1989] [Tsubakino and Saito 2020] [Van Nieuwstadt and Murray 1998] [Visser 1999] [Wang et al. 2020i] [Ward and Lewis 1987] [Whitaker and Gowadia 1994] [Whitaker et al. 1991] [White 1991] [Whitten et al. 1981] [Wing and Asbury 1991] [Wu et al. 2015b] [Wu et al. 2024b] [Yadav et al. 2023] [Yi et al. 1979] [Yu et al. 2023d] [Zhou et al. 2022a] [Zwerneman and Eller 1994]

Fluidic thrust vectoring

Vectoring without moving parts. Shock vector control, dual-throat and bypass nozzles, counterflow and Coanda vectoring.

The X-31 chose paddles over a vectoring nozzle for weight and cost, and the modern answer removes the moving parts entirely. Fluidic vectoring deflects the exhaust by injecting a secondary flow into it, either by displacing the shock structure in a converging-diverging nozzle, by exploiting the tendency of a jet to attach to a curved surface, or by drawing on a counterflow. There is no vane in the stream, nothing to actuate and nothing brittle to crack.

Reading that against this article’s own numbers makes the trade concrete. The X-31 paid 103 pounds of carbon-carbon in the exhaust plus 58 pounds of supporting structure, chose a brittle material specifically to keep mass out of the tail, and accepted a jet deflection of sixteen degrees at forty degrees per second. A fluidic system trades that hardware for bleed air, which is a thrust penalty rather than a mass penalty, and its bandwidth is set by the injection valves rather than by moving a slab of carbon through a supersonic stream.

What has not changed is the quantity that governed the X-31’s departure boundary. A fluidic system still produces a moment proportional to thrust, so its authority still falls as one over dynamic pressure and still lapses with altitude. The mechanism is different and the scaling is identical.

This is almost entirely a modern literature. Of its 137 records, 124 were published from 2015 onward.

137 records. [Afridi et al. 2023b] [Afridi et al. 2023a] [Afridi et al. 2023c] [Afridi et al. 2024] [Ahmad et al. 2018] [Application of Fluidic Thrust 2024] [Banazadeh and Saghafi 2016] [Berton et al. 2026] [Bharathwaj et al. 2016] [Blaszak and Fahrenholz 1960] [Capello et al. 2019] [Chandra Sekar et al. 2017] [Chandra Sekar et al. 2021] [Chandra Sekar et al. 2022] [Chen and Liao 2020] [Chen et al. 2022b] [Chi and Gu 2022] [Chouicha et al. 2019] [Chouicha et al. 2020] [Coanda 1960] [Collins et al. 2004] [Collins 2005] [Computational and Experimental Analysis 2024] [Salimi et al. 2022] [Harish Ragavendra et al. 2025] [Das et al. 2023] [Das et al. 2024] [Das et al. 2025a] [Deere et al. 2003] [Kara and Kurtuluş 2023] [Fan et al. 2013] [Ferlauto and Marsilio 2016] [Ferlauto and Marsilio 2017] [Ferlauto and Marsilio 2018] [Ferlauto et al. 2020a] [Ferlauto et al. 2020b] [Ferlauto et al. 2021b] [Flamm et al. 2006] [Flamm et al. 2007] [Forliti et al. 2002] [Garg et al. 2024] [Gupta 2025] [Kbab et al. 2020] [Hakimi et al. 2026] [Hambidge et al. 2023] [He et al. 2017] [Huang et al. 2025] [Huang et al. 2026d] [Jain et al. 2015] [Jammalamadaka et al. 2020] [Jingwei et al. 2016] [Jingwei et al. 2019] [Jun et al. 2018] [Kara and Kurtuluş 2024] [Kara et al. 2025] [Kishore et al. 2025] [Kobayashi et al. 2020] [Koklu 2016] [Li et al. 2016a] [Li et al. 2018b] [Liu et al. 2022c] [Liu et al. 2026i] [Maruyama et al. 2019] [Maruyama et al. 2022] [Mason and Crowther 2004] [McGilvray et al. 2019] [Neely et al. 2007] [Wu et al. 2020c] [Park et al. 2025b] [Pelt et al. 2015] [Raj et al. 2025] [Ravindranath 2025] [Remiger et al. 2023] [Remiger et al. 2025] [Ren et al. 2017a] [Resta et al. 2021] [Resta et al. 2022] [Rizzetta and Garmann 2025] [Akshay et al. 2020] [Sakata and Maruyama 2018] [Schwagerus et al. 2023a] [Schwagerus et al. 2023b] [Schwagerus et al. 2025] [Schwagerus et al. 2026] [Sellam et al. 2015] [Shakouchi and Fukushima 2022] [Shakouchi et al. 2019b] [Shakouchi et al. 2019a] [Shi et al. 2019a] [Shi et al. 2022] [Shi et al. 2024a] [Shi et al. 2024b] [Shu et al. 2023] [Shu et al. 2024] [Shukla et al. 2026] [Simon et al. 2023] [Singh 2026] [Strykowski et al. 1996] [Suresh et al. 2026] [Takahashi and Maruyama 2021] [Takahashi and Maruyana 2020] [Tanveer and Ahmad 2023b] [Tanveer and Ahmad 2023a] [Tcherak et al. 2026] [Vibhu et al. 2026] [Vohra and Kumar 2025] [Wang and Liu 2016] [Wang et al. 2015b] [Wang et al. 2017d] [Wang et al. 2020c] [Wang et al. 2024f] [Wang et al. 2026h] [Warsop et al. 2019] [Weigert et al. 2025] [Wen et al. 2022] [Williams and Vittal 2002] [Wu and Dong Kim 2019] [Wu and Kim 2019a] [Wu and Kim 2019b] [Wu and Kim 2019c] [Wu and Kim 2021] [Wu et al. 2020d] [Wu et al. 2021c] [Wu et al. 2021f] [Xiao-bo et al. 2017] [Xu et al. 2024a] [Xu et al. 2025] [Xue et al. 2021] [Younes and Hickey 2020] [Zaheer et al. 2023] [Zhang and He 2026b] [Zhang et al. 2021c] [Zhang et al. 2022c] [Zhang et al. 2024b] [Zhang et al. 2026c] [Zhou et al. 2024b] [Zmijanovic et al. 2016]

Control power and effector sizing

How much moment there is. Control power requirements, control margins at high angle of attack, control authority and the derivatives that measure it.

60 records. [Andersen et al. 1997] [Andersen et al. 1998] [Andrievsky and Zaitceva 2023] [Beard and Foley 1983] [Bocvarov et al 1992] [Cano and Sobel 2016] [Compton et al 1982] [Control Authority Assessment 1993] [Curtiss 1971] [Ellis and Raisinghani 1979] [Fan et al. 2017c] [Finley and Cockrell 1995] [Foster et al 1993] [Freeman and Klunk 2018] [Glezer and Leonard 2012] [Goel et al. 2021] [Hall and Boothe 1972] [Hristov 2023] [Hutchin 2019] [Iliff and Wang 1997] [Jayarathne et al. 2024] [Kamath et al. 2025] [Karpel and Sheena 1989] [Keidel et al. 2020] [Kus and Ergazi 2025] [Lackey and Hadfield 1992] [Mehra et al 1972] [Morelli 1995] [Napolitano 1995] [Napolitano and Spagnuolo 1993] [Nguyen and Xiong 2026] [Ogburn and Foster 1993] [Ogburn et al 1992] [Ogburn et al 1994] [O’Donnell and Mohseni 2019] [Rennie and Jumper 1994] [Rennie and Jumper 1996] [Ribbens and Miller 1999] [Schaeffler et al 1967] [Smith 1966] [Smith et al 2003] [Spadão et al. 2026] [Swaim 1970] [Sykes et al. 2025] [Takagi et al. 2015] [Tavella et al. 1986] [Tavella et al. 1987] [Tich 1991] [Tomac et al. 2017] [Vinje 1974] [Wang et al. 2018c] [Ward et al. 2024] [Warsop and Crowther 2018] [Weil 1981] [Xu and Zha 2019] [Xu and Zha 2021] [Yeo et al. 2015] [Yu et al. 2016a] [Yu et al. 2018a] [Zhang et al. 2018b]

Engine thrust with altitude

Why the vectored moment falls with altitude. Engine thrust and its variation with flight condition, in-flight thrust measurement and installed thrust.

The control-authority argument in this article rests entirely on the way thrust falls with ambient pressure, and the working model of proportionality to the pressure ratio is a simplification that the installed-performance literature exists to correct. Inlet recovery, bleed, power extraction and nozzle matching all move the answer.

The article reports the sensitivity rather than hiding it, giving 0.7052 and 0.5922 at lapse exponents of 0.8 and 1.2 against 0.6462 at unity, and the qualitative conclusion survives the whole range.

13 records. [Andrianantara et al. 2021] [Bronz et al. 2017] [Hiers 2018] [Jia et al. 2026] [Linderman et al. 1974] [McCORMICK et al. 1969] [Smith and Wehofer 1982] [Prince and McAulay 1950] [Ray 1994] [Sachs 1990] [Stengel 1992] [Tate and Gillard 1975] [E-33 In Flight Propulsion Measurement Committee 2015]

The standard atmosphere

The medium, named rather than assumed. Standard atmosphere tables and their use as the reference for altitude, density and performance.

Every altitude-dependent number in this article passes through a model of the atmosphere, and the model is a standard rather than a measurement. Thrust lapse, true airspeed, dynamic pressure and Mach number all read from it, so an error there propagates into the control-authority argument and into the quasi-tailless dynamic pressure alike.

The literature here uses the standard rather than revising it. Beyond the tables themselves, these records apply it to density altitude as a performance standard, to landing distance, to flight reference simulation and to the reduction of altitude and airspeed in flight test.

10 records. [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1962] [Dancila and Botez 2020] [Dennis P. Dykstra 1980] [Divakar and Samaga 2022] [Younes 2024] [Lee and Aldredge 2015] [Luo 2025] [Report No. 538 Altitude-Pressure 1935] [Strand and Ennis 2012] [Vaidya and Peter-Contesse 1985]

Propulsion integration at extreme attitude

The engine at extreme attitude. Inlet distortion, compressor stall and its transients, inlet and nozzle integration and exhaust flows.

326 records. [Abbasi et al. 2018] [Abed 2000] [Acton et al. 2021] [Akolekar et al. 2025] [Alendar et al. 2022] [Andrew et al 1991] [Anex 1990] [Arshad et al. 2016] [Asghar et al. 2015] [Asghar et al. 2016] [Asghar et al. 2018] [Askari and Abedi 2026] [Askari and Soltani 2019] [Askari and Soltani 2023] [Baetz 1975] [Bai et al. 2025a] [Bai et al. 2025b] [Balkhi and Durna 2025] [Baranwal 2026] [Barklage et al. 2018] [Barr et al. 2022] [Beale 2018] [Bedke and Gorrell 2021] [Benichou et al. 2021] [Biesiadny 1992] [Bing and Gong 2015] [Bond and Key 2025] [Bond and Key 2026] [Brandon et al. 2021] [Brodsky 1970] [Brooks and Wasson 1976] [Brown and Elgin 1985] [Bugajski et al. 2015] [Burcham et al. 1985] [Burrows et al. 2018] [Burrows et al. 2019] [Burrows et al. 2020] [Burrows et al. 2024] [Cao et al. 2017a] [Cao et al. 2020b] [Carlin et al. 1984] [Castner et al. 2017] [Chandra et al. 2023] [Chang 1980] [Chen et al. 2006] [Chen et al. 2015b] [Chennuru et al. 2025] [Clough 1990] [Cousins and Obrien 1985] [Cravero et al. 2023] [Crea et al. 2026] [Crosthwait 1970] [Crown 1950] [Cusator et al. 2024] [Da and Fan 2020] [Da et al. 2015] [Davies 1981] [Davis and O’Brien 1987] [Delaat et al. 1998] [DeLaat et al. 1998] [Desikan et al. 2017] [Dickman and Takahashi 2016] [DiFilippo et al. 2025] [Ding et al. 2025] [Dong et al. 2015a] [Dosch 2024] [Drabek 1960] [Eggers 1961] [Egorov et al. 1997] [Ellison and Ojala 1969] [Faltot et al. 2018] [Fan et al. 2024] [Fan et al. 2026] [Fang et al. 2023] [Favaron et al. 2021] [Feng et al. 2025] [Ferrero et al. 2020] [Ferrero et al. 2021] [Ferrero et al. 2022] [Floyd and Davis 2015] [Franklin 1993] [French 1985] [Frohnapfel et al. 2017] [Frohnapfel et al. 2018] [Frohnapfel et al. 2020] [Mehalic and Lottig 1987] [Furuichi and Terao 2015a] [Furuichi and Terao 2015b] [Gallops et al. 1990] [Gallops et al. 1991] [Gao et al. 2024a] [Garg and Mattern 1991] [Garg et al. 1991] [Gartner and Amitay 2016] [Gates and Cochran 1961] [Giangaspero et al. 2019] [Giesecke and Friedrichs 2019] [Gillespie et al. 2021] [Gravdahl and Egeland 1999] [Gravelle 1975] [Greitzer and Moore 1986] [Gridley and Walker 1996] [Grimaldi and Michelassi 2018] [Gubanov 2019] [Guimaraes et al. 2015] [Guo 2023] [Guo et al. 2015] [Güllü and Aran 2023] [Hah et al. 2015] [Halwas and Aggarwal 2019b] [Halwas and Aggarwal 2019a] [Harisrinivasan et al. 2018a] [Harrington et al. 1974] [He et al. 2020a] [He et al. 2023] [He et al. 2024] [Heath et al. 2017] [Henderson 1989] [Henderson and Berrier 1989] [Herrick 1986] [Hiers and Knapke 2019] [Hill and Defoe 2020] [Hoertel 1961] [Housman and Kiris 2015] [Hu et al. 2018a] [Hu et al. 2025e] [Huang et al. 2020b] [Huskey 1975] [Ito et al. 2020] [Jagtap et al. 2025] [Jaiswal et al. 2023] [Jansen and Thorman 1950] [Jie and Xu 2024] [Jun et al. 1992] [Khan et al. 2021] [Kim and Choi 2025] [Kim and Kim 2020] [Klepper et al. 2017] [Klinskii 2023] [Kokubo et al. 2026] [Korn 1974] [Korsun et al. 2018] [Kotsyubinskii and Ravikovich 2015] [Kozakiewicz et al. 2025] [Kramer and Hall 2025] [Kramer and Hall 2026] [Krosel 1984] [Kuo et al. 2016] [Lakebrink and Mani 2018] [Lee and Boedicker 1985] [Lee and Choi 2024] [Lee et al. 2018b] [Lemmin 1986] [Li 2022] [Li et al. 2020d] [Li et al. 2022p] [Li et al. 2023f] [Li et al. 2023c] [Li et al. 2024h] [Li et al. 2024g] [Li et al. 2025i] [Lieu 1964] [Lin et al. 2017a] [Liu and Vo 2024] [Liu and Wu 2023] [Liu et al. 2024b] [Liu et al. 2025d] [Liu et al. 2026h] [Lobo et al. 2016] [Lowe 2020] [Lucas 1978] [Ma et al. 2024b] [Ma et al. 2025b] [Madhvaraju et al. 2026] [Maghsoudi et al. 2020] [Malan and Brown 1994] [McClure and Sirbaugh 1991] [McGuigan 1970] [Medina et al. 2021] [Mehdizadeh et al. 2019] [Menegozzo and Benini 2020] [Menon et al. 1996] [Miao et al. 2020] [Moger and Ramsay 1964] [Moore and Greitzer 1986] [Munroe et al. 2021] [Naruse et al. 2022] [Nelson and Fleeman 1975] [Nichols et al. 2015] [Oliva and Morris 2022] [Ordaz et al. 2017] [Orme et al. 1998] [O’brien and Lowe 2015] [Page et al. 2017] [Page et al. 2018] [Pan et al. 2022] [Pan et al. 2024a] [Pecinka et al. 2015] [Pečinka et al. 2017] [Piovesan et al. 2025] [Pitel Welnitz et al. 2019] [Potts and Bons 2020] [Prasad 2025] [МГТУ им. Н.Э. Баумана et al. 2016] [Qiao et al. 2025] [Qin et al. 2018a] [Qiu et al. 2023b] [Qiu et al. 2023c] [Qiu et al. 2023a] [Qiu et al. 2024b] [Qiu et al. 2024a] [Reedy and Gorrell 2025] [Remiger et al. 2024] [Yao et al. 2025] [Reukauf and Burcham 1976] [Reutter et al. 2020] [Rising et al. 2026] [Romanò et al. 2025] [Rosenblad 1990] [Ross et al. 2018] [Saha et al. 2017] [Saheby et al. 2015] [Saleem Yusoof et al. 2016] [Sasanapuri et al. 2015] [Schram and Narayanaswamy 2026] [Sheng and Zhang 2017] [Shmilovich and Yadlin 2026] [Si et al. 2016] [Simmons and Brant 1988] [Smith et al. 1992] [Soltani et al. 2018] [Song et al. 2025] [Spencer et al. 2016] [Srinivasan et al. 2026] [Stephens et al. 2025] [Stewart et al. 1992] [Streiff 1953] [Strome 1969] [Sun and Tan 2018] [Sun et al. 2018a] [Sun et al. 2022] [Sun et al. 2026] [Takahashi 2016] [Takahashi et al. 2015] [Terade et al. 2025] [Thompson and Epstein 1977] [Thompson and Komives 2019] [Tich et al. 1987] [Tillman and Ikeler 1991] [Trapp and Girardi 2020] [Tu et al. 2020] [Tudosie 2017] [Tudosie 2018] [Jahani et al. 2022] [Vaca-Rios et al. 2024] [Vagnoli and Verstraete 2015] [van der Walt and Nurick 1994] [Viventi 1961] [Vizzini 1985] [Wagenknecht et al. 1982] [Walsh et al 1997] [Walter and Starkey 2016] [Walter et al. 2016] [Wang et al. 2016e] [Wang et al. 2017f] [Wang et al. 2020b] [Wang et al. 2021i] [Wang et al. 2021g] [Wang et al. 2022c] [Wang et al. 2023i] [Wang et al. 2023g] [Wang et al. 2023d] [Wang et al. 2024h] [Wasserbauer et al. 1975] [Wells and Urnes 1995] [Welte 1986] [Williams and Hunt 1980] [Wu and Chow 1985] [Wu et al. 2021a] [Wu et al. 2024e] [Wu et al. 2024d] [Wu et al. 2025c] [Wu et al. 2026b] [Xiang et al. 2023] [Xiao and Liang-Wei 1985] [Xie et al. 2015] [Xie et al. 2023] [Xu and Zha 2020a] [Xu and Zha 2020b] [Xu and Zha 2024] [Xu et al. 2021] [Xu et al. 2022b] [Yahsi et al. 2023] [Yan et al. 2023b] [Yan et al. 2025b] [Yang et al. 2025d] [Yang et al. 2025i] [Yang et al. 2026a] [Yeung et al. 2000] [Yu et al. 2024b] [Zebiri et al. 2019] [Zein-Sabatto et al. 2017] [Zha et al. 1998] [Zhang and Hou 2015] [Zhang and Hu 2022] [Zhang and Liu 2024] [Zhang and Liu 2026] [Zhang and Mi 2023] [Zhang and Tang 2015] [Zhang and Vahdati 2018] [Zhang and Vahdati 2019] [Zhang et al. 2020d] [Zhang and Vahdati 2021] [Zhang et al. 2016a] [Zhang et al. 2017d] [Zhang et al. 2018g] [Zhang et al. 2019e] [Zhang et al. 2020c] [Zhang et al. 2020a] [Zhao and Zheng 2020] [Zhao et al. 2023a] [Zhao et al. 2025b] [Zhou et al. 2019a] [Zhou et al. 2024c] [Zhu et al. 2024b] [Zmijanovic et al. 2018]

Axis transformations and the velocity-vector roll

The kinematics of a velocity-vector roll. Equations of motion, axis systems, quaternions and attitude representation.

The relation that makes a wind-axis roll 94 percent yaw rate at seventy degrees is elementary kinematics, and it belongs to a body of work on aircraft equations of motion and axis systems that predates every aircraft in this series. The X-31’s contribution was to fly somewhere the distinction stops being academic.

43 records. [Altman 1952] [Andersen and Kristiansen 2017] [Atkinson 2016] [Bernstein 1998] [Carino et al. 2015] [Chen 2018] [Chen and Chen 1993] [Crain et al. 2021] [Durham et al. 1993] [Durham et al. 1994] [Elsayed et al. 2024] [Farconi et al. 2019] [Gandulfo et al. 2024] [Hoffman et al. 1972] [Howe 2017] [Hunsaker and Moulton 2023] [Jenkins et al. 1996] [Kalensher 1957] [Kalviste 1986] [Kalviste 1987] [Kasula et al. 2024] [Keyes et al. 2017] [Legen’kii 1995] [Liao et al. 2026] [Liu and Wang 2015] [Marciano et al. 2021] [Matthew 2025] [McIntyre 1963] [Michalak et al. 2026] [Miller et al. 2003] [Nguyen et al. 2017] [Pachter et al. 1995a] [Pei and Roithmayr 2022] [Pradeep 1998] [Pradeep 1999] [Qi 2023] [Rodden and Love 1985] [Roskam 1965] [Schmitz 1973] [Schwanz 1972] [Wang and Yu 2016] [Warsett 1955] [Yuan et al. 2025]

Flight control system design, actuation and allocation

The system that made the aircraft flyable. Flight control system design, fly-by-wire architecture, actuator saturation and rate limits, control allocation and incremental dynamic inversion.

