X-Planes: Boeing X-46

On 29 April 2003 Boeing announced the aeroplane that replaced the X-46, and the announcement does not contain the word X-46 [Boeing to develop new X-45C UCAV for Air Force and Navy demonstrations]. It names the X-45B as the design being set aside and describes the new aircraft as meeting Air Force and Navy requirements together. The naval programme is not cancelled in that document, it is absorbed, and the designation stops being used. This is the forty-seventh article in the X-Planes series, following the X-1, the X-2, the X-3, the X-4, the X-5, the X-6, the X-7, the X-8, the X-9, the X-10, the X-11, the X-12, the X-13, the X-14, the X-15, the X-16, the X-17, the X-18, the X-19, the X-20, the X-21, the X-22, the X-23, the X-24, the X-25, the X-26, the X-27, the X-28, the X-29, the X-30, the X-31, the X-32, the X-33, the X-34, the X-35, the X-36, the X-37, the X-38, the X-39, the X-40, the X-41, the X-42, the X-43, the X-44, and the X-45.

The X-46 designation was assigned normally to a real programme with a contractor, a contract and a documented requirement [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles] [Chronicle of the Salty Dogs, Center for the Study of the Drone], so although no X-46A was built there is a keystone to identify and there are systems to dimension, and the sections below dimension them.

The record is thin for a reason that can be named. The specialist designation directory prints a specification table for the X-45A and the X-45C and prints none for the X-46A, stating instead that Boeing disclosed minimal information about it [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles]. No airframe was ever built. There is no first flight, no envelope, no measured drag polar and no photograph of the vehicle.

What was published instead is the requirement. The Navy and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency specified what a carrier-based unmanned combat aircraft had to do before either contractor drew one, and