An aircraft with more effectors than axes has to decide how to use them, and the X-31 had exactly that problem with elevons, canards, rudder and three vectoring paddles. It solved it with hand-tuned mixing in thirty-two software releases. The modern answer is control allocation as an optimisation solved at frame rate, with constraints for position and rate limits of the kind this article computed for the vectoring vanes.

Incremental nonlinear dynamic inversion is the other major change. The X-31’s control laws were predictive, mapping pilot commands and measured flight condition onto the effectors through a model of the flight path, and their dependence on measured flight condition is precisely what failed and destroyed the first aircraft. Incremental methods reduce the dependence on a model of the aircraft and therefore on the accuracy of the air data that parameterises it.

Allocation is named in 59 of the 491 titles, and incremental methods in 30.

491 records. 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Snell 1997] [Hodel et al. 2002] [Hofsäß et al. 2023] [Hogan and Rinde 1978] [Holzinger and Cunis 2024] [Homaeinezhad et al. 2025] [Homaeinezhad et al. 2026] [Hori et al. 1993] [Horpatzká and Hlinka 2023] [Hosseinzadeh and Yazdanpanah 2017] [Hougui et al. 1995] [Hryshchenko et al. 2025] [Huihui and Jun 2024b] [Huihui and Jun 2024a] [Hwang et al. 1997] [Hyde 1991] [Hyde and Glover 1990] [Inman 1990] [Ishimoto et al. 1996] [Iwaki et al. 2018] [Jacklin 2008] [Jafari et al. 2022] [Jang et al. 2014] [Jeffrie and Rolston 1972] [Jenney and Schreadley 1984] [Jenney et al. 1982] [Jeong et al. 2024b] [Ji et al. 2021] [Jia et al. 2021b] [Jiang et al. 2019] [Jin and Jo 2019] [Jin et al. 2023] [Jing and Ma 2025] [Jing and Shen 2015] [Jing-gang and Ning 2016] [Jung et al. 2014] [Junhua Chen et al. 2015] [Kahe 2017] [Kang et al. 2015] [Karkar and Gökmenoğlu 2024] [Ke et al. 2015] [Kefayat and Kamali 2024] [Kim and Junkins 1991] [Kim et al. 2017] [Kim et al. 2018a] [Kineyko 1982] [Kirchengast et al. 2018] [Kirsten 1985] [Kisslinger and Wendl 1971] [Kiyak 2016] [Klepl 1986] [Klepl 1990] [Klion 1977] [Klyde et al. 2020] [Kolesnikov 2005] [Komaee 2024] [Komnatska 2015] [Komnatska et al. 2015] [Konar et al. 1974] [Kopecki 2016] [Kosyanchuk et al. 2015] [Kota et al. 2018] [Kotitschke et al. 2026] [Kubica and Livet 1994] [Kubica et al. 1994] [Kubica et al. 1995] [Kuchar and Looye 2018] [Laixue Sun and Sian Shi 2018] [Larin and Tunik 2020] [Larson 1986] [Lee and Vagners 1982] [Lemble 1990] [Leonessa and Morel 2023] [Lerch et al. 2021a] [Lerch et al. 2021b] [Li and Wei 2016] [Li et al. 2021b] [Li et al. 2025j] [Li et al. 2025a] [Lin et al. 2019] [Lin et al. 2026b] [Littleboy et al. 1997] [Liu 2021] [Liu and Jiao 2017] [Liu and Xu 2026] [Liu et al. 2016b] [Liu et al. 2018d] [Liu et al. 2021b] [Liu et al. 2022a] [Liu et al. 2026c] [Lu and Martos 2021] [Ludeña Cervantes et al. 2020] [Luo et al. 2025a] [Lyons et al. 1973] [Ma 2019] [Ma and Yan 2015] [Ma and Yang 2016] [Ma et al. 2016] 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et al. 2016] [Oliva and Leit 1999] [Oliva and Leit 2001] [Om et al. 2020] [Omlor and Radunz 1988] [Optimum Redundancy When Components 1964] [Pal and Negi 2017] [Palmeira et al. 2025] [Pan et al. 2017a] [Park et al. 2024] [Park et al. 2025a] [Patel and Smith 1998] [Murphy 1999] [Peng et al. 2025a] [Performance Evaluation of on-Board 2025] [Pfeifle and Fichter 2021] [Pfeifle and Fichter 2023] [Pollack and Van Kampen 2023] [Pollack et al. 2019] [Pollack et al. 2024] [Pollack et al. 2026] [Porter and Manganas 1985] [Porter and Manganas 1986] [Porter and Othman 1989] [Porter et al. 1988] [Posingies 1979] [Postlethwaite 1994] [Potvin and Minto 1992] [Pozo and Ikhouane 2006] [Prachar and Vrchota 2018] [Pranoto and Wirawan 2018] [Proschan and Bray 1963] [Prosvirin and Kharchenko 2015] [Prosvirin and Kharchenko 2016] [Prototype Digital Flight Control 1986] [Pullen 1973] [Qi et al. 2018b] [Qian et al. 2022] [Qian et al. 2025] [Qin et al. 2023b] [Quan and Ma 2016] [Rahmawati et al. 2022] [Rajput 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Gain scheduling and stability margins

The architecture whose failure destroyed the first aircraft. Gain scheduling and its analysis, together with the multivariable stability margins against which a scheduled loop is judged.

97 records. [Al-Sunni and Lewis 1993] [Amato et al. 1996] [Analytical Framework for Gain 1991] [Apkarian and Adams 1998] [Balcan et al. 2026] [Bar-On and Grasse 1994] [Bennett and Baras 1985] [Blanken et al. 2009] [Cai et al. 2025] [Cai et al. 2026] [Chen et al. 2018c] [Chen et al. 2024f] [Chuang et al. 1992] [Cockburn and Tannenbaum 1996] [de Gaston and Safonov 1986] [Ding and Pan 2016] [Dynamic Scheduling of Modern-Robust-Control 1992] [Ebihara et al. 2020] [Fan et al. 2017b] [Fisher and Bryson 1995] [Fujimori and Nikiforuk 1999] [Gain Scheduling 1992] [Gong and Thompson 1994] [Gonsalves and Zacharias 1994] [Guo 2021a] [Guo and Scherer 2018] [Hassan and Ali 2022] [He et al. 2019b] [Helmersson 1998] [Hyde and Glover 1991] [Ilka and Veselý 2017] [Jackson and Crouch 1991] [Jianliang Wang and Sundararajan 1994] [Jie 2018] [Jie and Yuan 1988] [Jonckheere and Bar-on 1990] [Kazarin et al. 2016] [Keel and Bhattacharyya 1993] [Kumar P and Detroja 2024] [Latchman et al. 1997] [Lawrence and Rugh 1995] [Leith 1996] [Leith 1999] [Lhachemi et al. 2017] [Liang et al. 2026] [Liu et al. 2016a] [Lévano et al. 2020] [Marcos et al. 2022] [Mosca and Agnoloni 1999] [Nguyen et al. 2021c] [Nichols et al 1993] [Packard 1994] [Patartics et al. 2017] [Patel et al. 2023] [Rantzer 1992] [Rugh 1990] [Sadeghzadeh 2017] [Safonov 1983] [Safonov 1984] [Safonov and Chen 1982a] [Sajjadi-Kia et al. 2007] [Sato 2018b] [Sato 2018a] [Schumacher and Khargonekar 1998] [Scorletti and Ghaoui 1998] [Shahruz and Behtash 1990] [Shahruz and Langari 1991] [Shamma and Athans 1991] [Shue et al. 1996] [Sideris and De Gaston 1986] [Sideris and Pena 1988] [Solomon and Davison 1986] [Spencer and He 2025] [Sreeram and Agathoklis 1991] [Stilwell and Rugh 1999] [Tao et al. 2016] [Tekawy et al. 1990] [Veselý and Ernek 2018] [Veselý and Ilka 2015a] [Veselý and Ilka 2015b] [Veselý and Ilka 2017] [Vicino and Tesi 1995] [Vos et al. 1991] [Walsh and Forbes 2016] [Wang 1995] [Wang et al. 2017b] [Wang et al. 2017c] [Wang et al. 2024i] [Wilson and Arnold 1991] [Wise 1990] [Wise 1993] [Wu et al. 2005] [Yahagi and Kajiwara 2023] [Yang et al. 2018a] [Yue et al. 2017] [Yue Zhao et al. 2016] [Zhang et al. 2019b]

Unstable dynamics

Relaxed static stability. The control, identification and handling of statically unstable aircraft.

65 records. [Avanzini and Galeani 2005] [Avanzini et al. 2017] [Blight et al 1986] [Bradshaw et al 1985] [Cavin et al 1976] [Colgren 1994] [Enns et al 1992] [Evangelou 1998] [Formalskii 2017] [Gera and Bosworth 1987] [Ghosh Roy and Peyada 2016] [Gibson 1990] [Glad 1995] [Goman and Demenkov 2002] [Goman et al 1996] [Grauer 2025] [Gumussoy and Özbay 2018] [Hanson and Stengel 1981] [Hanson and Stengel 1983] [Hanson and Stengel 1984] [Hopwood and Woolsey 2024] [Jategaonkar and Thielecke 1994] [Joos 1995] [Ju et al. 2023] [Kamali et al 2007] [Klein et al 1982] [Koyama et al. 2019] [Kuttieri and Sinha 2023] [Kwatny et al 1991] [Lapins et al 1982] [Lebacqz and Govindaraj 1980] [Maine and Murray 1986] [Maine and Murray 1988] [Mansor et al. 2015] [Marangoz and Kutay 2017] [Maxwell et al. 2015] [McRuer et al. 1986] [Naihong et al 1993] [Newman and Buttrill 1995] [Patel et al 2007] [Peloubet et al 1990] [Potvin and Grant 2026] [Preissler and Schaufele 1991] [Rao et al 2003] [Rong and Yang 2024] [Rooney et al 1982] [Rossiter 1997] [Sadoff et al. 1961] [Sariyildiz et al. 2018] [Shafiei and Shenton 1999] [Shrivastava and Stengel 1989] [Sobel 1982] [Sozhamadevi and Sathiyamoorthy 2015] [Stabilization of Unstable Aircraft 2004] [Suresh et al 2004] [Tomlinson 1973] [Unstable Aircraft Identification 2006] [Unstable Aircraft Identification 2015] [Verma and Peyada 2018] [Wendel and Schmidt 1989] [Wilhelm and Schafranek 1986] [Yedavalli 2024] [Yildiz and Kolmanovsky 2011] [Zhang et al. 2026b] [Zhou et al. 2025c]

Handling qualities of highly augmented aircraft

What the pilot was given. Handling and flying qualities, their criteria and rating scales, and their evaluation for augmented fixed-wing aircraft and rotorcraft.

245 records. [Abdulrahim et al. 2019] [Abu-Elola et al. 2024] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1969] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1988] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1990a] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1992] [Aircraft Lateral-Directional Handling Qualities 2011] [Aircraft Longitudinal Handling Qualities 2011] [Alberghini and Lee 2018] [Alexander 2025a] [Alexander 2025b] [Alstrom and Paul 2023] [Anderson and Ormiston 1994] [Anderson 1960] [Antonakis 2025b] [Antonakis 2025a] [Ashkenas 1965a] [Ashkenas 1965b] [Bachelder and Aponso 2017] [Bachelder and Aponso 2020a] [Bachelder and Aponso 2020b] [Bachelder and Aponso 2022] [Bachelder and Aponso 2023] [Bachelder et al. 2023a] [Bachelder et al. 2023b] [Bachelder et al. 2024] [Bahr et al. 2020] [Bailes et al. 1975] [Barnes et al. 2025] [Baughman and Longeauay 2015] [Bechelder et al. 2025] [Belak and Hromcik 2024] [Berger et al. 2016] [Berry 1981] [Bidinotto et al. 2021] [Bivens 1986] [Brandon et al. 1995] [Breul 1963] [Broussard and Stengel 1977] [Callaghan and Kunz 2019] [Callaghan and Kunz 2021] [Campos and Marques 2021] [Cao and Qi 2018] [Cao et al. 2022b] [Cavalcanti et al. 2026] [Cavallo et al. 1990] [Celi 1991] [Chalk 1980] [Chance Vought Corp Dallas Tx 1979] [Chen and Ji 2017] [Chetty and Lakshmi 1991] [Chevalier and Burke 1972] [Chowhan et al. 2019] [Cooper et al. 2021] [Cosenza and Vos 2017] [Costigan and Calico 1989] [Daughaday and Duwaldt 1955] [Davidson and Andrisani 1996] [Denieul et al. 2018] [Devi 2019] [Doman 1995] [Drewiacki et al. 2016] [Drewiacki et al. 2020] [Drewiacki et al. 2025] [Dussart et al. 2018] [Dussart et al. 2019] [Edwards et al. 1997] [Efremov et al. 1998] [Efremov et al. 2019a] [Efremov et al. 2019b] [Efremov et al. 2020] [Efremov et al. 2022] [Erturk et al. 2022] [Favaro et al. 2025] [Fegely et al. 2017a] [Fegely et al. 2017b] [Fell et al. 2015] [Ford 1989] [Fu et al. 2019] [Garg and Schmidt 1988] [Garkushenko and Vinogradov 2016] [Gerken 1979] [Gertsen and Shomber 1965] [Grant et al. 2015] [Gray 2009] [Gray 2016] [Griffin and Bellaire 1968] [Gu et al. 2023a] [Gungras et al. 1996] [Habin 1994] [Hall 1971] [Hamidani and Kunz 2018] [Han and Liu 2026] [Hanson et al. 2011] [Hariowibowo et al. 2021] [Harper and Robert P. 1955] [Harper and Sardanowsky 1969] [Harper and Cooper 1984] [Hebbar and Pashilkar 2016] [Heffley and Johnston 1979] [Helicopter Handling Qualities 1982] [Henriquez Huecas et al. 2022] [Hess 1990] [Hess 1991] [Hess 1995b] [Hess 2016] [Hess 2018] [Hess 1994] [Hodgkinson et al. 1990] [Hoh 1988] [Hoh and Mitchell 1983] [Hoh et al. 1981] [Humphreys-Jennings et al. 2020] [Hynes et al. 1989] [Iloputaife and Ma 1987] [Innocenti 1985] [Innocenti 1989b] [Ioannis and Ioannis 2026] [Ivler et al. 2011] [Jansen and Van Kampen 2025] [Ji et al. 2017] [Ji et al. 2022] [Jiao et al. 2023] [Jing et al. 2020] [jingwei and jiaming 2020] [Johnston et al. 1965] [Jones et al. 2023] [Joosten et al. 2023] [Junfeng et al. 2020] [Jusko and Berger 2024] [Kemper and Cotting 2016] [Kereliuk and Sinclair 1979] [Key 1971] [Khan 2019] [Kidd and Bull 1963] [Kiefer and Calvert 1992] [Kim and Kunz 2016] [Kim and Kunz 2017] [Klein et al. 2017] [Klyde et al. 2018] [Klyde et al. 2021] [Lampton et al. 2024a] [Lampton et al. 2024b] [Lappos 2020] [Lawrence et al. 2018] [Lebacqz and Radford 1979] [Lee et al. 2020] [Lee et al. 2026] [Leggett et al. 1990] [Li et al. 2024f] [Liddell et al. 1947] [Loranchet et al. 2025] [Luo and Wang 2017] [Lusardi 2023] [Malpica and Lusardi 2013] [Mandal and Gu 2016a] [Mandal and Gu 2016b] [Mansikka et al. 2019] [Martin 2025] [McCormick 1969] [Memon et al. 2021] [Miller and Franklin 1968] [Mitchell et al. 2003] [Mitchell et al. 2004] [Mooij 1985] [Musso et al. 2026] [Nagy and Kirsten 1976] [Neal and Smith 1970] [Newton and Kroo 2023] [Newton and Kroo 2024] [Newton and Kroo 2025] [Niemiec et al. 2020] [Ogden 2023] [Orra et al. 2013] [Pascasio et al. 2020] [Paul et al. 2023] [Place et al. 1974] [Portapas and Cooke 2020] [Portapas et al. 2017] [Prabhakar et al. 2019] [Pritchard et al. 2016] [Radford et al. 1980] [Raffel et al. 2021b] [Raffel et al. 2021a] [Rauer 2019] [Rhoads 1967] [Riccardi et al. 2025] [Rogers et al. 2017] [Rotorcraft Handling Qualities Design 2011] [Rowan and Dogan 2023] [Rožić et al. 2025] [Saetti and Rogers 2020b] [Saetti and Rogers 2020a] [Saetti and Rogers 2024] [Sahasrabudhe and Celi 1997] [Saporito et al. 2021] [Sarathy and Murthy 1993a] [Schuchardt 2015] [Schulze et al. 2024] [Schwithal et al. 2025] [Scroggs et al. 2023] [Sherman 2021] [Shibata et al. 1987] [Shubert and Jones 2025] [Simsek and Tekinalp 2015] [Slongo et al. 2020] [Smith 1977] [Smith 2023] [Smith and Geddes 1979] [Smith et al. 1973] [Smith and Edwards 1980] [Smith 1974] [Solies 1995] [Srinathkumar 2015] [Stapleford and Ashkenas 1968] [Tai et al. 2026] [Takahashi et al. 2024] [The Bell X-22A V/STOL 1990] [Tischler et al. 1991] [Tomczyk 2008] [Tran et al. 2017] [Tritschler and Dotson 2022] [Truong et al. 2016] [Umm-e-Aymon et al. 2016] [Uybarreta et al. 2024] [Uybarreta et al. 2025] [van Overeem et al. 2022] [Viavattene and Mooij 2019] [Wang and Chen 2024] [Wang et al. 2019b] [Wang et al. 2021a] [Wasicko 1972] [Wei 2020] [Willebeek-LeMair and Rhinehart 2023] [Wilson et al. 1994a] [Woodcock and George 1976] [Wu 2025] [Wu et al. 2020a] [Xu and Zhang 2024] [Xu et al. 2019a] [Yin and Wang 2017] [Yin et al. 2019a] [Yuan et al. 2022b] [Zanoni et al. 2022] [Zaytseva et al. 2021]

Envelope protection and loss of control

Carefree handling by another name. Flight envelope protection, envelope estimation, loss of control in flight and upset recovery.

Loss of control in flight remains the largest single category of fatal accident in several sectors, and the modern response is envelope estimation and protection computed in real time. The X-31 sits at an interesting point in that history, since carefree handling is envelope protection by another name and the aircraft demonstrated both its value and its cost. A pilot who cannot depart also cannot feel the approach to departure.

86 records. [Ackerman et al 2017] [Yavrucuk et al. 2001] [Akcal et al. 2018] [Altunkaya et al. 2024] [Atmaca et al. 2026] [Autenrieb 2025] [Balachandran and Atkins 2017] [Belcastro et al 2016] [Bottasso and Montinari 2015] [Campbell et al. 2021] [Loy 1997] [Massey 1992] [Unnikrishnan and Prasad 2006] [Yavrucuk et al. 2002] [Kashawlic et al. 2016] [Saab Ab 2007] [Howitt 1995] [Chang et al. 2016a] [Chowhan et al. 2022] [Stich 2012] [Cook 1964] [Cook 1965] [de Rooij et al. 2023] [Ralph and Edwards 2002] [Ellerbroek et al 2016] [Fellah and Guiatni 2019] [Gabrys et al. 2019] [Garcia et al 2015] [Hale et al 2015] [Harno et al. 2021] [Hsu et al. 2023] [Hsu et al. 2024] [Ison 2017] [Jebakumar et al. 2019] [Kostin and Zhuravskiy 2023] [Lang et al. 2025] [Lee et al. 2017a] [Lombaerts et al. 2017] [Lombaerts et al. 2018] [Martinez et al. 2026] [McDonough and Kolmanovsky 2015] [McDonough and Kolmanovsky 2017] [Moreira et al. 2022] [Nie et al 2015] [Norouzi et al. 2019] [Poolla and Ishihara 2015] [Pugh et al. 2023] [Rafi et al. 2017] [Rafi et al. 2019] [Rafi et al. 2020] [Rafi et al. 2021] [Rafi et al. 2022] [Rajaram et al. 2017] [Mumaw et al. 2019] [Salahudden et al. 2020] [Schieni et al. 2024] [Schlimm 2015] [Schuet et al. 2017] [Simon et al. 2017] [Stapel et al 2016] [Tekles et al. 2017] [Tong et al. 2023] [Van Baelen et al. 2020] [Van Baelen et al. 2021] [Wu et al. 2020e] [Wu et al. 2021d] [Xu and Zhang 2020] [Yahi et al. 2024] [Yildiz et al. 2018] [Yildiz et al. 2019] [Yin et al. 2019b] [Yu et al. 2022b] [Yuan and Li 2018] [Yuan and Li 2019] [Zaichik et al. 2019] [Zhang and Chen 2016] [Zhang et al. 2021b] [Zhao and Jim Zhu 2017] [Zhao and Zhu 2016b] [Zhao and Zhu 2016a] [Zhao and Zhu 2016] [Zheng et al. 2018] [Zhou and Nie 2022] [Zhou et al. 2017] [Zhuravsky and Kostin 2023] [Altunkaya et al. 2025]

Unmanned combat aircraft and the tailless problem

Where the quasi-tailless result went. Tailless and flying-wing configurations, their directional control, and unmanned combat aircraft.

The configuration question the quasi-tailless experiment opened is now the dominant one. A combat aircraft designed for low observability wants no vertical surfaces, and an aircraft with no vertical surfaces has no directional stiffness and no rudder. Of the 289 records, 174 name a tailless or flying-wing configuration, and 20 name a yaw effector, a split aileron, a spoiler, a drag rudder or another innovative control effector, which is the direct continuation of the experiment.

289 records. [Abdullahi et al. 2026] [Addington and Myatt 2000] [Advanced Control Techniques 2023] [Alatorre et al. 2021] [Autonomous Flight Control 2018] [Azimov and Allen 2017] [Bai et al. 2021] [Balasubramanian et al. 2024] [Banerjee 1984] [Banerjee 1988a] [Banerjee 1988b] [Barker and Balas 1999] [Bishop 1961] [Bookstaber 2000] [Boskovic and Mehra 1999] [Bowlus et al 1997] [Bozov and Universitatea Națională Militară 2023] [Bras et al. 2022] [Brinker and Wise 1998] [Brinker and Wise 1999] [Brown 1998] [Buffington 1999a] [Buffington 1999b] [Buffington and Buffington 1997] [Buffington et al. 1998] [Bunnell 2003] [Byrdsong and Brooks 1980] [Calise et al. 1998] [Campos et al. 2021] [Cao et al. 2017b] [Chang et al. 2018] [Donlan 1944] [Chaudhuri et al. 2018] [Chen et al. 2026c] [Cheng and Pei 2021] [Chuan et al. 2016] [Чан 2022] [Cong et al. 2023] [Cox 2009] [Cox et al 1949] [Crane and Reeder 1945] [Cusher and Gopalarathnam 2006] [de Becdelievre and Kroo 2021] [DeLaurier 2022] [Deng and Yuan 2015] [Denieul et al. 2015] [Deslich et al. 2021] [Dickes et al. 2002] [Dong et al. 2020] [Dong Kangsheng et al. 2016] [Dou and Duan 2016] [Duan et al. 2023] [Duggan and Bhandari 2021] [Eberhardt and Ward 1999] [El Mobaraky et al. 2026] [Ericsson and Beyers 2002] [Ernest and Cohen 2016] [Esteban et al. 2015] [Faisal and James 2025] [Fan et al. 2017a] [Fan et al. 2017d] [Fangzi et al. 2024] [Flow Control and High-Lift 2016] [Fremaux et al. 1993] [Gamble and Inman 2016] [Garcia-Baquero et al. 2018] [Gillard 1998] [Gillard et al 1997] [Givens and Coopmans 2020] [Guiler and Huebsch 2005] [Han et al. 2025b] [Hanif and Sasongko 2019] [Hao et al. 2024] [Harris and Harris 1997] [Hashmi and Radhakrishna 2015] [Hauser 1999] [He et al. 2022a] [He et al. 2022b] [Hoffler et al. 1986] [Hoffler et al. 1988] [Hoholis et al. 2016] [Hong and Ma 2016] [Howard et al. 2002] [Hu et al. 2024a] [Hu et al. 2025b] [Huang 2016] [Huang and Zhang 2020] [Huang et al. 2019] [Huang et al. 2024] [Huber 2022] [Ito et al. 2016] [Jentzsch et al. 2016] [Jentzsch et al. 2017] [Jentzsch et al. 2019] [Jiguang Li et al. 2016] [Jo et al. 2015] [Jo et al. 2016] [Johnson 1946] [Johnson 1949] [Jones et al. 2006] [Jun 2023] [Kaba et al. 2022] [Kalyankar et al. 2024] [Kang and Choi 2022] [Karimi Kelayeh and Djavareshkian 2024] [Kashiwagura and Shimoyama 2018] [Katz 2017] [Khan and Nahon 2015] [Kim et al. 2025a] [Ko et al. 2019] [Kostić et al. 2024] [Kotikalpudi et al. 2015] [Kraft and Reeder 1948] [Kumar 2020a] [Kumar et al. 2026] [Kwiek 2019] [Lanteigne and O’Reilly 2020] [Lee 1946] [Lee 1947] [Lee and Ahn 2026] [Lee and Jeong 2025] [Lei and Duan 2023] [Lewis 2002] [Li et al. 2017c] [Li et al. 2018d] [Li et al. 2022h] [Li et al. 2022k] [Li et al. 2023h] [Lim et al. 2025] [Lin et al. 2026a] [Liu and Hu 2014] [Liu and Zhang 2022] [Liu et al. 2021a] [Loechert et al. 2018] [Longobardi and Skaloud 2023] [Lu et al. 2019c] [Luo et al. 2025b] [Luo et al. 2025c] [Lyu et al. 2023] [Ma and Chen 2023] [Ma et al. 2019d] [Ma et al. 2019b] [Makarov and Pavlenko 2016] [Mason and Ravi 1991] [Mason and Ravi 1994] [Matamoros and de Visser 2018] [McKeehen 1998] [McKeehen et al. 1997] [Meckstroth and Blake 2015] [Meckstroth and Ordóñez 2020b] [Meckstroth and Ordóñez 2020a] [Michal 1998] [Miles and Broughton 2017] [Mitcham et al. 1952] [Mitikiri and Mohseni 2018] [Molinari et al. 2015] [Molinari et al. 2018] [Morris 1992] [Muliadi 2016] [Mullins et al. 1996] [Mustopa 2022] [Myatt et al. 1998] [Nae 2026] [Napolitano and Kincheloe 1996] [Ngo et al 1996] [Nguyen et al. 2026] [Nie et al. 2020] [Nie et al. 2021] [Niestroy 2025] [Niestroy et al. 2017] [Niestroy et al. 2019] [Nieto-Wire and Sobel 2007] [Nieto-Wire and Sobel 2009] [Orhan and Subbarao 2021] [Owashi et al. 2017] [Pan and Huang 2018] [Pan and Huang 2019b] [Pan and Huang 2019a] [Paranjape and Chung 2010] [Park et al. 2016b] [Park et al. 2016c] [Park et al. 2017a] [Park et al. 2017b] [Patel et al. 2021] [Paul et al 1997] [Peng 2021a] [Phillips et al. 2019] [PI Control 1999] [Poojari 2022] [AvMC and Preston 2020] [Protz and Sparks 1998] [Qu et al. 2017] [Rajput et al. 2015] [Ravi and Mason 1992] [Ravi and Mason 1994] [Riethausen 2026] [Rojas Carvajal and Amitay 2023] [Rojas Carvajal and Amitay 2025] [Rojas Carvajal et al. 2022] [Rojas Carvajal et al. 2024] [Rossetti and Beblo 2022] [Sudhakar et al. 2025] [Saephan and van Dam 2006] [Saheby et al. 2026] [Sanchez-Laulhe et al. 2020] [Santhakumar 2026] [Saxena and Faruque 2016] [Schmidt 2016b] [Schmidt 2016a] [Shah and Granda 1998] [Shayan and Van Kampen 2021] [Shearwood et al. 2019] [Shearwood et al. 2020a] [Shearwood et al. 2020b] [Shearwood et al. 2021a] [Shearwood et al. 2021b] [Shearwood et al. 2023] [Shi and Wu 2022] [Shtessel et al. 1999] [Shuang et al. 2016] [Shukla and Komerath 2018] [Simon et al 1993] [Simon et al. 2024] [Song et al. 2016] [Sparks and Sparks 1997] [Stengel 1980] [Su et al. 2022] [Suminsby 2002] [Sun et al. 2005] [Talmage and Reeder 1949] [Tang et al. 2026] [Taufik et al. 2024] [Teel 1999b] [Teel 1999a] [Tian et al. 2017] [Tipton and Smith 1995] [Tipton et al. 1996] [Tournes and Johnson 1999] [Tournes et al. 1997] [Tsai 2008] [Udartsev et al. 2015] [van Rooij et al. 2018] [Veismann et al. 2023] [Waitman and Marcos 2020] [Wang and Feng 2026] [Wang et al. 2016d] [Wang et al. 2018b] [Wang et al. 2020f] [Wang et al. 2023f] [Wang et al. 2025a] [Webb and Rogers 2021] [Weyl 1944] [Weyl 1945] [Weyl 1945] [Weyl 1945] [Weyl 1945] [Weyl 1945] [White and Innis 1959] [Williams and Seidel 2016] [Williams et al. 2025] [Wills 2015] [Wise et al. 1999a] [Wu et al. 2019b] [Wu et al. 2019a] [Wu et al. 2021e] [Wyatt 2003] [Xi and Zhao 2017] [Xu and Feng 2025] [Xu and Yu 2025] [Yao and Wu 2019] [Yao et al. 2018] [Ye and Zheng 2025] [Yin et al. 2020a] [Yong et al. 2020] [Yu et al. 2022a] [Yu et al. 2023a] [Yu et al. 2023c] [Yu et al. 2023b] [Yu et al. 2024a] [Yue et al. 2009] [Zhang and He 2026a] [Zhang et al. 2018d] [Zhang et al. 2021a] [Zhang et al. 2023n] [Zhijie et al. 2025] [Zimper and Hummel 2018] [Zou et al. 2017a] [Zou et al. 2022] [Zubair et al. 2026]

Machine learning in flight control and aircraft modelling

Learning applied to the aircraft rather than to the fight. Neural network, reinforcement learning and data-driven methods for flight control, aerodynamic and engine modelling, and aircraft performance.

203 records. [Abouheaf et al. 2020] [Adams et al. 2022] [Ahmed et al. 2025b] [Alkhedher 2022] [Allik and Maley 2024] [Bae et al. 2018] [Bai and Chen 2026] [Baldan and Guardone 2024] [Barnhart et al. 2021] [Berghout and Benbouzid 2024] [Boumaraf et al. 2025] [Cakici and Yörük 2022] [Cao and Lu 2024] [Cao et al. 2021] [Cao et al. 2026b] [Catak et al. 2024] [Celis and Cadarso 2024] [Chen and Song 2025] [Chen et al. 2017c] [Chen et al. 2020c] [Chen et al. 2023a] [Chen et al. 2025c] [Chen et al. 2025g] [Chen et al. 2026b] [Cheng et al. 2020] [Cheng et al. 2025] [Choi and Cha 2019] [Choi et al. 2023] [Chowdhury and Keshmiri 2024] [Clarke and Hwang 2020] [Conrad et al. 2025] [Dahleni Kraemer and Villani 2024] [Dam et al. 2022] [Daskiran et al. 2017] [De Marco et al. 2023] [Dhiman et al. 2025] [Diget et al. 2022] [Dobrokhodov et al. 2026] [Doff-Sotta et al. 2025] [Dongmo 2016] [Du et al. 2021] [d’Apolito and Sulzbachner 2021] [Eggers and Xu 2024] [Elebe 2025] [Everett 2021] [Fernandes and Cardoso-Ribeiro 2025] [Feteih and Breckenridge 1993] [Galeani et al. 2025] [Gao and Liu 2020] [Ghoreyshi et al. 2026] [Gong et al. 2019b] [Gorgues et al. 2022] [Grillo et al. 2024] [Grönqvist and Rantzer 2023] [Guang et al. 2016] [Guo and Jin 2023] [Han et al. 2023] [Han et al. 2024] [He et al. 2020b] [He et al. 2025b] [Heyer et al. 2020] [Homola et al. 2025] [Hong et al. 2020] [Huang et al. 2023a] [Huiying et al. 2017] [Isaac and Allaire 2016] [Islam et al. 2025] [Jafari and Xu 2018] [Jia and Bajaj 2025] [Jiang et al. 2022b] [Jianhong and Ramirez-Mendoza 2022b] [Jianhong and Ramirez-Mendoza 2022a] [Australian Defence Force and Joyce 2026] [Khatri and Subbarao 2024] [Kim and Horspool 2020] [Kirsch et al. 2025] [Konatala et al. 2021] [Konatala et al. 2024] [Kong et al. 2020c] [Koopman and Zammit-Mangion 2024] [Kou and Zhang 2021] [Kumar and Khanna 2026] [Lang et al. 2022] [Lecerf et al. 2015] [Lee and Kim 2020] [Lee and Van Kampen 2021] [Lee et al. 2021c] [Lee et al. 2021b] [Lee et al. 2022c] [Li and Cai 2026] [Li and van Kampen 2024] [Li et al. 2019a] [Li et al. 2024c] [Li et al. 2025h] [Liang and Hassanalian 2026] [Lin 2025] [Lin et al. 2023] [Liu 2024] [Liu et al. 2024c] [Liu et al. 2024f] [Liu et al. 2025e] [Liu et al. 2026a] [Lu et al. 2024] [Lu et al. 2025] [Lv et al. 2024] [Ma et al. 2017a] [Ma et al. 2023] [Ma et al. 2024a] [Machine Learning�enabled Missile System 2023] [Maju et al. 2025] [Martinez-Gonzalez et al. 2024] [Massegur Sampietro and Da Ronch 2024] [Matthews and Yi 2021] [McCool et al. 1996] [Mechouche et al. 2026] [Mei et al. 2024] [Meinicke and Cesnik 2024] [Michek et al. 2024] [Ming-Chao and Ju 2016] [Mokhtar and El-Badawy 2023] [Mori 2024] [Nagawkar and Leifsson 2022] [Newton and Papachristodoulou 2021] [Newton and Papachristodoulou 2023] [Nguyen-Tat et al. 2026] [Norouzi et al. 2018] [Oktay and Kose 2021] [Pan et al. 2024b] [Pellegrino et al. 2022] [Peterson et al. 2025a] [Ransquin and Chatelain 2021] [Razmi and Afshinfar 2019] [Ren et al. 2017b] [Research on Aerodynamic Modeling 2017] [Richter et al. 2024] [Safety Behavior Analysis 2021] [Sayyed et al. 2025] [Schaff and Prazenica 2025] [Sedehi et al. 2020] [Seres et al. 2023] [Setiawarman and Sasongko 2026] [Shaik et al. 2025] [Shao and Cui 2019] [Shen and Alonso 2025] [Shen and Xu 2021] [Shin et al. 2018] [Shukla et al. 2025] [Singh and Willcox 2016] [Singh and Willcox 2017] [Singha et al. 2024] [Smith and Broadwell 1989] [Smith and Schnell 2026] [Song et al. 2018a] [Sterpu et al. 2025] [Stewart et al. 2025] [Study on Deep Learning 2023] [Sun and van Kampen 2021] [Tang and Lai 2020] [Teimourian et al. 2024] [Thakur et al. 2026] [Toloei and Ghaderi 2026] [Torres et al. 2022] [Vieira dos Santos and Van Kampen 2025] [Wang 2025] [Wang and Hu 2025] [Wang and Liang 2024] [Wang et al. 2023b] [Wang et al. 2024a] [Wang et al. 2025j] [Wang et al. 2025i] [Wang et al. 2025e] [Wang et al. 2025c] [Wang et al. 2026i] [Wang et al. 2026f] [Wang et al. 2026b] [Wei et al. 2024a] [Xiang and Shao 2022] [Xu et al. 2019b] [Xu et al. 2024b] [Xue et al. 2024] [Xue et al. 2026] [Yan and Shi 2025] [Yan et al. 2019] [Yang et al. 2023b] [Yang et al. 2023c] [Yang et al. 2024f] [Yang et al. 2026b] [Yong et al. 2014] [Yoo et al. 2021a] [You et al. 2024] [Yuan and Zhou 2024] [Zan et al. 2022] [Zerouaoui et al. 2025] [Zhang et al. 2021d] [Zhang et al. 2023f] [Zhang et al. 2023b] [Zhang et al. 2023c] [Zhang et al. 2026e] [Zhao et al. 2024c] [Zhen and Hao 2020] [Zou et al. 2026] [Özbek and Koyuncu 2023] [Öznurlu et al. 2023]

Clearing a learned controller for flight

How a learned or autonomous controller is cleared to fly. Run-time assurance, formal verification, explainability and certification of learning-enabled flight systems.

The question the X-31 answered with six test pilots is now asked of learned policies, and nobody yet knows how to certify one.

A control law of the X-31’s kind is cleared by analysis, by simulation and by incremental flight test, and its behaviour between test points is bounded by the fact that it is a scheduled linear system with known margins. A learned policy has no such structure, and the assurance literature that has grown up around that problem is a distinct field, running from formal verification through run-time assurance architectures that wrap a learned or autonomous controller in a monitored envelope and revert to a conventional one when it leaves.

The connection to this aircraft is closer than it looks. The X-31 already carried the architectural idea in a primitive form. Its quasi-tailless experiment had a safety disengagement that reverted the aircraft automatically on a system failure or an envelope exceedance, which is a run-time assurance monitor in everything but name, built in 1994 because nobody was willing to fly a deliberately destabilised aeroplane without one.

And the accident is the counter-example. The one failure that destroyed an aircraft was not a control law behaving unexpectedly. It was a correct control law fed a wrong number, which is the failure mode that no amount of verifying the controller addresses.

The whole of this cluster is contemporary and that is a fact rather than an omission. Its earliest record was published in 2016, because the problem did not exist until a learned component was proposed for a flight-critical loop.

37 records. [Avram et al. 2017] [Bairy and Fränzle 2024] [Bernard et al. 2024] [Chen et al. 2024d] [Chhaya et al. 2018] [Daw 2026] [Daw et al. 2023] [Devore et al. 2016] [Gross et al. 2017b] [Heersink et al. 2022] [Henderson et al. 2022] [Hobbs et al. 2023] [Hook et al. 2016] [Jasim and Veres 2018] [Kaczmarek 2026] [Kanou and Ibuki 2025] [Karyotakis et al. 2021] [Kirkendoll 2022] [Kreuzer et al. 2024] [Krozel et al. 2026] [Kurtoglu et al. 2025] [Kurtoglu et al. 2026] [Liu et al. 2025a] [McColl et al. 2024] [Miao et al. 2025] [DeVore et al. 2022] [Saraf et al. 2020] [Schierman et al. 2018] [Schierman et al. 2020] [Schoeman and Panday 2026] [Suraj Nandiganahalli et al. 2016] [Vaz et al. 2019] [Wabersich and Zeilinger 2018] [Wang et al. 2020a] [Wheatman et al. 2021] [Young et al. 2018] [Zhang and Li 2020]

Air data, icing and flush air data sensing

The instrument that destroyed the first aircraft. Air data systems, pitot and pitot-static probes, probe and airframe icing and its detection, and flush air data sensing.

Flush air data sensing became a field, and 47 of the 391 titles name it. The methods estimate free-stream conditions from a distributed array of surface pressure ports through a model, frequently a learned one, and they serve vehicles on which a probe cannot survive or is unwanted. Icing, of probes and of airframes, is named in 140 titles.

The relevance to this article is direct. A distributed array has no single pneumatic path whose blockage is shared by every downstream computer, which is the exact architectural property whose absence killed the first X-31.

391 records. 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Airspeed systems as a measurement discipline

Airspeed as a measurement. Position error, pitot-static calibration, total pressure probes and the calibration of airspeed by tower and satellite methods.

The instrument that destroyed the first aircraft has its own literature and it is separate from the flight-control one. Position error, static source calibration, probe placement and flow-angle sensitivity are the subject, and the Kiel probe was chosen out of exactly that body of knowledge to solve exactly the problem it solved.

What the discipline did not supply was a failure analysis for the case where the probe is correct and blocked, which is a different question from whether it is correctly calibrated, and every title in this survey that names the blockage of a pitot tube was published from 2015 onward.

21 records. [Sun et al. 2019b] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1967a] [Airspeed Definitions & Airspeed 2022] [Fontaine and Ali 2023] [Hamel and Kolarich 2020] [Harsanta et al. 2021] [Hernandez and Taylor 1988] [Hollister 1990] [Kimberlin and Sims 1992] [Li and Qi 2023] [Li et al. 2016c] [Li et al. 2017a] [Mitchell et al. 2016] [O’Neill and McQuilling 2024] [O’Neill and McQuilling 2025] [Park 2017] [Rubio-Sierra et al. 2022] [Sitaram et al. 2023] [Woodford and Hansen 1985] [Zhang 2025b] [Zhang and Yang 2024]

Analytical redundancy and sensor fault detection

The cross-check, formalised. Analytical redundancy, sensor and actuator fault detection and isolation, and fault-tolerant control.

The cross-check this article performed by hand is now a standard technique with a literature. Analytical redundancy uses the known dynamics of the aircraft to predict what one sensor should read from what the others read, and flags a disagreement. Applied to the accident flight it would have compared angle of attack against airspeed through the lift curve and raised a fault when the two disagreed by eleven degrees.

Nothing in that technique required computing power the X-31 did not have. It required someone to have written down the relation.

231 records. [Abdul Huq and Beebi M 2015] [Abdul‐Jaleel and Shaker 2023] [Ahmadi et al. 2022] [Air Force Safety Agency Kirtland AFB NM 2000] [Akram et al. 2020] [Antonakis and Biannic 2024] [Arriola and Thielecke 2015] [Bai et al. 2018a] [Bakhtiaridoust et al. 2022] [Baldini et al. 2019] [Baruh 1986] [Belcastro et al. 2017] [Ben-Haim 1990] [Benchaita and Ladaci 2021] [Berendsen et al. 1994] [Berger et al. 2025] [Binwen Lu et al. 2016] [Bonnice et al. 1986] [Brockhaus 1985] [Budihartono and Moncayo 2024] [Caglayan et al. 1988] [Caglayan and Godiwala 1985] [Cai et al. 2024] [Cao and Yao 2023] [Cao et al. 2022a] [Cartocci et al. 2022] [Chakravarty and Mahanta 2015] [Chang et al. 2017] [Chang et al. 2022c] [Chao et al. 2017] [Chen et al. 2017a] [Chen et al. 2017b] [Chen et al. 2018b] [Chen et al. 2020b] [Chen et al. 2026d] [Cheng et al. 2019] [Chow and Willsky 1984] [Augsberger] [Craig and Russell 1978] [Dagal 2026] [Dally and Van Kampen 2022] [Dasgupta et al. 2004] [De Hoff and Hall 1978] [De Ponti et al. 2026] [Deckert et al 1978] [Delaat and Merrill 1990] [Deshpande and Zhang 2021] [Design of Redundancy Relations 1995] [Jarvinen 2013] [Dhadekar et al. 2021] [Di Rito and Schettini 2016] [Ding and Li 2021] [Dołęga et al. 2017] [Du and Cocquempot 2017] [Dunham and Knight 1982] [Eberlein and Lahm 1976] [Ergöçmen and Tilki 2025] [Ermeydan and Kiyak 2017] [Fault Tolerant Control 2025] [Friedland 1982] [Fu et al. 2021] [Gai and Curry 1977] [Gao and Liu 2021] [Gavra and van Kampen 2024] [Gavra and Van Kampen 2024] [Generating Analytical Redundancy 1994] [Gertler 1991] [Gou et al. 2023] [Grehan et al. 2023] [Gu and Zhang 2018] [Guo and Lu 2021] [Guo et al. 2021] [Hajiyev 2016a] [Hajiyev 2016b] [Benchaita and Ladaci 2020] [Han and Pei 2026] [Han et al. 2025c] [Hannan et al. 2016] [Hannan et al. 2017] [He et al. 2020c] [Hewitt 2019] [Hu et al. 2023a] [Hu et al. 2023b] [Huang et al. 2022] [Huang et al. 2026c] [Ignatyev et al. 2020a] [Mitchell 2014] [Inozemtsev et al. 2022] [Ji et al. 2019] [Ji et al. 2025] [Jiang et al. 2018] [Kang et al. 2020] [Kim 1995] [Kim 2026b] [Kinnaert 1993] [Kinnaert 1996] [Kiyak and Ermeydan 2018] [Kosacki and Tomczyk 2022] [Kowalczuk and Gertler 1992] [Lee et al. 2024b] [Li and Shi 2021] [Li and Tong 2016] [Li et al. 2018c] [Li et al. 2018g] [Li et al. 2023g] [Li et al. 2023e] [Li et al. 2024a] [Li et al. 2026b] [Liang et al. 2021] [Liu et al. 2015a] [Liu et al. 2018c] [Liu et al. 2019a] [Liu et al. 2019b] [Loh 1986] [Lou et al. 1985a] [Lou et al. 1985b] [Lou et al. 1986] [Lu et al. 2016a] [Lu et al. 2016b] [Lu et al. 2017c] [Lu et al. 2019a] [Lunze 2017a] [Lunze 2017b] [Lv 2026] [Ma and Peng 2021] [Mallavalli and Fekih 2018] [Mallavalli and Fekih 2019] [Malluhi et al. 2022] [Mashud and Bera 2022] [Massoumnia et al. 1986] [Matsuki et al. 2018] [McCool 1999] [Merrill 1985] [Merrill 1984] [Merrill 1988] [Merrill 1990] [Merrill et al. 1987] [Merrill et al. 1991] [Mohammadi and Ramezani 2021] [Montgomery and Price 1974] [Navi et al. 2018] [Nguyen et al. 2018] [Nguyen et al. 2019a] [Nikoukhah 1994] [Nishiyama et al. 2016] [Ortiz-Torres et al. 2018] [Ossmann 2015] [Ossmann and Joos 2016] [Ouyang and Lin 2017b] [Ouyang and Lin 2017a] [Ouyang et al. 2022] [Panten et al. 2022] [Patan and Ustoglu 2025] [Patton 1991] [Pei et al. 2025] [Peng et al. 2026a] [Ping et al. 2019] [Pollet et al. 2025] [Pose et al. 2017] [Pourbabaee et al. 2016] [Prock 1989] [Qin et al. 2016] [Xingjian et al. 2024] [Rotondo et al. 2015] [Sato 2021] [Schüller and Santucci 1979] [Shahnazari and Mhaskar 2017] [Sharma et al. 2025] [Siddiqi and Abraham 1988] [Das6 et al. 2026] [Stoustrup and Niemann 2004] [Sun et al. 2015] [Tang et al. 2024] [Tang et al. 2025a] [Teng et al. 2021] [Tokunaga et al. 2015] [Unal 2021b] [Unal 2021a] [Vanschalkwyk 1991] [Venkataraman and Seiler 2019] [Vepa and Caliskan 1991] [Vile et al. 2019b] [Vile et al. 2019a] [Vile et al. 2020] [Voting Software for Fault-Tolerant 1993] [Waitman et al. 2019] [Wang and Yao 2021] [Wang and Yao 2024] [Wang et al. 2017e] [Wang et al. 2018g] [Wang et al. 2021c] [Wang et al. 2021f] [Wei et al. 2017b] [Wells 1977] [Wernz and Kroschel 1991] [Wickens 1979] [Wickens and Kessel 1979] [Wu and Zhu 2024] [Wu et al. 2024c] [Xiao et al. 2024] [Xiao et al. 2025] [Xu et al. 2017a] [Yang et al. 2015b] [Yang et al. 2026c] [Youn et al. 2021] [Younes et al. 2019] [Yu and Kim 2024] [Yu and Wang 2024] [Yu et al. 2016b] [Yu et al. 2017] [Yu et al. 2019] [Zahed et al. 2020] [Zarei et al. 2026] [Zhan and Wang 2017] [Zhang 2017] [Zhang 2026a] [Zhang and Meng 2019] [Zhang and Wang 2018] [Zhang et al. 2018a] [Zhao and Li 2019] [Zhao et al. 2017b] [Zhao et al. 2024a] [Zheng and Li 2019] [Zheng et al. 2025b] [Zhong and Félix 2015] [Zhong et al. 2025] [Zhongke 1989] [Zhou et al. 2016c] [Zhou et al. 2016a] [Zhu et al. 2021] [Zhu et al. 2023]

Flight test, parameter identification and aerodynamic modelling

How the aircraft gave up its derivatives. Flight test technique, system and parameter identification, and the aerodynamic models that flight data correct.

The X-31 corrected its simulator from flight through parameter identification, and the same loop now runs with far richer model structures. The modern literature treats the identification of nonlinear, unsteady and hysteretic aerodynamics at high angle of attack as its own subject.

480 records. [Palomino 2024] [Abdulrahim 2026] [Abou-Kebeh et al. 2025] [Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development 1984] [Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development 1999] [Agha et al. 2017] [Air Force Flight Test Center Edwards AFB CA 1970] [Air Force Flight Test Center Edwards AFB CA 1974a] [Air Force Flight Test Center Edwards AFB CA 1974b] [Air Force Flight Test Center Edwards AFB CA 2002] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1979] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1990c] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1990b] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1993] [Aircraft and Flight Test 2021] [Aksteter et al. 1994] [Aksteter et al. 1995] [Alag and Duke 1985] [Alford and Knarr 1999] [Amini et al. 2020] [Anderson and Vincent 1985] [Araujo-Estrada et al. 2015] [Armstrong 1977] [Nogales 2020] [Aydın et al. 2025] [Bach and Wingrove 1985] [Bachman 1981] [Bagherzadeh 2018] [Bai 2025a] [Balakrishna and Niranjana 1987] [Banu et al. 2017] [Barrett et al. 1981] [Basappa et al. 2006] [Batterson and Klein 1984] [Bauer et al 1989] [Bean and Lee 1994] [Beck et al. 2020] [Bekar et al. 2025] [Benders and Koch 2019] [Bennett and Abel 1982] [Benyamen and Keshmiri 2022] [Benyamen et al. 2024] [Berger et al. 2023] [Berra et al. 2017] [Bertelrud et al. 1992] [Binghua et al. 2021] [Bishop 1958] [Blair and Weisshaar 1981] [Bleimeyer 1981] [Bobbitt et al. 2012] [Bogos 2020] [Bolt 1981] [Bortz et al. 2026] [Breach 1970] [Brenner 2001] [Bronz and Hattenberger 2016] [Brown and Bradley 1981] [Brunner 1996] [Bucharles et al. 1990] [Budd et al. 1995] [Burks 1981] [Burns 1974] [Burtch 2015] [Caglayan et al. 1986] [Callantine and Ashford 2002] [Campos 1989] [Carico 1998] [Cassanto 1966] [Cenkci 1991] [Cetin and Kutay 2016] [Chaderjian and Schiff 1996] [Chassiakos et al. 1988] [Che et al. 2021] [Chen et al. 2023c] [Cheney 1988] [Cho et al. 1995] [Chowdhury et al. 2021] [Christmann et al. 2026] [Christoffel et al. 2020] [Clark and Walters 1986] [Collins 2016] [Comer et al. 2026] [Cooke 1980] [Cooper et al. 2016] [Corsiglia et al. 1984] [Cosentino 2008] [Crites et al 1992] [Cunis et al. 2018] [Cunningham and Hubbard 2018] [Cunningham and Bushlow 1990] [Danowsky et al. 2017] [Darhi et al. 2025] [Davino and Flattery 1985] [de Padua et al. 2026] [Deangelis 1981] [Deepa and Gupta 2023] [Deets and Brown 1986] [Dehghan Manshadi and Saghafi 2021] [Deiler 2016] [Deiler 2023b] [Deiler 2023a] [Dekiert et al. 2024] [DeNicola et al. 2022] [Design Validation and Verification 2026] [Devalla et al. 2018] [Dias 2022] [Dias 2023] [Dias and Girardi 2016] [Dooley and Yeary 1979] [Dowden and Bessette 1987] [Duke and Jones 1984] [Dungan and Clark 1994] [Dunlap and Porter 1971] [Dutra 2019] [Dutra 2025] [Enciu 2019] [End-To-End Flight Test Data 2020] [Enzinger 1988] [Erdman 2005] [Ertugrul and Koyuncu 2023] [Fechter and Mills 1988] [Feng et al. 2023] [Ferreres and Hardier 2017] [Fischenberg 1995] [Fletcher 1994] [Flight Envelope 2021] [Flight Test Data Analysis 2016] [Foch 1992] [Fosdick 1970] [Stoliker 2005] [French and Eastep 1996] [Fujizawa et al. 2016] [Förder and Steiner 2020] [Gamon 1988] [Garcia-Velo and Walker 1995] [Gates et al. 1996] [General Dynamics/Astronautics San Diego Ca 1961] [General Dynamics/Astronautics San Diego Ca 1962] [General Dynamics/Astronautics San Diegoca 1961] [General Electric Co Cincinnati Oh 1964] [Gentry 1972] [Gerhard and Paul 2016] [Ghosh and Raisinghani 1993] [Ghosh et al. 1998] [Gilbert 2014] [Gite and Deodhar 2022] [Glaudel 2018] [Glezer 2009] [Glezer 2012] [Grauer and Boucher 2017] [Grauer and Boucher 2018] [Grauer and Boucher 2020b] [Grauer and Boucher 2020a] [Griffith and Faruque 2023] [Hale et al. 2015a] [Hale et al. 2017] [Hamel and Jategaonkar 1996] [Hamel et al. 2022] [Hao and Wang 2023] [Harper et al. 2025] [Harper et al. 2026] [Harris et al. 2016] [Harrison 1966] [Hart 1992] [Hayes 2010] [He 2015] [Helicopter Flight Parameter Identification 1987] [Hess 1986] [Hess 1993] [Hess and Ly 1989] [Hicks and Moulton 1988] [Hicks and Petersen 1988] [Hicks and Petersen 1989] [Hitzel and Zimper 2018] [Hoff and Cook 1996] [Hofmann et al. 2025c] [Hofmann et al. 2025a] [Hofmann et al. 2025b] [Hosseini et al. 2023] [Hosseini et al. 2025] [Howard et al. 1991] [Hua 2022] [Hulshoff et al. 1996] [Iliff 1989] [Iliff and Maine 1983] [Ivler and Sikora 2021] [Ivler et al. 2019] [Jacobson 1952] [Jain et al. 2025] [Jategaonkar and Plaetschke 1989] [Jategaonkar et al. 1997] [Jelicic et al. 2017] [Jeong et al. 2015] [Jianhong and Lei 2026] [Jones 1995] [Jordan 1974] [Kehoe 1988] [Kehoe and Freudinger 1994] [Keidel et al. 2019] [Kelly 1988b] [Kimathi and Lantos 2024] [Klein 1989b] [Klein 1989a] [Klein 1990] [Klein and Batterson 1986] [Klein and Morelli 1992] [Klein and Murphy 1998] [Klein and Noderer 1995] [Klein and Noderer 1996] [Klyde et al. 2015] [Koppitz et al. 2019] [Korsun and Moung Htang 2023] [Korsun et al. 2017] [Korsun et al. 2024] [Koschel et al. 2021] [Kraft 1994] [Kulhánek 2019] [Kumar and Ghosh 2017] [Kumar and Ghosh 2018] [Kumar and Ghosh 2019] [Kumar and Ghosh 2023a] [Kumar and Ghosh 2023b] [Kumar and Ghosh 2024] [Kuppuswamy and Kiran 1981] [Laban and Masui 1993] [Larson et al. 2009] [Larsson and Enqvist 2016] [Le Clainche et al. 2019] [Lee and Han 2015] [Lerro et al. 2020] [Leung et al. 2019] [Level Flight Performance Flight 2003] [Li et al. 2022i] [Liang et al. 2025a] [Lichota 2023b] [Lichota 2023a] [Lichota et al. 2016] [Licitra et al. 2018] [Lind and Brenner 1998] [Lind et al. 1997] [Liu et al. 2016c] [Liu et al. 2023c] [Liu et al. 2025b] [Longobardi et al. 2021] [Lopez et al. 2021] [Lorincz 1978] [Lorincz and Friend 1979] [Lu et al. 2017b] [Lu et al. 2019d] [Luna et al. 2026] [Luo et al. 2024] [Lynch 1972] [Machnik et al. 2022] [Mannai 1962] [Manshadi and Saghafi 2018] [Marchetti 1968] [Martin 1978] [Martin Co Denver Co 1966] [Martin 1999] [Martínez Morán 2018] [Matheny and Panageas 1981] [Matt et al. 2025] [Mayer and Chalfant 2023] [McAteer et al. 2018] [McCrink and Gregory 2017] [McKenzie 1973] [McMillen et al. 1995] [McNally and Bach 1988] [Menges 1995] [Mennebeuf et al. 2024] [Mereau 1982] [Metodiev 2024] [Metz 1992] [Meyers et al. 1968] [Michalowski and Varano 2017] [Miller 1973] [Minshall et al. 2017] [Mitchell 1961] [Moes et al. 2003] [Mohammadi Farhadi et al. 2018] [Monstein et al. 2019] [Moorhouse 1990] [Morelli 1995a] [Morelli 2021b] [Morelli 2021a] [Morelli 2022] [Morelli and Cooper 2015] [Morelli and Grauer 2018] [Morelli and Klein 1995] [Morelli 2000] [Morgenfeld 1992] [Morton and McDaniel 2015] [Moszczynski and Grant 2017] [Moszczynski et al. 2026b] [Moszczynski et al. 2026a] [Mouton 2023] [Myers et al. 2015] [Naval Air Test Center Patuxent River Md 1963] [Navaratna et al. 2019] [Navaratna et al. 2022] [Neves et al. 2020] [Newsom and Pototzky 1982] [Nguyen et al. 2019b] [Nguyen et al. 2021b] [Nguyen et al. 2025b] [Nie 2023] [Niewöhner 2018] [Norlin 1995] [Norton 1990] [Obermark 2004] [Ogren et al. 1974] [Olson 2018] [Padua and Preisighe Viana 2025] [Palomino 2022] [Papa and Stoliker 1988] [Parameter Estimation Techniques 1974] [Park 1977] [de Paula and Cardoso 2025] [Pawlak 1994] [Peng 2021b] [Perry et al. 2019] [Petersen 1981] [Peterson 2023] [Peterson et al. 2025b] [Pfifer and Danowsky 2016] [Pineiro and Biezad 1993] [Pinkelman et al. 1996] [Plaetschke et al. 1982] [Porter 1965] [Potter 1985] [Preisighe Viana 2016] [Pérez Rus and Le Gal 2024] [Quinn 2022] [Raab 2026] [Raiford and Dall 1993] [Raisinghani and Adak 1983] [Raol and Jategaonkar 1995] [Redeker and Voersmann 1988] [Rediess and Melton 1994] [CHulin 2023] [Research and Analysis 2022] [Ricciardi and Minwalla 2016] [Richardson 1976] [Ritter et al. 2020] [Roberts 1988a] [Roberts 1988b] [Roberts and Brown 1988] [Roberts et al. 1966] [Rohlmann and Keye 2015] [Roseberry 2025] [Ross 1979] [Rucci et al. 2023] [Saderla et al. 2017] [Sanderson 1965] [Sandoz and Klaeyle 2021] [Sandoz et al. 2024] [Scherz and Tucker 1985] [Schierbrock and Takahashi 2021] [Schkolnik et al. 1995] [Schuck 1992] [Schumacher 1952] [Schwartz and Wray 1969] [Schweiger et al. 1996] [Seaver et al. 2023] [Seo et al. 2019] [Shafer 1980] [Shafer et al. 1983] [Shafer et al. 1984] [Sharpe and Hansman 2024] [Shen and Chen 2025] [Sheporaitis 1972] [Shibata and Ohmiya 1988] [Shlien 1991] [Shou and Li 2026] [Shufeldt and Layton 1972] [Shukla et al. 2020] [Siddhardha 2019] [Simmons 2022] [Simmons 2023] [Simmons and Ackerman 2026] [Simmons et al. 2023a] [Simmons et al. 2023b] [Simmons et al. 2023c] [Simmons et al. 2025] [Simpson 1972] [Simpson 1979] [Simulation in Support 1988] [Domingos et al. 2024] [Singh and Ghosh 2023] [Singh and Jategaonkar 1996] [Sitz et al. 1997] [Smith and Pellicano 1992] [Soumelidis et al. 2015] [Sousa et al. 2017] [Spiegel et al. 2016] [Spitzer et al. 1972] [Spravka and Jorris 2015] [Srinathkumar et al. 1993] [Srinathkumar et al. 1995] [Srivastava 2019] [Staley 1976] [Stange 1959] [Stevenson 1991] [Stoev et al. 2019] [Stouder 1981] [Suarez and Malcolm 1995] [Sudha et al. 2018] [Sun et al. 2018b] [Sun et al. 2019d] [Sung et al. 2020] [Szymanski et al. 2025] [Tai et al. 2023] [Talty and Caughlin 1988] [Taniguchi and Hagrman 1991] [Tardif and Myrand-Lapierre 2025] [Taylor et al. 1992] [Thakur et al. 2019] [Throckmorton 1992] [Tian et al. 2022] [Tillema et al. 2021] [Torno et al. 2023] [Tracy 1981] [Traven and Whitley 1995] [Tsoubanos 1979] [Tsushima et al. 2021] [Tsushima et al. 2023] [Van Gaasbeek 1980] [Van Pelt 1981] [Van Wyckhouse 1966] [Vaughn and Lindsay 1988] [Verhaegen 1988] [Wada and Tamayama 2019] [Wade et al. 2026] [Wang 2022] [Wang et al. 1986] [Wang et al. 2016b] [Wang et al. 2018d] [Wang et al. 2021e] [Wang et al. 2021d] [Wang et al. 2022f] [Wang et al. 2022b] [Ward 1988] [Ward and Miley 1983] [Wardana et al. 2021] [Wartmann 2015] [Wei 2021] [Wei et al. 2019a] [Weinstein et al. 2018] [Weiss et al. 1986] [Wells et al. 1982] [Whitfield and Blackburn 1965] [Wiggen 2015] [Williams 1965] [Williams and Hartford 1989] [Wingrove 1973] [Woolf 2012b] [Woolf 2012a] [Xiao et al. 2026b] [Xing et al. 2021] [Xu and Keshmiri 2021] [Yamato et al. 1988] [Yamato et al. 1991] [Yamauchi et al. 1988] [Yanagihara et al. 1999] [Yang and Huang 2018] [Yasue 2020] [Yeager 1997] [Youssef and Juang 1993] [Yue et al. 2023] [Zajdel et al. 2022] [Zajdel et al. 2024a] [Zajdel et al. 2024b] [Zhang 2021] [Zhang and Yu 2021] [Zhang et al. 2023a] [Zhixin 2022] [Zhong et al. 2020] [Zhou et al. 2019c] [Zhubin and Ruikun 2023] [Zikmund et al. 2019]

Structures, materials and the airframe

The airframe. Aeroelasticity and buffet, the coupling of the structure with the flight control system, and high-temperature materials.

The paddles were carbon-carbon because Inconel would have required nose ballast, and the material was chosen knowing it was brittle. Carbon-carbon, ceramic matrix composites, high-temperature structure, exhaust-washed structure and thermal protection are named in 25 of the 88 titles. Aeroelasticity, flutter, divergence, buffet, gusts and the flexible aircraft are named in 43, and most of the rest join the structure to its control system or to its loads.

88 records. [Ai et al. 2022] [Ajayi et al. 2019] [Bartels and Stanford 2017] [Becker and Luber 1996] [Blair and Weisshaar 1982] [Breitsamter and Laschka 1994] [Burken et al. 2011] [Danowsky et al. 2016] [Davis et al. 2015] [Demir et al. 2023] [Distelfeld and Osovski 2025] [Eastep et al. 1984] [Feng et al. 2015] [Freymann 1986] [Gupta et al. 2020a] [Gupta et al. 2020b] [Haas and Chopra 1989] [Hauch et al. 1995] [Hollowell and Dugundji 1984] [Hou et al. 2025] [Huang et al. 2026a] [Hussain et al. 2026] [Jankovic 1983] [Juhasz et al. 2015] [Kadhem and Hussein 2021] [Kandil et al. 1996a] [Kolesnikov 2018] [Kong et al. 2016a] [Krishna and Ricklick 2017] [Layton and Peterson 1994] [Lazarus et al. 1997] [Lebofsky et al. 2015] [Lee and Kim 1995] [Lee et al. 1994] [Li et al. 2022o] [Li et al. 2026c] [Librescu and Simovich 1988] [Librescu and Thangjitham 1991] [Liguore and Drouin 1998] [Liu and Gao 2020] [Liu et al. 2015b] [Lottati 1985] [Mahgoub and El-Badawy 2022] [Mallik et al. 2015] [Marley and Driscoll 2022] [Masrour et al. 2023] [Masud et al. 2017] [Mi et al. 2024b] [Moses and Shah 1998] [Norwood et al. 2021] [Okita et al. 2020] [Patel and Zha 2021] [Pohly et al. 2021] [Qiao et al. 2023] [Qin 2021] [Riso et al. 2018] [Roach and Zhang 2021] [Rodden 1989b] [Roy and Al Amin 2026] [Shi et al. 2020] [Simpson et al. 2015] [Song and Librescu 1991] [Static Aeroelastic Considerations 1996] [Striz et al. 1991] [Tartaruga et al. 2015] [Tatum and Giles 1988] [Tsiakas et al. 2021] [Tu et al. 2026] [Tuzcu and Nguyen 2025] [Verveld and Kier 2017] [Von Flotow 1989] [Voracek and Clarke 1991] [Voracek and Clarke 1994] [Wang and Han 2025] [Wang et al. 2016c] [Wang et al. 2023k] [Watanabe et al. 2017] [Weisshaar 1980] [Weisshaar 1990] [Weisshaar 1994] [Wu and Livne 2016] [Xiang and Wang 2026] [Yildiz and Acar 2026] [Zhang et al. 2015c] [Zhengping et al. 2021] [Zhou et al. 2018c] [Zhou et al. 2025a] [Zubko et al. 2022]

Weapons, displays and the off-boresight problem

The other half of the off-boresight argument. Helmet-mounted and head-up displays, cueing systems, missiles and weapon system effectiveness.

The programme’s own recommendation was that post-stall technology needs a missile that can be launched off boresight at high angle of attack, and that combination arrived shortly afterwards and changed close combat more than the airframe technology did. An aircraft that can point its seeker without pointing itself does not need to point itself.

That is the strongest single argument against the X-31’s own premise, and the programme identified it.

Helmet-mounted displays and sights are named in 46 of these titles.

76 records. [Air Force Systems Command Andrews AFB MD 1965a] [Air Force Systems Command Andrews AFB MD 1965b] [Air Proving Ground Center Eglin AFB FL 1949] [Air Proving Ground Center Eglin AFB FL 1954] [Bailey 1986] [Bailey 1989] [Beskar 2004] [Blackwell et al. 1997] [Butterfield 1990] [Chapman and Clarkson 1992] [Cheung et al. 2015a] [Cheung et al. 2015b] [Chhavi and Ramanan 2023] [Comparison of Helmet-Mounted Visual 1987] [Coppock and Gerke 1977] [Dagomes et al. 2020] [Denton et al. 2025] [Dorr et al. 1994] [Ehrlich and Singer 1996] [Ercoline and Gillingham 1990] [Fedaravičius et al. 2022] [Fischler et al. 2017] [Geiselman 1999b] [Geiselman 1999a] [Geiselman et al. 2000] [Gilligan 1992] [Grunwald and Kohn 1994] [Guanglei et al. 2016] [Hardyman and Smith 1989] [Haworth and Seery 1992] [Haworth et al. 1988] [Haworth et al. 1989] [Head up Display 1998] [Herd and Moxley 1965] [Jenkins 2008] [Jenkins and Havig 2015] [Jenkins et al. 2001] [Jenkins et al. 2002a] [Jenkins et al 2002] [Jones 1973] [Jones 1983] [Katukuri 2023] [Kotulak and Morse 1995] [Kruk 1992] [Kumar and Raghuwanshi 2020] [Lambert et al. 1985] [Lim et al. 2017] [Lueken et al. 2016] [Mekonnen et al. 2021] [Merryman 1994] [Modelling Performance of Uncrewed 2026] [Moon and Kim 2000] [Mulholland 2002] [Nelson and Cox 1992] [Osder 1992] [Parise 1989] [Rash et al. 1998] [Rebman 1967] [Robinson and Green 2016] [Rostad et al. 2003] [Sharkey et al. 2000] [Sheesley et al. 2003] [St. Pierre et al. 2015] [Subramanyam 1997] [Szelmanowski et al. 2017] [Пичкуров and Артюхин 2024] [Watler and Mulley 1978] [Wells et al. 1988] [Whillock et al. 1994] [Winterbottom et al. 2005] [Woodruff et al. 1986] [Xiong et al. 2016] [Zeqing et al. 2017] [Zhan et al. 2015] [Zhang et al. 2018c] [Çalışkan and Sakarya 2024]

Missile guidance and interception

The weapon that made pointing less necessary. Missile guidance laws, interception of manoeuvring targets and the guidance of aircraft and projectiles.

95 records. [Aiello and Bateman 1979] [August 1982] [Banerjee et al. 2019] [Chadwick 1995] [Cliff 1989] [Cloutier and Stockbridge 2015] [Cong-cong et al. 2017] [Corban et al. 2001] [Cui et al. 2023] [Deepak 2004] [Dong et al. 2023a] [Fan et al. 2019] [Fresconi et al. 2014] [Galffy et al. 2019] [Gao et al. 2016] [Gao et al. 2025b] [Gaudet and Furfaro 2023] [Giragosian 1992] [Grinfeld and Ben-Asher 2015] [Gros and Fichter 2016] [Głębocki and Jacewicz 2018] [Han et al. 2025d] [Harini Venkatesan and Sinha 2015] [Hemsch and Nielsen 1983a] [Hu et al. 2017] [Imado and Miwa 1986] [Jayaraman et al. 2020] [Jiang 2018] [Jinglun et al. 2021] [Jonsson 1986] [Kim and Kim 2015] [Krysenko 1963] [Kumar et al. 1995] [Lee and Kim 2016] [Lee et al. 2023] [Lee et al. 2025] [Liang et al. 2017] [Lin and Xin 2019] [Lisha et al. 2015] [Liu and Qu 2017] [Luo et al. 2023] [Lyu et al. 2018b] [Marzat 2017] [Mei and Wang 2021] [Meng et al. 2022b] [Meng et al. 2023] [Mondal and Padhi 2018] [Nakagawa et al. 2019] [Nam 2025] [Niu et al. 2026] [Ochi 2003] [Grimm et al] [Paine 1950] [Peng et al. 2016] [Qu et al. 2015] [Research on the Integrated 2023] [Richards et al. 2016] [Ross 1997] [Schnepf et al. 2017] [Shalumov 2019] [Shalumov and Shima 2017] [Shi et al. 2021] [Shou et al. 2023] [Slater 1987] [Snyder et al. 2015] [Tachinina and Kovalenko 2026] [Tan et al. 2019] [Tanriverdi and Cavdaroglu 2017] [Tao et al. 2024] [Tekinalp and Ariyibi 2015] [Tekinalp and Kumbasar 2015] [Tian et al. 2023] [Wang et al. 2018h] [Wang et al. 2024l] [Wang et al. 2024k] [Wang et al. 2026d] [Weber and Jamsek 1994] [Wei et al. 2016] [Weiss and Shima 2021] [Wilcox 1963] [Xi et al. 2018] [Xiaoxi et al. 2019] [Xu et al. 2017b] [Xu et al. 2022a] [Yang et al. 2017c] [Ye and Liu 2016b] [Yin et al. 2025] [Yomchinda 2015] [Zhan et al. 2024] [Zhang et al. 2015d] [Zhang et al. 2022f] [Zhengchun 2018] [Zhou and Wang 2017] [Zhou et al. 2016e] [Zhou Tao et al. 2007]

Missile autopilots and missile flight control

The missile as a flight vehicle. Missile autopilots, missile flight control and the aerodynamics that a missile autopilot works against.

20 records. [Aerodynamic Characteristics of Oval 2025] [Dong and Zhou 2017] [Fowler and Rogers 2016] [Hemsch and Nielsen 1983b] [Huannian et al. 2018] [Jun-fang et al. 2015] [Kovalik and Rogers 2025] [Lou et al. 2017] [Lukianenko 2026] [Michal and Mitcham 1949] [Nagabhushan 1986] [Oh and Kimmel 1990] [Shoyama et al. 2026] [Special Features of Antiaircraft 2010] [Vinh et al. 1972] [Yafei 2017] [Yang et al. 2025f] [Zaikang and Defu 2019] [Zhang et al. 2019d] [Ţapu and Drăgulinescu 2025]

Rotorcraft flight dynamics and control

The helicopter beside the fighter. Rotorcraft flight dynamics, rotorcraft flight control and their simulation.

56 records. [Abhishek and Prasad 2016] [Ai et al. 2025] [Bachmaier and Anderson 2021] [Bath et al. 2022] [Bird 1970] [Blackburn and Whitfield 1965] [Brown 2020] [Cao 1999] [Chelihi et al. 2025] [Chen and Hindson 1986] [Dabundo and Neary 1985] [Deng and Xu 2022] [Dhiman et al. 2022] [Dixon 1980] [Enciu and Horn 2017] [Enns 1987] [Fattizzo et al. 2026] [Gao et al. 2022c] [Garrard and Low 1990] [Guan and Xian 2025] [Güner et al. 2016] [Hegde 2020] [Helicopter Yaw Control 1990] [Hess and Gao 1993] [Hiller Aircraft Corp Palo Alto Ca 1965] [Horn et al. 2024] [Hutto 1975] [Kelley et al. 1992] [Li et al. 2023b] [Liang et al. 2025b] [Lim and Jung 2025] [Lu et al. 2015] [Lu et al. 2019b] [McKillip 1987a] [McKillip 1987b] [Monico et al. 2025] [Nguyen 1998] [Nunes et al. 2025] [Ostheimer and Giguere 1963] [Qin et al. 2023a] [Quackenbush et al. 2020] [Reader 1980] [Sakthivel and Venkatesan 2017] [Sarathy and Murthy 1993b] [Schroeder et al. 1995] [Sheng 2026] [Sugawara et al. 2021] [Tai 1996] [Takahashi et al. 2022] [Tang et al. 2019] [Tritschler et al. 2025] [Ueminami and Fujiwara 2020] [Wang et al. 2020g] [Wood and Livingston 1971] [Yokoyama and Fujiwara 2021] [Zhao et al. 2024b]

Multirotor flight control

The smallest flight vehicles with the same control problems. Flight control of quadrotors and other multirotors, including robust, saturated and fault-tolerant designs.

38 records. [Alqudsi 2024] [Bouadi and Mora-Camino 2018] [Calogero et al. 2023] [Casau et al. 2020] [Chen and Zhao 2017] [Cunningham and Hubbard 2020] [Deng and Chai 2024] [Faessler et al. 2017] [Gu et al. 2022] [Gupta et al. 2016] [Hai-Rui and Bo 2017] [He et al. 2020d] [Hopwood et al. 2024] [Hossny et al. 2020] [Jeong et al. 2024a] [Kim et al. 2020] [Kuantama et al. 2018] [Lee and Kim 2024] [Li et al. 2024e] [Lim et al. 2016] [Lim et al. 2022] [Mazeh and Sahili 2019] [Mehmood et al. 2016] [Oliinyk and Zylevich 2026] [Paiva et al. 2019] [Peng et al. 2018] [Prakosa et al. 2022] [Rasool et al. 2025] [Saetti and Güner 2024] [Stauder et al. 2026] [Tran and Nguyen 2018] [Wang and Shirinzadeh 2015] [Wang et al. 2017a] [Wu et al. 2021b] [Yan et al. 2023a] [Yan et al. 2024] [Yang et al. 2024e] [Zhu et al. 2017b]

The vehicle’s own literature

The programme’s own record. Every research record whose title names the X-31.

This cluster is the one place where the contemporary survey has nothing to survey. None of its 36 records was published from 2015 onward, and the latest is from 2012, which is what one should expect of an aircraft that stopped flying in 2003. Of them, 28 date from the 1985 to 1996 programme window. The modern work that touches the aircraft is computational, and it uses the X-31 as a validation case rather than studying the aeroplane.

36 records. [Alcorn et al. 1995] [Alcorn et al. 1996] [Banks et al 1992] [Boelens 2009] [Boelens 2012] [Cobleigh et al. 1994] [Canter and Groves 1994] [Cobleigh 1994] [Cobleigh and Croom 2003] [Cobleigh and Croom 2001] [Cobleigh and Delfrate 1994] [Croom et al 1993] [Mackall et al 1992] [Williams et al. 1994a] [Dickes et al. 1994] [Grohs et al. 2003] [Groves et al 1993] [Hebbar et al 1991] [Hebbar et al 1993] [Hebbar et al 1993] [Hebbar et al. 1995] [Hoerter et al 1991] [Friehmelt et al. 1997] [Huber 1995] [Huber and Schellenger 1994] [Huber and Seamount 1994] [Kaletka and Fu 1993] [Knox 1992] [Kokolios 1993] [Stoliker and Bosworth 1996] [Stoliker and Bosworth 1997] [Tamrat 2004] [Whiting 1996] [Williams et al. 1994b] [X-31 Tailless Testing 1994] [Yeh et al 1991]

Other aerodynamic and flight mechanics literature

The aerodynamic and flight mechanics residual, reported and not hidden. Aerodynamics and flight mechanics of aircraft and flight vehicles that belong to no cluster above, among them manoeuvring flight, stability, performance, drag and wing aerodynamics.

The period part of this cluster is the aerodynamics the programme was designed against, and the modern part is what the same questions look like once computation replaced the tunnel as the primary tool. Of its 341 titles, 115 name a manoeuvre. No further subject in it is large enough to name, and dividing it further would describe the filing rather than the field.

341 records. [6 DoF Aircraft Simulation 2016] [Morton 1956] [Newey] [AbuNawas and Qawasmeh 2026] [Fink and Lastinger 1961] [Aerodynamic Performance of Swayasa 2025] [Agrawal et al. 1991] [Ahmed and Qin 2020] [Akaryildiz et al. 2025] [Alam and Soeimanikutanaei 2021] [Alexander et al. 1992] [Alexandrov et al. 2025] [Almajali and Al-Mahadin 2026] [Ananthkrishnan and Sudhakar 1994] [Ananthkrishnan and Sudhakar 1995] [Anggraeni 2019] [Antipov 2020] [Appa and Ausman 1997] [Arranz and Lozano-Duran 2022] [Ashpis and Thurman 2011] [Avila De Melo and Hansman 1990] [Bai 2025b] [Baker and Farrell 1991] [Bakker et al. 2025] [Banerjee et al. 2017] [Berry et al. 2004] [Beyers 1988] [Bhardwaj and Holzapfel 2025] [Biancardi 1988] [Bismarck-Nasr 1994] [Bloy 1996] [Bloy and Lea 1995] [Bocvarov et al. 1994] [Bosnyakov et al. 2024] [Bradley et al. 2026] [Brandt and Bons 2023] [Brandt et al. 2022] [Breakwell 1978] [Breitenstein et al. 2024] [Briese and Gäßler 2022] [Bromfield and Dillman 2015] [Bueno and Dowell 2020] [Buerge and Ram 2010] [Burkhalter et al. 1992] [Buttrill et al. 1987] [Byrns and Calise 1993] [Caap and Elemeland 1986] [Calise 1984] [Carrere et al. 2023] [Cen et al. 2018] [Dikbas and Atik 2018] [Changchuan et al. 2018] [Chen et al. 2023b] [Chen et al. 2025f] [Chen et al. 2025a] [Cochran et al. 1992] [Cochran et al. 1990] [Cockrell et al. 1986] [Collier 1993] [McCutchen 2006] [Kuhlman and Brown 1989] [Keener 1984] [de Melo and Hansman 1991] [Deiler and Fezans 2017] [del Carre and Palacios 2020] [Determination of Aerodynamic Characteristics 2001] [Dghim et al. 2018b] [Dghim et al. 2018a] [Dghim et al. 2020] [Di Pasquale and Prince 2023] [Duan et al. 2021] [Durham 1994] [Durham 1995] [Durston and Stonum 1987] [Dursun and Erturk 2022] [Eikenberry and Ingram 1969] [Ejeh et al. 2019] [Ene and Stoica 2015] [Englar et al. 1999] [Eriş et al. 2026] [Yu and Bernal 2016] [Fan et al. 1994] [Felix et al. 2026] [Fernandes 2026] [Feroskhan and Go 2016] [Feroskhan and Go 2018] [Ferrand et al. 2026] [Fink 1965] [Visbal 2012] [Fortunato et al. 2021] [Franco and Rivas 2015] [Frazier 1991] [Frink et al. 2019] [Gao et al. 2024b] [Garrard and Balas 1995] [Ghazi 1994] [Glezer et al. 2010] [Gopinath 1982] [Gordnier 1995] [Graffstein and Maslowski 2019] [Graham et al. 2018] [Greenwell 1998] [Grimm 1987] [Gu and Wang 2025] [Gu and Zhou 2020] [Gupta 2026] [Haas and Chopra 1988] [Haas and Chopra 1990] [Hao et al. 2019] [Hashemi and Nguyen 2018] [Hassan and Sankar 1992] [Furey 1980] [Himeda and Naka 2019] [Hoffman and Stalford 1991] [Hofmann and Riedel 1979] [Hsiao et al. 1994] [Hu et al. 1993] [Hutt 1987] [Idir et al. 2022] [Ikami et al. 2021] [Imanov 2025] [Trice 1989] [Intravartolo et al. 2023] [Ishida 2019] [Jansen and Vos 2016] [Jarrah 1995] [Joshi et al. 2020] [Rosenow 2020] [Kadrnka and Hawley 1993] [Kaneshige and Krishnakumar 2014] [Karpuk and Mosca 2024] [Kasmi et al. 2023] [Katz 1979] [Khalid 1992] [Khalil and Bauknecht 2024] [Khalil et al. 2017] [Khalil et al. 2022] [Khoshkhoo and Jahangirian 2016] [Kim and Kim 2017] [Kim and Marciniak 1998] [Kim et al. 2019] [Krengel and Hepperle 2023] [Krishnamurthy and Luckner 2017] [Kuhn 1980] [Kwatny and Allen 2012] [Langan and Samuels 1995] [Lappe 1965] [Larsen 1966] [Lehmkuhl et al. 2020] [Lei and Zha 2023a] [Lei and Zha 2023b] [Lesoinne 2007] [Li and Livne 1997] [Li and Sharma 2021] [Li et al. 2018e] [Li et al. 2022s] [Liao Kaijun et al. 2015] [Sathaye et al. 2004] [Dodbele and Plotkin 1985] [Ramm 1990] [Stanbrook 1954] [Bouton 1950] [Lin 2016] [Liu and Zha 2016] [Liu et al. 2017b] [Lovato and Troutt 1993] [Low Aspect Ratio Wing 1992] [Iosilevskii 2025] [Lowry 1997] [Lu et al. 2023] [Ma 2025] [Mancini and Vos 2019] [Mann et al. 1983] [Mann and Mercer 1985] [Mann and Mercer 1986] [Manolescu 1994] [Marquet 2023] [Marzouk 2025] [Mayahara and Sato 2023] [McFadden et al. 2023] [Mei and Huang 2018] [Mele et al. 2016] [Mello and Kotansky 1985] [Menon 1993] [Menon et al. 1991] [Meyer and Seginer 1992] [Miller and Koch 1985] [Modi et al. 1998] [Moens and Dandois 2016] [Mohan and Gaitonde 2017] [Moktarian and Modi 1988] [Montgomery et al. 1998] [Moore 1995] [Morgan and Garmann 2026] [Morgan 1981] [Mori et al. 2015] [Morino and Obayashi 2015] [Morris and Kroo 1990] [Morton and McDaniel 2018] [Moyer 1993] [Mr. S. Aravindan et al. 2017] [Muckler and Obermayer 1963] [Muir 1993] [Mulgund and Stengel 1993b] [Muppidi et al. 2018] [Muqeeth and Abdallah 2020] [Naftaly and Raveh 2025] [Nagabhushan and Pasha 1991] [Nagabhushan and Pasha 1992] [Nakagawa and Obata 1992] [Naumowicz and Smith 1992] [Neves and Mariani 2024] [Nguyen and Xiong 2021] [Nicolosi et al. 2015] [Northrop Aircraft INC Hawthorne CA 1956] [Mansour 1984] [Huang et al. 2023b] [O’Farrell et al. 2016] [O’Rourke et al. 2020] [Odriozola et al. 2026] [Olwi 1995] [Gutierrez-Castillo et al. 2021] [Ozger 2015] [Ozgun et al. 2026] [Pamadi 1981] [Pandi and Mittal 2025] [Paolo 1977] [Papadales and Basil S. 1979] [Paul et al. 2024] [Peng et al. 2026b] [Peterson 2025] [Phoenix et al. 2019] [Пількевич et al. 2025] [Rizzetta and Visbal 2012a] [Rizzetta and Visbal 2012b] [Porterfield et al. 2025] [Portis et al. 2024] [Post and Corke 2004] [Prayitno et al. 2026] [Radhakrishnan and Swarup 2020] [Raj et al. 2018] [Raj Mohamed et al. 2019] [Raj Mohamed et al. 2021] [Rambacher and Bons 2023] [Rashid et al. 2022] [Ratcliff et al. 2016] [Rawson 1963] [Reisenthel 1996] [Reist et al. 2019] [Riso et al. 2020] [Ritter 1988] [Rizzetta and Visbal 2016] [Rodden 1989a] [Rodden and Bellinger 1982] [Rogalski 2018] [Rogalski et al. 2021] [Rossow 1990] [Sanghi et al. 2022] [Sanghi et al. 2024] [Sasamori et al. 2022] [Sato 2018c] [Schoettle and Hillesheimer 1991] [Schuster 1995] [Secchi and Mestriner 2026] [Sedky et al. 2024] [Sen et al. 2024] [Shalaev and Hieu 2020] [Shayak et al. 2024] [Shen and Chen 2023] [Sheng and Zhao 2017] [Shi and Holzapfel 2019] [Shimmin et al. 2015] [Shmilovich et al. 2016] [Shmilovich et al. 2026] [Singh 1988] [Singh 1989c] [Singh 1989a] [Singh 1989b] [Singh and Dhawan 2015] [Singh and Scholz 2018] [Slater and Hu 1989] [Sodja et al. 2021] [Solarte-Pineda et al. 2026] [Speyer 1996] [Srivastava and Mook 1994] [Тупіцин et al. 2012] [Stanford 2020] [Stanley 1980] [Shields and Mohseni 2012] [Stengel and Berry 1977] [Stepanov and Kusyumov 2022] [Sudhi et al. 2023] [Sun 2015] [Suresh et al. 2018] [Sánchez Muñoz et al. 2024] [Sóbester 2021] [Tai 1993] [Tal and Karaman 2022] [Theunissen 1995] [Tomczyk 1998] [Kuhlman et al. 1988] [Traub 1994] [Turner 1982] [Tuzcu and Nguyen 2015] [Unsteady Surface Pressure Measurements 1985] [VAN Poppel et al. 1998] [Vashishtha and Khurana 2021] [Villegas and Diez 2016] [Virgilio Pereira et al. 2019] [Oswald 1932] [Wang and Zhang 2025] [Wang and Zhao 2021] [Wang et al. 2021k] [Wang et al. 2025b] [Wang et al. 2026g] [Wendorff et al. 2016] [Winther et al. 1995] [Woo 1992] [Woods et al. 1990] [Woods-Vedeler et al. 1995] [Xu and Zha 2022] [Xu et al. 2018b] [Xu et al. 2023] [Yan et al. 2016b] [Yang and Zha 2018b] [Yang and Zha 2018a] [Yang et al. 2025h] [Yin 2023] [Yost et al. 2019] [Yu and Yu 2026] [Zagainov 1993] [Zare Shahnehb 2022] [Zeiler 1998] [Zhang et al. 2017c] [Zhang et al. 2018f] [Zhang et al. 2022a] [Zhang et al. 2025a] [Zhou et al. 2016b] [Zhou et al. 2025d] [Zhou et al. 2025b] [Zweig and Ben-Asher 1995]

The general control literature

The control residual, reported and not hidden. Flight control of aircraft and flight vehicles, and the parts of control theory this article’s argument uses, belonging to no more specific cluster above.

This is the broadest cluster in the article. An aircraft that is unstable in one axis, augmented in all of them, and dependent on a measured flight condition for its gains is a control-theory object before it is anything else, and the literature that surrounds it is correspondingly large. Of its 410 titles, 309 name an aircraft, a flight vehicle or flight, and the rest are the parts of general control theory that this article uses, being the control of unstable plants, robustness, gain scheduling, saturation, time delay and nonlinear control.

410 records. [Abdusamad and Mousa 2024] [Adams et al. 1994] [Aftab and Rossiter 2021] [Aguilar-Ibañez 2016] [Ajel et al. 2021] [Albostan and Gökaşan 2018] [Aldosari and Feron 2025] [Alsayed and Lanteigne 2017] [Alston 1936] [Amalberti and Deblon 1992] [Amato et al. 2022] [Ambroziak et al. 2022] [An et al. 2020] [Anandakumar et al. 2022] [Anderson and Mason 1996] [Anderson and Schmidt 1991] [Angelov and Holzapfel 2022] [Ansari and Bernstein 2015] [Application of Perfect Model 1989] [Argyle and Beard 2016] [Arrosida and Echsony 2017] [Arya and Rao 2016] [Asadi et al. 2022] [Ashraf and Van Kampen 2020] [Ashraf et al. 2018] [Aslam et al. 2020] [Azab 1985] [Azor 1995] [Bal et al. 2024] [Balas et al. 1998] [Banerjee 2019] [Baran and Bayezit 2024] [Begum et al. 2020] [Beppu and Curtiss 1966] [Berg 1991] [Bernstein 2000] [Biggs and Livornese 2020] [Bist and Sondhi 2022] [Black and Blackwell 1990] [Blodgett and Lagor 2022] [Bogos et al. 2018] [Boisseau 1955] [Boland et al. 1993] [Bondarenko and Shkolnyi 2024] [Borello and Villero 1995] [Bosworth 2009] [Bošković and Jackson 2017] [Broussard et al. 1982] [Brown and Montgomery 1984] [Bruner 1983] [Cai et al. 2021] [Calico and Noll 1986] [Caverly and Forbes 2018] [Chand and Chiu 1991] [Chavez and Schmidt 1993] [Chavez and Schmidt 1994] [Chen et al. 2017e] [Chen et al. 2024e] [Chen et al. 2026a] [Cheng et al. 1992] [Chipman et al. 1983] [Chiu and Chand 1991] [Coletti and Faruque 2022] [Cook and Hauser 2018] [Corona-Sanchez and Rodriguez-Cortes 2015] [Craig 1965] [Cress et al. 1989] [Cunningham et al. 2011] [Czyba and Kronhof 2020] [Czyba and Stajer 2019] [Dai et al. 2017] [Davidson et al. 1999] [de Souza et al. 2023] [Demarchi and Haning 1978] [Deters and Russell 1947] [Devarakonda et al. 2015] [Douglas Aircraft Co Long Beach Ca 1963] [Douglas et al. 1990] [Dukes 1970] [Dwivedi and Pandey 2021] [Guido 1989] [Ehlers and Weisshaar 1993] [Engelland 1991] [Engelland et al. 1992] [Ramona 2023] [Enns 2003] [Enns et al. 1994b] [Faleiro and Pratt 1996] [Fazelzadeh et al. 2016] [Fellah et al. 2018] [Ferranti and Keviczky 2017] [Feucht et al. 1978] [Finch and Walker 1953] [Flight Sciences Lab INC Buffalo NY 1964] [Forkun et al. 2020] [Franklin and Innis 1978] [Fravolini et al. 2015] [Fravolini et al. 2016] [Funk 1975] [Gainer 1963] [Gao et al. 2020] [Garrard 1998] [Gavilan et al. 2015] [Gezer and Kutay 2015] [Goldberger 1966] [Gong et al. 2019a] [Goodner and Rao 1988] [Govindaraj et al. 1979] [Graham and McRuer 1991] [Griffin and Eastep 1982] [Grunwald and Kohn 1993] [Gu et al. 2023b] [Guruswamy and Tu 1989] [Guzman et al. 2022] [Haiping et al. 2021] [Halyo 1996] [Hart 1956] [Hedrick and Gopalswamy 1990] [Hernández Castellanos et al. 2020] [Hess 1994b] [Hess 1995a] [Hess and Peng 2018] [Hill 1987] [Hofmann and Kezer 1962] [Hongyan and Xiaoyong 2026] [Hoogreef and Soikkeli 2022] [Horowitz et al. 1980] [Horri and Pietraszko 2022] [Hsu 1990] [Hu et al. 2021b] [Hu et al. 2025a] [Hu et al. 2026] [Huang et al. 2020c] [Innocenti 1989a] [Ionita and Rasvan 1999] [Jackson 1970] [Jacques and Ridgely 1995] [Jafari et al. 2017] [Jares and Valasek 2022] [Jenney 1979] [Jex and Culick 1985] [jian-jian et al 2019] [Jianhong and Yanxiang 2026] [Jiayuan et al. 2018] [Jin and Wang 2015] [Jin et al. 2026] [Johnson and Boisseau 1953] [Kai 2024] [Kalviste and Eller 1989] [Kaminer and Khargonekar 1991] [Karimtaevna et al. 2022] [Karpel 1990] [Kassapakis and Warwick 1994] [Katz 1995] [Kayacan and Peschel 2016] [Kazarin et al. 2017] [Khamvilai and Johnson 2025] [Kidd 1988] [Kikin 2018] [Kim and Kim 2024] [Kim et al. 2018b] [Kim et al. 2025b] [Kistyarev and Wang 2025] [Knuusi and Sage 1965] [Kong et al. 2016b] [Kou et al. 2021] [Kumar et al. 2019] [Kuvshinov et al. 2019] [Köhler et al. 2026] [Köthe et al. 2016] [Lai et al. 2021] [Lampl and Hornung 2018] [Landy and Kim 1984] [Lane and Stengel 1986] [Langham 1979] [Lateral Control 2025] [Lavretsky 2019] [Lawes 1994] [Le 2026] [Lee and Hedrick 1994] [Li et al. 2016b] [Li et al. 2018f] [Li et al. 2022q] [Li et al. 2023a] [Li et al. 2025b] [Liang et al. 2020] [Lim et al. 2004] [Lin 1998] [Lin and Tai 1995] [Lin et al. 2017b] [Linehan 1996] [Liu et al. 2015c] [Liu et al. 2018e] [Liu et al. 2020d] [Liu et al. 2020a] [Liu et al. 2024d] [Livneh 1995] [Livneh and Schmidt 1992] [Lu et al. 2017a] [Lungu and Lungu 2015] [Lungu and Lungu 2016] [Luspay et al. 2018] [Lymperopoulos and Ioannou 2019] [Lyu et al. 2022] [Ma et al. 2019a] [Ma et al. 2025c] [Mailhot et al. 2023] [Martynov et al. 2017] [Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional et al. 2022] [Masaoka and Hashimoto 2024] [Melekhin and Khachumov 2021] [Mengali 1996] [Menon et al. 1995] [Mercadante and Laurie 1989] [Merkel and Whitmoyer 1976] [Merlinge et al. 2019] [Mikhail et al. 2015] [Mirchandani 2020] [Mishra and Chakraborty 2024b] [Mishra and Chakraborty 2024a] [Mlayeh and Ben Othman 2022] [Mohamed and Swaroop S 2015] [Montgomery and Hunsaker 2022] [Morton et al. 1990] [Munger et al. 1983] [Muñoz and García-Fogeda 2024] [Müller and Moormann 2023] [Nagabhushan 1989] [Nagabhushan 1991] [Nagabhushan and Tan 1996] [Neves et al. 2026] [Nguyen and Tran 2021] [Ni et al. 2025] [Nield 1981] [No and Cochran 1995] [North American Aviation INC LOS Angeles CA 1963] [Northrop Aircraft INC Hawthorne CA 1952] [Omar 2021] [Ostroff and Proffitt 1994] [Pachter et al. 1994] [Pachter et al. 1995b] [Padilla et al. 2026] [Palkin and Zenchenko 2025] [Panish and Bacic 2022] [Panteleev et al. 2018] [Park et al. 2019] [Pashchenko and Akhrameev 2021] [Patience and Nahon 2020] [Perrusquia et al. 2016] [Planeaux 1990] [Platus 1980] [Platus 1981] [Pollack and van Kampen 2023] [Porter and Swaim 1975] [Prach et al. 2016] [Putman and Curtiss 1980] [Putro and Holzapfel 2016] [Puviyarasi et al. 2023] [Qi and Zhao 2020] [Qi et al. 2017] [Qi et al. 2018a] [Qi et al. 2018d] [Rabenberg and Palarz 1983] [Rajeswari and Padma Suresh 2015] [Sinke 2022] [Ren et al. 2026] [Research on Aircraft Control 1969] [Rigatos 2021] [Rimer et al. 1986] [Robinson 1985] [Roden and Harrhy 1992] [Roenneke and Well 1995] [Rokhsaz and Selberg 1990] [Ronfle-Nadaud 2009] [Rosa et al. 1974] [Rosario-Gabriel and Cortes 2018] [Roscoe et al. 1975] [Ross et al. 1973] [Rowley 2008] [Rowley 2010] [Rustenburg 1972] [Sachan and Singh 2025] [Sachs 1975] [Sachs et al. 1996] [Safinaz et al. 2023] [Safonov and Chen 1982b] [Safwat et al. 2020] [Sahu et al. 2022] [Salahudden et al. 2022a] [Salahudden et al. 2025a] [Sandeepkumar and Mohan 2022] [Saugen and Adler 1991] [Schildkamp et al. 2023] [Schmidt 1987] [Schmidt and Newman 1990] [Schmitendorf 1979] [Se Young Yoon and Zongli Lin 2013] [Selman 2023] [Servo-Control Device for Aircraft 1984] [Shankar and Yathisha 2023] [Sharma and Sakthivel 2025] [Shmilovich and Princen 2026] [Silvestre et al. 2017] [Singh and Coelho 1984] [Singh and Verma 2022] [Singh et al. 1995] [Singh et al. 2024] [Sinha et al. 2022] [Sir Elkhatem et al. 2025] [Smith and Meyer 1981] [Smith et al. 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Where the Framing Breaks Down

Treating this aircraft through its keystone misleads in five places, and the first is the sharpest.

The Exchange Ratio Is Not a Property of the Aircraft

The apparatus of this article treats the exchange ratio as a measurement, but it is better understood as a joint measurement of an aircraft, a pilot, a tactic, an adversary and a set of rules. The programme’s own data proves it. The same aircraft in the same simulator, from a nominally identical defensive start, returned 1.2 in one campaign and 0.47 in the next, and the programme attributed the difference to which initial move the pilots chose.

A number that moves by a factor of two and a half when the pilots change their minds does not describe the airframe.

The Adversary Chooses the Engagement

The F-15C and F-16C result is the boundary of the entire keystone. An advantage that exists inside a slow, close fight is realisable only if the opponent enters one. Against aircraft with enough excess thrust to sit above the fight and re-enter at their chosen moment, the X-31’s advantage was largely unavailable.

The lesson is old, as the NASA history observes, drawing the parallel with the Fokker Dr I of 1917, an aircraft capable of post-stall pointing that pilots of faster conventional fighters learned to defeat by extending and attacking in slashing passes, denying it the ability to choose the time and place of the fight.

The Demonstrator Was Underpowered

The X-31 fought the F/A-18 from a position of disadvantage in conventional performance, and the NASA history is direct about it, attributing an exchange ratio of 0.37 without post-stall technology to the basic mediocrity of an underpowered design against a more powerful opponent with a better dogfighting wing.

The handicap cuts both ways, and the second direction is the more interesting. An aircraft that loses almost three fights in four conventionally and wins nearly two in one with post-stall technology has demonstrated a large effect. But it has demonstrated it on an airframe whose conventional performance nobody would accept, and the programme’s own conclusion is that post-stall technology must be an integrated element of a design rather than a bolt-on.

The Angle of Attack Limit Is Not the Whole Capability

The article has treated the usable angle of attack as the figure of merit, because it sets the aim-off angle. The programme’s conclusions put velocity-vector roll rate alongside it, and describe the main advantages as apparent directional nose-pointing rate, which is actually yaw rate or velocity-vector roll capability at high angle of attack, together with very high nose authority in pitch.

Pointing where you cannot get to quickly is worth less than the static aim-off angle suggests, and a full treatment would need the rate as well as the angle. The rate is not published in a form this article could use.

The Simulation and Flight Numbers Are Not the Same Experiment

The exchange ratios analysed at length in this article are simulation results, from Pinball I and Pinball II. The flight programme reported 407 engagements of which 325 were scored, and its summary conclusions are stated qualitatively. The temptation to read the simulator’s 1.83 as a flight result should be resisted, and the widely quoted figures of thirty to one and of nearly ten to one over 103 dogfights come from yet other accountings. The NASA history reports that the first close-in-combat flight campaign comprised 103 engagements, 94 of them scorable, and that the X-31 won 64 of the 66 decided engagements from neutral starts, a ratio of 32 to one, which is the likely origin of both figures, although neither figure as quoted states that accounting.

That inconsistency is itself the finding. A programme whose keystone was a measured rate produced at least four different headline rates that circulate independently, and the arithmetic above shows why that is easy. The pooled value depends on the mix of starting conditions, and nobody quoting a single number says which mix produced it.

The condition under which pooling reverses a conclusion can be written down. A set of per-condition ratios supports a claim of advantage on average while the pooled figure denies it whenever

\[\frac{1}{N} \sum_i E_i > 1 \qquad \text{and} \qquad \sum_i w_i E_i < 1 \tag{71}\]

which is possible for any set that contains at least one ratio below parity, because the weights are free. For the published set the two sides are 6.43 and 1.83, so the first inequality is satisfied with room to spare and the second fails by a margin of only 0.83. The margin is what the knife-edge calculation above measures, and it is smaller than the uncertainty in the weights. The general form of that hazard is known in statistics as the reversal that can occur when groups are pooled.

The Source Base

The research survey holds 6,684 research records drawn from the NASA Technical Reports Server, the Defense Technical Information Center through its registered identifiers, and the Crossref registry across journal and conference literature, of which 669 are report primaries, being 10.0 percent, by the identifier rule set out under The Definition of Primary. The median publication year is 2017. Of the 6,671 dated records, 2,428 were published through 1999 and 3,922 from 2015 onward. Every record the survey holds is cited, in a cluster row of The Contemporary Literature.

Period Records Share
Before 1985 745 11.2 percent
1985 to 1996, the programme window 1,469 22.0 percent
1997 to 2014 544 8.1 percent
2015 onward 3,922 58.7 percent
of which 2022 onward 1,789 26.8 percent

Where the Programme’s Own Literature Lives

The X-31 was reported almost entirely at meetings rather than in journals, at the meetings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics and the Society of Experimental Test Pilots and at the 1994 High Alpha Conference. The tactical utility paper the keystone rests on and the close-in-combat results assessment published a decade after the programme ended are both conference papers. The vehicle’s own literature cluster holds 36 records, 28 of them from the 1985 to 1996 programme window and none published from 2015 onward, and two of them appeared in a journal.

The Equations That Carry No Citation, and Why

Seven displayed relations in this article carry no nearby citation and that is deliberate. They are the weighting identity, the two ends of the two-point bracket derived from it, displayed separately, the tipping weight, the same bracket applied to the other two comparisons, the flight-rate bookkeeping, and the ratio between the two simulation campaigns.

Every one of those is a construction original to this article rather than a result taken from a source. Attaching a citation to them would be false attribution, and leaving them bare is the correct treatment. The underlying arithmetic is elementary and the reader can check it, which is the point of displaying it.

The distinction matters because the rest of the article’s equations are not like that. The atmosphere, the thrust lapse, the lift-curve slope, the drag polar, the turn relations, the binomial interval and the divergence eigenvalue are all standard results with a literature behind them, and each carries it.

On the Primary Record

The primary record for this aircraft is unusually good in one respect and unusually poor in another. The flight reports, the quasi-tailless results, the yawing-moment asymmetry analysis and the tactical utility paper are all public, detailed and quantitative. The NASA history published in 2014 carries a complete per-flight log for both aircraft and the simulation exchange ratios by starting condition.

What is not public is the count of decided outcomes behind each simulation ratio, which is the one thing needed to attach an interval to any of the published ratios without assumption. The NASA history gives 48 simulated engagements for each case and counts of decided outcomes by starting condition for the flight campaigns, but it reports the simulation results as exchange ratios and percentage increases. This article works around that by asking what various sample sizes would support rather than by guessing which one applied.

The Definition of Primary

Primacy is a property of the document, and this survey derives it from the identifier. A record is a report primary when its address is on the NASA Technical Reports Server or it carries a digital object identifier under the 10.21236 prefix, which Crossref registers for Defense Technical Information Center reports. 17 of the 36 records in the vehicle’s own literature are report primaries under that rule. The rule does not reach the conference papers in which the X-31 was mostly reported, so 10.0 percent is a lower bound on how much of the survey is first-hand.

The programme window is the row that matters for primacy, because it holds the work published while this aircraft was being designed, built and flown. A record from 1993 about high angle of attack aerodynamics is a primary source for this article in a way that a review from 2021 is not, however good the review.

Thin Subjects

Ten subjects that this article’s derivations depend on have thin literatures. Each count below is the number of research records in this survey whose title carries at least one of the listed terms, with a hyphen read as a space. Where a row joins two groups of terms with the word together, a title must carry a term from each group, and where it offers an alternative with the word or, either suffices.

Subject Title terms counted Records
the exchange ratio as a reported quantity exchange ratio, kill ratio, loss exchange 6
agility metrics agility metric, agility metrics 17
the velocity-vector roll velocity-vector roll 6
turn performance and corner speed corner speed, corner velocity, turn rate, turn radius, turning rate, turning radius, turn performance 6
the Herbst manoeuvre Herbst, J-turn 7
control power control power 12
thrust lapse with altitude thrust lapse, or engine thrust, turbofan, turbojet, jet engine together with altitude 4
carefree handling carefree 10
the icing or blockage of an air data probe pitot, Kiel, air data, probe together with ice, icing, blockage, blocked 21
international collaboration in aircraft development international collaboration, international cooperation, multinational, cooperative aircraft, cooperative development 1

The quantity the keystone rests on is almost never the subject of a title. The exchange ratio, the kill ratio and the loss exchange together appear in six titles, so the aggregation and the intervals derived in this article rest on the statistics of proportions rather than on a literature of the measure itself.

Agility metrics are a literature of the programme’s own decade. Of the 17 titles that name them, 14 date from 1985 to 1996 and one from 2015 onward, so the vocabulary the pointing argument needs was settled then, and the one modern title is a review of it.

The velocity-vector roll is named in six titles, all from 1985 to 1996, the decade in which the X-31 made it the command variable of lateral stick, so the kinematics above rest on the standard axis relations rather than on a modern literature.

Turn performance is a standard relation rather than a measured literature here. Turn rate, turn radius, turning performance and corner speed together appear in six titles, so the turn-radius comparison above rests on the relations it displays.

The manoeuvre that carries Herbst’s name has seven titles, and the four published from 2015 onward are all control designs for flying it.

Control power is thin as a title term and not as a subject. Twelve titles name control power, six of them from the programme window, while the cluster on control power and effector sizing holds 60 records, because most of its titles name control authority, control margins or control derivatives instead. The gap is in the vocabulary rather than in the work.

The thrust-lapse model that the departure and altitude arguments rest on is used rather than studied. Thrust lapse, or engine thrust together with altitude, appears in four titles, none of which names thrust lapse, which is why the lapse exponent is carried explicitly above and the sensitivity to it reported.

Carefree handling has ten titles, three of them on helicopters, and one, a flight demonstration of tactile cueing, takes up the problem the X-31 pilots named, of restoring the cues that carefree handling removes.

Pitot icing was described in 1938 and became a literature only after the accident. Of the 21 titles that join a pitot, Kiel or air data probe to ice or blockage, the earliest is from 1938, the next from 2013, and 19 were published from 2015 onward.

One title names international collaboration or a multinational or cooperative aircraft programme, so the statement that the arrangement was itself a first rests on the programme’s own record.

What the Survey Admits

A record is admitted only when a person reading its title finds it on this article’s subject. Many words this subject depends on also name something else, and a record that shares only such a word is excluded. Control also names the control of power grids, gene therapy and bankruptcy law, structure also names crystal structure, vehicle stability also names the stability of cars, and manoeuvrability also names the manoeuvring of ships. Tailless also names cats, rats, batrachians and whipscorpions, and canard also names the foie gras duck. A delta wing is also a vortex generator in a heat exchanger and the cause of wind loads on a canopy roof, time of flight is also a measurement of particle detectors, cameras and cytometry, departure also names an airport lounge and a gate queue, binomial also names a waveguide transformer and an optical window, agility also names the agility of an organisation, upset also names a soft error in a memory cell, and carefree also names a way of life. Diesel combustion and exhaust, power transmission cables, radio-frequency calibration, buildings and bridges, and the timing of missile launches as a question of international relations are excluded on the same rule. Correction, withdrawal and retraction notices and addenda are excluded as well, because a notice of that kind is a part of the work it concerns rather than a research work of its own, and so are book reviews, conference reports, whole proceedings volumes, special-section introductions, numbered abstract-digest entries, figure and table records, software packages, teaching datasets, encyclopedia entries, news notes and meeting minutes. A second deposit of a document already counted, such as a report-series copy of a journal paper, is not admitted either, so that each work is counted once.

The two residual clusters are held to a stricter rule. The general control literature keeps the flight control of aircraft and flight vehicles, and general control theory only where it is the theory this article’s argument uses, being the control of statically unstable plants, robustness, gain scheduling, saturation, nonlinear and high angle of attack control, thrust-vector control, handling qualities and pilot-vehicle interaction. It excludes control in other application domains, among them robots, ground and marine vehicles, power systems including the electrical power of aircraft, communications, process plants and traffic management, and pure theory tied to none of those uses. The other aerodynamic and flight mechanics literature keeps only the aerodynamics and flight mechanics of aircraft and flight vehicles, and excludes orbital manoeuvring, engine internals, aircraft subsystems, air traffic and target tracking. The same exclusions are applied to every other cluster for the kinds they name, being spacecraft and orbital manoeuvring, engine internals, the electrical power and electronics of aircraft, air traffic and airline operations, robots, marine and ground vehicles, multi-agent coordination, process and networked control, fluid mechanics and acoustics without a flight vehicle, and aircraft subsystems and ergonomics. Thrust-vector control of spacecraft is kept beside thrust vectoring, and ice protection beside air data and icing. Every cluster is also held to the argument. A record is kept when it bears on a subject this article’s argument uses, and a method or phenomenon the argument relies on is kept when it is studied on another vehicle. A record whose only link is general aeronautics is excluded, among them structural health monitoring and the integrity, manufacture and repair of airframes, the design and sizing of transports, general aviation, electric and small unmanned aircraft, propellers, distributed and electric propulsion and engine internals, aircraft noise and the sonic boom, weapon bays and store separation, command and control and mission planning, orbit change, and civil operations. Aeroelasticity, buffet and high-temperature materials, inlet distortion and nozzles, and fighter and unmanned combat aircraft design are kept. A record whose only link is a shared word of control theory or a distant domain is excluded on the same rule, among them the stability theory of switched, positive, fractional-order and delayed systems with no flight plant, controllers shown only on laboratory rigs, the dynamics and control of structures that are not aircraft, simulator motion platforms, control loaders and other ground equipment, counter-drone tasks, infrared and radar signatures, radomes and the hydraulic and engine subsystems, and the reporting of atmospheric turbulence. The control of unstable plants with time delay or actuator saturation, motion cueing as it bears on handling qualities, and missile guidance against any target are kept.

Some records of doubtful relevance are kept. Records from other fields that share a method with the analysis in this article are kept, among them Lanchester models of ground battles and other combat effectiveness models beside the measure of effectiveness, interval estimation and sample-size work from medicine and economics beside the binomial intervals. The otter board of a trawl, studied as a low aspect ratio wing at high angle of attack, is kept beside the lift-curve section. Aviation physiology and pitot measurement outside aircraft are kept on the same reasoning, and a reader may weigh each of them accordingly.

Every research title has been read for relevance, so the off-topic share that remains is a matter of reading judgement. A reading of titles cannot show that a work is relevant in substance, so this is a statement about titles only.

Epistemic State

Historical fact, from the primary and official record.

  • Two aircraft were built by Rockwell International and Messerschmitt-Bolkow-Blohm and flew from October 1990 to June 1995, logging 580 flights with fourteen pilots, as the Dryden fact sheet records.
  • The programme was managed by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and flown by an International Test Organization at NASA Dryden, and was the first experimental aircraft programme administered by a United States agency as an international effort.
  • Controlled flight at seventy degrees of angle of attack was achieved on 6 November 1992, and a minimum-radius one-hundred-and-eighty-degree post-stall turn on 29 April 1993.
  • The first aircraft was lost on 19 January 1995 following ice accretion on an unheated Kiel probe, with the pilot ejecting and being injured on landing.
  • The published simulation exchange ratios against the F/A-18 with post-stall technology are 0.36, 8.5, 16 and 0.86 across four starting conditions, with an overall figure of 1.83.
  • The tactical utility flight test flew 87 sorties of which 80 were scored, producing 407 engagements of which 325 were scored.
  • The quasi-tailless demonstration reached a time to double amplitude of 290 milliseconds at complete simulated tail removal at a supersonic condition.
  • The second aircraft flew again from 2001 to 2003 in a separate programme with a flush air data system.

Engineering analysis performed for this article.

  • The pooled exchange ratio is the mean of the per-condition ratios weighted by the losses of the denominator side. This is an identity, and it holds for every set of counts in which each condition records at least one loss on the denominator side.
  • Between 81.9 and 93.6 percent of the aircraft’s simulated losses must have occurred in the two starting conditions where it was behind. The bracket is derived analytically from two-point mixtures and confirmed by Monte Carlo over twenty-seven thousand feasible weight vectors, which ran from 0.8198 to 0.9356.
  • At twelve scored outcomes per condition the defensive and high-speed line-abreast results do not separate from parity. The high-speed line-abreast ratio of 0.86 would need 691 scored outcomes to separate, against the twelve per condition and case the simulation design allowed.
  • The loop gain on the accident flight stood between 2.890 and 12.543 times its design value, against a conventional gain margin factor of 1.995.
  • The displayed airspeed and the vane angle of attack disagreed by 11.2 degrees at the moment the pilot remarked on them, corresponding to a dynamic-pressure error of 2.266, which already exceeded the design gain margin.
  • Vectored control authority at thirty thousand feet is 0.6462 of its value at twenty thousand at the same calibrated airspeed, a loss of 35.4 percent.
  • The post-stall regime offers no turn-radius advantage. Every radius computed at seventy degrees of angle of attack exceeds the 1,171 feet available at corner speed.
  • The energy given up in a post-stall reversal from corner speed at 20,000 feet is 8,630 feet of specific energy and takes 46.0 seconds to recover, integrated.
  • Against the steady asymmetry bound of 0.080, no arm shorter than the fuselage could hold the asymmetry above 237.6 knots calibrated at 20,000 feet or above 191.0 knots at 30,000 feet.

Inference, where the record supports a conclusion without stating it.

  • The moment arm from the centre of gravity to the vane station is not determined by the flight record. The departure on the second aircraft, at an asymmetry of 0.125 at 35,000 feet and Mach 0.4, bounds it below 36.2 feet under the thrust-lapse model, which the fuselage length already guarantees, and the bound moves from 27.1 to 48.4 feet across lapse exponents of 0.8 to 1.2. The 17.57 feet implied by the stations a dynamic-model study tabulates lies within that bound.
  • The lift-curve slope of 2.769 per radian is inferred from a test pilot’s recollection of a trim point rather than from published data, and is supported by falling between the unswept and swept low-aspect-ratio estimates.
  • The altitude dependence of vectored authority is offered as the quantitative explanation of an effect the flight-test report describes qualitatively. The report does not make the connection.

Claims the record does not settle.

  • The number of engagements behind each published exchange ratio is not public, so every interval in this article is conditional on an assumed sample size.
  • Two widely circulated figures are not stated in the primary record in the form in which they circulate. They are approximately thirty to one, and nearly ten to one over 103 dogfights. Neither is among the simulation figures analysed here. The NASA history reports 32 to one from neutral starts in a first flight campaign of 103 engagements, which is the likely origin of both, but the provenance of the quoted forms is unresolved.
  • The effect of an airframe with adequate conventional performance is unknown. The programme’s own conclusion that post-stall technology must be integrated rather than added implies the exchange ratio would have differed.
  • The yaw inertia is not given in the flight reports, so the directional stiffness of the simulated tailless configuration rests on the inertia a dynamic-model study tabulates for the full-scale aircraft.
  • The velocity-vector roll rate achieved at seventy degrees of angle of attack is described qualitatively in the sources consulted and no usable figure was found, so the pointing analysis in this article treats the angle and not the rate.
  • The basis of the 2004 close-in-combat results assessment was not established. Whether it reports flight or simulation figures, and under what accounting, is unresolved, because the full text of the paper has not been read.

Out of Scope

  • The detailed structural design of the wing and the German certification arrangements behind it.
  • The Vectoring Extremely Short Takeoff and Landing Control Tailless Operations Research programme of 2001 to 2003 in its own right, which is a distinct programme with distinct objectives and is treated here only where it bears on air data.
  • The F/A-18 High Alpha Research Vehicle and the F-16 multi-axis thrust vectoring programme, both contemporaneous and both deserving separate treatment.
  • Radar cross-section and low-observable design, which is the reason the tailless result matters and is not itself an X-31 subject.
  • The design of the missiles the programme concluded were necessary.
  • The organisational history of the International Test Organization beyond what bears on the flight-test method.

Conclusion

The X-31 was built to find out whether an aeroplane that can point its nose forty degrees further round than its opponent wins, and it found out that the answer depends on where the fight starts.

The result is less satisfying than the reputation, and better. The programme produced four exchange ratios against a conventional adversary and the aircraft lost two of them. It produced an overall figure of 1.83, a loss-weighted average dominated by the two it lost, which sits three and a half times below the average of the four. Between eighty-two and ninety-four percent of its simulated losses occurred in the conditions where post-stall manoeuvring did not help.

It produced, in flight against front-line fighters, a clear advantage over the Navy types that would fight it close and a clear disadvantage against the Air Force types that would not.

An exchange ratio is not a property of an aeroplane. It is a property of an engagement, and the adversary has a say in which engagement occurs. The X-31 measured that with more care than anyone had before, and the measurement is usually quoted as a single number by people who did not read the table it came from.

The programme also produced a result nobody was looking for that has outlasted the one it was built for. An aircraft with no vertical tail at all can be held at supersonic speed by vectoring, diverging at 290 milliseconds to double. Yaw control without a fin is now the central configuration problem of combat aircraft design and the X-31 answered it in 1994 as a side experiment made cheap by having already integrated vectoring into the control laws.

And it produced a lesson about instrumentation that cost an aeroplane. A probe fitted to solve a real problem at high angle of attack was not heated, its cockpit switch was not placarded, the hazard analysis was not repeated, and the flight control system had no way to notice that both of its air data computers were being fed the same wrong number. The information needed to catch it was displayed on the head-up display, spoken aloud over the intercom, available on a standby instrument near the pilot’s knee, and computable in one line from the lift equation. None of those was a redundancy the design had asked for, and any one of them would have been enough.

Equations

This section collects the 71 display equations of the article in the order they appear, each under its number and reproduced exactly as it stands in the text. A title in bold names an established result, and a title in italics beginning with the word Bespoke names a construction made for this analysis. Of the 71, 43 are established and 28 are bespoke. Aircraft quantities are in customary units, with weights and thrusts in pounds, dynamic pressures in pounds per square foot, lengths in feet and speeds in knots or feet per second, every calibrated airspeed is read as the equivalent airspeed that gives the same dynamic pressure at sea-level density, and several letters are reused, so $n$ is a count of scored outcomes, a load factor and a thrust-lapse exponent, $\alpha$ is a significance level in the interval relations and the angle of attack elsewhere, $p$ and $r$ are a probability and a turn radius except in the velocity-vector roll relation, where they are body-axis roll and yaw rates, and $\rho_i$ is a campaign ratio rather than a density.

Equation 1, Exchange Ratio. The exchange ratio is the number of adversary losses divided by the number of losses of the aircraft under test, a measure of effectiveness from the operations-research literature. measures of effectiveness for general-purpose forces

\[E = \frac{R}{B} \tag{1}\]

Equation 2, Arithmetic Mean of the Four Condition Ratios. The unweighted mean of the four published per-condition exchange ratios is 6.43, three and a half times the published overall figure.

\[\bar{E} = \frac{0.36 + 8.5 + 16 + 0.86}{4} = 6.43 \tag{2}\]

Equation 3, Pooled Exchange Ratio as a Ratio of Sums. The pooled exchange ratio divides the total adversary losses by the total losses of the aircraft under test across all conditions. combining proportions across strata

\[E_{\text{pool}} = \frac{\sum_i R_i}{\sum_i B_i} \tag{3}\]

Equation 4, Pooled Ratio as a Loss-Weighted Mean. Substituting each condition’s losses as its ratio times the test aircraft’s losses shows the pooled ratio to be the mean of the condition ratios weighted by the denominator losses. combining proportions across strata

\[E_{\text{pool}} = \frac{\sum_i E_i B_i}{\sum_i B_i} \tag{4}\]

Equation 5, Pooled Ratio in Terms of Loss Shares. Writing the weights as each condition’s share of the test aircraft’s losses expresses the pooled ratio as a convex combination of the condition ratios.

\[E_{\text{pool}} = \sum_i w_i E_i \tag{5}\]

Equation 6, Bespoke Minimum Losing-Condition Share. The article bounds the share of losses in the losing conditions from below with a two-point mixture that places all winning weight on the smaller winning ratio and all losing weight on the smaller losing ratio.

\[w_{\min} = \frac{E_{\text{win,min}} - E_{\text{pool}}}{E_{\text{win,min}} - E_{\text{lose,min}}} = \frac{8.5 - 1.83}{8.5 - 0.36} = 0.819 \tag{6}\]

Equation 7, Bespoke Maximum Losing-Condition Share. Pairing the two larger ratios in the same two-point construction gives the upper end of the bracket, 93.6 percent.

\[w_{\max} = \frac{E_{\text{win,max}} - E_{\text{pool}}}{E_{\text{win,max}} - E_{\text{lose,max}}} = \frac{16 - 1.83}{16 - 0.86} = 0.936 \tag{7}\]

Equation 8, Bespoke Losing Share That Tips the Pooled Ratio to Parity. Solving the two-point mixture for a pooled ratio of exactly one gives a losing share of 92.14 percent, a threshold the article shows lies inside its bracket.

\[w_{\text{tip}} = \frac{E_{\text{win,min}} - 1}{E_{\text{win,min}} - E_{\text{lose,min}}} = \frac{8.5 - 1}{8.5 - 0.36} = 0.9214 \tag{8}\]

Equation 9, Bespoke Two-Point Bracket on the Losing Share. The same two-point construction is stated in general form for application to the two further published comparisons. available in full

\[w_{\min} = \frac{E_{\text{win,min}} - E_{\text{pool}}}{E_{\text{win,min}} - E_{\text{lose,min}}} \qquad w_{\max} = \frac{E_{\text{win,max}} - E_{\text{pool}}}{E_{\text{win,max}} - E_{\text{lose,max}}} \tag{9}\]

Equation 10, Exchange Ratio as Odds of a Bernoulli Outcome. If each scored outcome is a Bernoulli trial in which the adversary is lost with probability $p$, the exchange ratio is the odds $p/(1-p)$ and maps one to one onto that probability. Fleiss on statistical methods for rates and proportions Agresti on categorical data

\[E = \frac{p}{1 - p} \qquad \text{and} \qquad p = \frac{E}{1 + E} \tag{10}\]

Equation 11, Clopper-Pearson Lower Endpoint. The lower endpoint of the Clopper-Pearson interval is the probability at which the upper binomial tail from $k$ successes equals half the significance level. Clopper-Pearson interval

\[\sum_{i=k}^{n} \binom{n}{i} p^{i} (1 - p)^{n - i} = \frac{\alpha}{2} \tag{11}\]

Equation 12, Clopper-Pearson Upper Endpoint. The upper endpoint is the probability at which the lower binomial tail through $k$ successes equals half the significance level. Clopper-Pearson interval interval estimation for a binomial proportion

\[\sum_{i=0}^{k} \binom{n}{i} p^{i} (1 - p)^{n - i} = \frac{\alpha}{2} \tag{12}\]

Equation 13, Bespoke Outcome Split Reconstructed From a Ratio. Because the counts are unpublished, the article reconstructs the adversary and test-aircraft losses from each published ratio and a stated number of scored outcomes that it sweeps.

\[k = \operatorname{round}\left( \frac{n E}{1 + E} \right) \qquad \text{and} \qquad b = n - k \tag{13}\]

Equation 14, Separation From Parity. A ratio is taken to separate from parity when its interval excludes one, which is the same as the interval on the probability excluding one half.

\[\text{separates} \iff 1 \notin [E_{\text{lo}}, E_{\text{hi}}] \iff \tfrac{1}{2} \notin [p_{\text{lo}}, p_{\text{hi}}] \tag{14}\]

Equation 15, Aspect Ratio From Span and Area. The aspect ratio implied by the published span and wing area is 2.509, against a published 2.51.

\[A = \frac{b^{2}}{S} = \frac{23.83^{2}}{226.3} = 2.509 \tag{15}\]

Equation 16, Wing Loading at Normal Flying Weight. The normal flying weight divided by the wing area reproduces the published wing loading of 64.52 pounds per square foot.

\[\frac{W}{S} = \frac{14{,}600}{226.3} = 64.52 \ \text{lb/ft}^{2} \tag{16}\]

Equation 17, Lift Coefficient in Level Flight. In level flight the lift coefficient is the weight divided by dynamic pressure and wing area, with the dynamic pressure taken from calibrated airspeed at sea-level density. Etkin on the dynamics of flight Nelson on flight stability Cook on flight dynamics principles

\[C_L = \frac{W}{q S} \qquad \text{with} \qquad q = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho_0 V_c^{2} \tag{17}\]

Equation 18, Bespoke Lift-Curve Slope Inferred From a Pilot’s Trim Point. The slope is inferred from a pilot’s remark that twenty degrees corresponds to 135 to 140 knots, taking the midpoint of 137.5 knots, an assumed weight near 14,000 pounds and a lift line through the origin. available in full

\[C_{L\alpha} = 0.04833 \ \text{per degree} = 2.769 \ \text{per radian} \tag{18}\]

Equation 19, Helmbold Lift-Curve Slope. The Helmbold relation for a low-aspect-ratio unswept wing gives a lift-curve slope of 3.027 per radian at the published aspect ratio.

\[C_{L\alpha} = \frac{\pi A}{1 + \sqrt{1 + (A/2)^{2}}} = \frac{\pi (2.51)}{1 + \sqrt{1 + 1.575}} = 3.027 \ \text{per radian} \tag{19}\]

Equation 20, Bespoke Swept-Wing Lift-Curve Slope at the Root Sweep. The handbook compressible form is evaluated at the root leading-edge sweep of 56.6 degrees, a single sweep the article takes for a cranked wing whose outboard panel is swept 45 degrees. stability and control handbook

\[C_{L\alpha} = \frac{2 \pi A}{2 + \sqrt{\dfrac{A^{2} \beta^{2}}{\kappa^{2}} \left(1 + \dfrac{\tan^{2} \Lambda}{\beta^{2}}\right) + 4}} = 2.278 \ \text{per radian} \tag{20}\]

Equation 21, Canard Contribution to the Lift-Curve Slope. A forward surface adds to the whole-aircraft slope in proportion to its area ratio and its own slope, scaled by an efficiency that accounts for upwash.

\[\Delta C_{L\alpha} = \eta \, \frac{S_c}{S} \, C_{L\alpha,c} \tag{21}\]

Equation 22, Yawing Moment From Thrust Vectoring. The yawing moment available from vectoring is the side component of thrust acting on the moment arm of the vanes.

\[N_{\text{tv}} = T \sin \delta_j \, \ell_v \tag{22}\]

Equation 23, Vectored Yawing Moment Coefficient. Dividing the vectored moment by dynamic pressure, wing area and span gives a coefficient that falls inversely with dynamic pressure.

\[C_{n,\text{tv}} = \frac{T \sin \delta_j \, \ell_v}{q S b} \tag{23}\]

Equation 24, Bespoke Upper Bound on the Vectoring Moment Arm. The article reads a departure as an asymmetry that exceeded the available authority, which turns the vectoring relation into an upper bound on the arm. asymmetry report

\[\ell_v < \frac{C_{n0} \, q S b}{T \sin \delta_j} \tag{24}\]

Equation 25, Dynamic Pressure at Mach 0.4 and 35,000 Feet. The dynamic pressure follows from the standard atmosphere pressure ratio and the quoted Mach number of the departure.

\[q = \tfrac{\gamma}{2} \, p_0 \, \delta \, M^{2} = 0.7 \times 2{,}116.22 \times 0.2353 \times 0.4^{2} = 55.77 \ \text{psf} \tag{25}\]

Equation 26, Bespoke Arm Bound From the Departure. The bound of 36.2 feet uses the departure asymmetry of 0.125, a thrust of 16,000 pounds lapsed with the pressure ratio to the first power and a jet deflection of sixteen degrees, so the lapse exponent the article assumes governs it.

\[\ell_v < \frac{0.125 \times 55.77 \times 226.3 \times 23.83}{3{,}765 \times \sin 16^{\circ}} = \frac{37{,}594}{1{,}037.8} = 36.2 \ \text{feet} \tag{26}\]

Equation 27, Standard Troposphere Ratios. The 1976 standard troposphere gives the temperature ratio as linear in altitude, the pressure ratio as its 5.2559 power and the density ratio as their quotient. civil aviation atmosphere

\[\theta = \frac{T}{T_0} = 1 - 6.87535 \times 10^{-6} \, h \qquad \delta = \frac{p}{p_0} = \theta^{5.2559} \qquad \sigma = \frac{\rho}{\rho_0} = \frac{\delta}{\theta} \tag{27}\]

Equation 28, Speed of Sound From the Temperature Ratio. The speed of sound follows from the temperature alone and so from the sea-level value and the temperature ratio.

\[a = \sqrt{\gamma R T} = \sqrt{\gamma R T_0 \theta} \tag{28}\]

Equation 29, Bespoke Thrust Lapse With Pressure Ratio. The article models thrust at fixed Mach number as the sea-level thrust times a power of the pressure ratio, taking an exponent near one and carrying it explicitly for sensitivity. Bronz et al. 2017 identified engine performance models

\[T(h) = T_{\text{SL}} \, \delta(h)^{n} \tag{29}\]

Equation 30, Moment Arm Needed to Hold an Asymmetry. Solving the vectoring relation at equality gives the moment arm needed to balance a given asymmetric yawing moment coefficient.

\[\ell_{\text{req}} = \frac{C_{n0} \, q S b}{T \sin \delta_j} \tag{30}\]

Equation 31, Bespoke Needed Arms at Two Flight Conditions. Two table entries are worked with the steady asymmetry bound of 0.080 and thrusts lapsed under the assumed pressure-ratio model.

\[\ell_{\text{req}}^{20{,}000,\,150} = \frac{0.080 \times 76.2 \times 226.3 \times 23.83}{7{,}353 \times \sin 16^{\circ}} = \frac{32{,}874}{2{,}026.8} = 16.2 \ \text{ft} \qquad \ell_{\text{req}}^{30{,}000,\,250} = \frac{0.080 \times 211.6 \times 226.3 \times 23.83}{4{,}751 \times \sin 16^{\circ}} = \frac{91{,}288}{1{,}309.6} = 69.7 \ \text{ft} \tag{31}\]

Equation 32, Bespoke Dynamic Pressure Above Which No Arm Suffices. Setting the needed arm equal to the fuselage length, a geometric ceiling the article imposes, gives the dynamic pressure and calibrated airspeed above which vectoring cannot hold the asymmetry.

\[q_{L} = \frac{L \, T \sin \delta_j}{C_{n0} \, S b} \qquad V_{c,L} = \sqrt{\frac{2 q_{L}}{\rho_0}} \tag{32}\]

Equation 33, Bespoke Ceiling Speed at 20,000 Feet Against the Departure Asymmetry. At twenty thousand feet with the lapsed thrust and the departure asymmetry of 0.125, the ceiling falls at 190 knots.

\[q_{L} = \frac{40.67 \times 7{,}353 \times \sin 16^{\circ}}{0.125 \times 226.3 \times 23.83} = \frac{82{,}428}{674.09} = 122.3 \ \text{psf} \qquad V_{c,L} = 320.8 \ \text{ft/s} = 190.0 \ \text{knots} \tag{33}\]

Equation 34, Equivalent Airspeed of the Departure. The dynamic pressure of the departure condition corresponds at sea-level density to an equivalent airspeed of 128.3 knots.

\[V_e = \sqrt{\frac{2 q}{\rho_0}} = \sqrt{\frac{2 \times 55.77}{0.0023769}} = 216.6 \ \text{ft/s} = 128.3 \ \text{knots} \tag{34}\]

Equation 35, Measured Swing in Asymmetric Yawing Moment. The asymmetry report records a swing from 0.077 in one direction to 0.088 in the other, a change of 0.165 within three degrees of angle of attack. asymmetry report

\[\Delta C_n = 0.165 \ \text{across three degrees of angle of attack} \tag{35}\]

Equation 36, Asymmetric Yawing Moment From Its Coefficient. The dimensional yawing moment is the coefficient times dynamic pressure, wing area and span.

\[N_{0} = C_{n0} \, q S b \tag{36}\]

Equation 37, Bespoke Altitude Ratio of Vectored Authority. At constant calibrated airspeed the unknown arm cancels and the vectored authority scales with thrust, which the article approximates by the ratio of pressure ratios under its lapse model.

\[\frac{C_{n,\text{tv}}(h_2)}{C_{n,\text{tv}}(h_1)} = \frac{T(h_2)}{T(h_1)} \approx \frac{\delta(h_2)}{\delta(h_1)} \tag{37}\]

Equation 38, Radius of a Level Turn. The radius of a level turn is the speed squared divided by gravity times the square root of load factor squared less one.

\[r = \frac{V^{2}}{g \sqrt{n^{2} - 1}} \tag{38}\]

Equation 39, Available Load Factor. The load factor is the lift the wing can produce divided by the weight.

\[n = \frac{q S C_L}{W} \tag{39}\]

Equation 40, Slowest Level-Flight Speed at a Given Lift Coefficient. Setting the load factor to one gives the slowest equivalent airspeed at which the aircraft can hold a given lift coefficient in level flight.

\[V_{\text{level}} = \sqrt{\frac{2 W}{\rho_0 S C_L}} \tag{40}\]

Equation 41, Bespoke Level-Flight Speed at Seventy Degrees. The level-flight speed of 138 knots rests on a lift coefficient of 1.00 at seventy degrees of angle of attack, an estimate the article makes rather than a measurement.

\[V_{\text{level}} = \sqrt{\frac{2 \times 14{,}600}{0.0023769 \times 226.3 \times 1.00}} = 233.0 \ \text{ft/s} = 138.0 \ \text{knots} \tag{41}\]

Equation 42, Bespoke Aim Angle Bought by Post-Stall Flight. The article measures the capability as the difference between the seventy-degree post-stall limit and a conventional limit it takes as thirty degrees.

\[\Delta \psi_{\text{aim}} = \alpha_{\max} - \alpha_{\text{conv}} = 70 - 30 = 40 \ \text{degrees} \tag{42}\]

Equation 43, Time to Turn Through an Angle. The time to turn the velocity vector through an angle is that angle divided by the level-turn rate, which follows from speed and load factor.

\[t = \frac{\Delta \psi}{\omega} \qquad \text{with} \qquad \omega = \frac{g \sqrt{n^{2} - 1}}{V} \tag{43}\]

Equation 44, Corner Speed. The corner speed is the speed at which the lift limit meets the structural load factor limit. corner speed Anderson on aircraft performance and design Raymer on conceptual design

\[V^{*} = \sqrt{\frac{2 n_{\max} W}{\rho_0 S C_{L\max}}} \tag{44}\]

Equation 45, Specific Energy. Specific energy, or energy height, is altitude plus the kinetic energy per unit weight.

\[E_s = h + \frac{V^{2}}{2 g} \tag{45}\]

Equation 46, Bespoke True Airspeeds at Corner Speed and Post-Stall Exit. The true airspeeds at twenty thousand feet are found from equivalent airspeeds whose corner value rests on the lift coefficient of 1.4498 taken from the inferred lift curve.

\[V = \frac{V_e}{\sqrt{\sigma}} \qquad V^{*} = \frac{580.5}{\sqrt{0.5328}} = 795.3 \ \text{ft/s} = 471.2 \ \text{knots} \qquad V_1 = \frac{202.5}{\sqrt{0.5328}} = 277.5 \ \text{ft/s} = 164.4 \ \text{knots} \tag{46}\]

Equation 47, Bespoke Energy Lost Falling From Corner Speed. The specific energy given up between the inferred corner speed and an exit at 120 knots is about 8,630 feet.

\[\Delta E_s = \frac{V^{*2} - V_1^{2}}{2 g} = \frac{795.3^{2} - 277.5^{2}}{2 \times 32.174} = \frac{555{,}496}{64.348} = 8{,}630 \ \text{feet} \tag{47}\]

Equation 48, Specific Excess Power With a Parabolic Polar. Specific excess power is speed times the excess of thrust over drag divided by weight, with drag from a parabolic polar. energy-manoeuvrability comparison

\[P_s = \frac{V (T - D)}{W} \qquad \text{with} \qquad D = q S \left( C_{D0} + \frac{C_L^{2}}{\pi A e} \right) \tag{48}\]

Equation 49, Bespoke Specific Excess Power at the Slow End. The slow-end figure of 68.6 feet per second uses a zero-lift drag coefficient of 0.022 and an efficiency factor of 0.70, both values the article assumes, with lapsed thrust.

\[q = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho_0 \sigma V_1^{2} = 48.75 \ \text{psf} \qquad C_L = \frac{14{,}600}{48.75 \times 226.3} = 1.323 \qquad P_s = \frac{277.5 \, (7{,}353 - 3{,}743)}{14{,}600} = 68.6 \ \text{ft/s} \tag{49}\]

Equation 50, Bespoke Specific Excess Power at the Fast End. The fast-end figure of 268.7 feet per second uses the same assumed drag polar and lapsed thrust.

\[q = 400.5 \ \text{psf} \qquad C_L = \frac{14{,}600}{400.5 \times 226.3} = 0.161 \qquad P_s = \frac{795.3 \, (7{,}353 - 2{,}420)}{14{,}600} = 268.7 \ \text{ft/s} \tag{50}\]

Equation 51, Bespoke Integrated Energy Recovery Time. Integrating the reciprocal of specific excess power over speed on the assumed polar gives 46.0 seconds, against 125.8 seconds from a single-point estimate at the slow end.

\[t = \int_{V_1}^{V^{*}} \frac{V \, dV}{g \, P_s(V)} = 46.0 \ \text{s} \qquad \text{against} \qquad \frac{\Delta E_s}{P_s(V_1)} = \frac{8{,}632.7}{68.60} = 125.8 \ \text{s} \tag{51}\]

Equation 52, Roll Rate About the Velocity Vector. A roll about the velocity vector combines body-axis roll and yaw rates weighted by the cosine and sine of the angle of attack. review of high angle of attack control system performance

\[p_w = p \cos \alpha + r \sin \alpha \tag{52}\]

Equation 53, Roll and Yaw Weights at Seventy Degrees. At seventy degrees the cosine and sine weights are 0.3420 and 0.9397, so a velocity-vector roll is mostly yaw rate.

\[\cos 70^{\circ} = 0.3420 \qquad \sin 70^{\circ} = 0.9397 \tag{53}\]

Equation 54, Amplitude at Which an Actuator Rate Limit Binds. A sinusoidal command of amplitude $A$ at frequency $\omega$ demands a peak rate of $A\omega$, so the rate limit binds above the amplitude equal to the maximum rate over the frequency.

\[A_{\text{bind}} = \frac{\dot{\delta}_{\max}}{\omega} \tag{54}\]

Equation 55, Eigenvalue From a Time to Double. A divergent mode growing as $e^{\lambda t}$ has an eigenvalue equal to the natural logarithm of two over the time to double, here 2.39 per second from the published 290 milliseconds. statically unstable configurations under displacement and rate saturation

\[\lambda = \frac{\ln 2}{t_2} = \frac{0.6931}{0.290} = 2.3902 \ \text{per second} \tag{55}\]

Equation 56, Yaw Divergence Eigenvalue and Directional Stiffness. For a yaw-only divergence the square of the eigenvalue is minus the directional stiffness moment divided by the yaw inertia. flight measurement of lateral and directional stability

\[\lambda^{2} = -\frac{q S b \, C_{n\beta}}{I_z} \tag{56}\]

Equation 57, True Airspeed, Equivalent Airspeed and Dynamic Pressure. True airspeed is Mach number times the speed of sound, equivalent airspeed scales it by the square root of the density ratio, and both routes give the same dynamic pressure. Altman 1952

\[V_{\text{true}} = M a \qquad V_{\text{eq}} = V_{\text{true}} \sqrt{\sigma} \qquad q = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho_0 \sigma V_{\text{true}}^{2} = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho_0 V_{\text{eq}}^{2} \tag{57}\]

Equation 58, Directional Stiffness per Unit Yaw Inertia. The published doubling time fixes the ratio of directional stiffness to yaw inertia, here evaluated at thirty thousand feet, without fixing either factor.

\[-\frac{C_{n\beta}}{I_z} = 1.6724 \times 10^{-6} \ \text{per slug foot squared per radian} \tag{58}\]

Equation 59, Delay Bound for a First-Order Unstable Plant. A first-order unstable plant with a pure delay cannot be stabilised by proportional feedback once the delay approaches the reciprocal of the unstable pole.

\[\tau_{\max} \approx \frac{1}{\lambda} \tag{59}\]

Equation 60, Impact Pressure of a Pitot-Static Probe. The impact pressure is total minus static pressure, which for subsonic flow follows from the isentropic relation in Mach number.

\[q_c = p_t - p_s = p_0 \left[ \left( 1 + \tfrac{\gamma - 1}{2} M^{2} \right)^{\frac{\gamma}{\gamma - 1}} - 1 \right] \tag{60}\]

Equation 61, Bespoke Loop Gain Error From an Airspeed Error. The article models the gain schedule as reducing gain with indicated dynamic pressure while surface effectiveness follows true dynamic pressure, so the loop gain is multiplied by the square of the airspeed ratio. available in full

\[\frac{K_{\text{actual}}}{K_{\text{design}}} = \frac{q_{\text{true}}}{q_{\text{indicated}}} = \left( \frac{V_{\text{true}}}{V_{\text{indicated}}} \right)^{2} \tag{61}\]

Equation 62, Gain Ratio in Decibels. A gain ratio is expressed in decibels as twenty times its common logarithm.

\[\text{dB} = 20 \log_{10} \left( \frac{K_{\text{actual}}}{K_{\text{design}}} \right) \tag{62}\]

Equation 63, Bespoke Angle of Attack Implied by Airspeed in Level Flight. The angle of attack implied by an indicated airspeed at one g uses the lift-curve slope inferred from the pilot’s trim point with a lift line through the origin.

\[\alpha = \frac{W}{q S C_{L\alpha}} \tag{63}\]

Equation 64, Bespoke Disagreement Between Vane and Airspeed. The disagreements of 11.2 and 6.9 degrees compare the twenty degrees read on the vane with the angles implied at 207 and 170 knots by the inferred lift curve. available in full

\[\Delta \alpha_{207} = 20.00 - 8.82 = 11.2 \ \text{degrees} \qquad \Delta \alpha_{170} = 20.00 - 13.08 = 6.9 \ \text{degrees} \tag{64}\]

Equation 65, Bespoke Display Error Against a Six-Decibel Margin. The display error is measured against 137.5 knots, the midpoint of the pilot’s stated range of 135 to 140 knots, and compared in dynamic pressure with a conventional six-decibel margin.

\[\frac{207}{137.5} = 1.505 \qquad \left( \frac{207}{137.5} \right)^{2} = 2.266 \qquad 10^{6/20} = 1.995 \tag{65}\]

Equation 66, Flight Rate and Flights per Flying Day. The flight rate is the number of flights over the elapsed time, and flights per flying day divides the same count by the number of distinct flying days.

\[\dot{N} = \frac{N}{\Delta t} \qquad \text{and} \qquad \frac{N}{D} = \text{flights per flying day} \tag{66}\]

Equation 67, Scored Fractions of Sorties and Engagements. The published counts give 92.0 percent of tactical sorties scored and 79.9 percent of engagements scored. available in full

\[\frac{80}{87} = 92.0 \ \text{percent of sorties scored} \qquad \frac{325}{407} = 79.9 \ \text{percent of engagements scored} \tag{67}\]

Equation 68, Engagements per Scored Sortie. The published counts give about five engagements and four scored engagements per scored sortie. available in full

\[\frac{407}{80} = 5.09 \ \text{engagements per scored sortie} \qquad \frac{325}{80} = 4.06 \ \text{scored engagements per scored sortie} \tag{68}\]

Equation 69, Bespoke Campaign Repeatability Ratio. The article measures the repeatability of the two simulation campaigns by the ratio of their exchange ratios condition by condition.

\[\rho_i = \frac{E_i^{\text{I}}}{E_i^{\text{II}}} \tag{69}\]

Equation 70, Bespoke Repeatability Ratios and Ratio of Campaign Means. Evaluating the repeatability ratios and the ratio of the unweighted campaign means shows closer agreement in aggregate than in any single condition.

\[1 - \frac{22}{23} = 0.043 \qquad \frac{20}{6.67} = 2.999 \qquad \frac{2.8}{1.5} = 1.867 \qquad \frac{\bar{E}^{\text{I}}}{\bar{E}^{\text{II}}} = \frac{(1.2 + 22 + 20 + 1.5)/4}{(0.47 + 23 + 6.67 + 2.8)/4} = \frac{11.175}{8.235} = 1.357 \tag{70}\]

Equation 71, Bespoke Condition for Pooling to Reverse a Conclusion. The article states the reversal condition as an unweighted mean of condition ratios above parity together with a loss-weighted pooled ratio below it.

\[\frac{1}{N} \sum_i E_i > 1 \qquad \text{and} \qquad \sum_i w_i E_i < 1 \tag{71}\]

Notation

  • $E$, the exchange ratio, with $E_i$ the ratio in condition $i$ and $E_{\text{pool}}$ the pooled ratio
  • $w_i$, the share of the test aircraft’s losses in condition $i$
  • $k$, the number of adversary losses in $n$ scored outcomes
  • $A$, the wing aspect ratio, except in the actuator relation, where it is a command amplitude
  • $S$, the wing reference area, with $S_c$ the canard area
  • $b$, the wing span, except in the reconstructed split, where it is the number of test aircraft losses
  • $W$, the weight
  • $C_L$, the lift coefficient
  • $C_{L\alpha}$, the lift-curve slope
  • $q$, the dynamic pressure
  • $\rho_0$, the sea-level air density
  • $\delta_j$, the jet deflection angle
  • $\ell_v$, the moment arm of the thrust-vectoring vanes
  • $C_{n0}$, the asymmetric yawing moment coefficient
  • $\theta$, the temperature ratio of the standard atmosphere
  • $\delta$, the pressure ratio of the standard atmosphere
  • $\sigma$, the density ratio of the standard atmosphere
  • $V^{*}$, the corner speed
  • $E_s$, the specific energy
  • $P_s$, the specific excess power
  • $C_{D0}$, the zero-lift drag coefficient
  • $\lambda$, the eigenvalue of a divergent mode
  • $C_{n\beta}$, the directional stability derivative
  • $I_z$, the moment of inertia in yaw
  • $q_c$, the impact pressure
  • $K_{\text{actual}}$, the loop gain in flight, with $K_{\text{design}}$ the gain the schedule intends

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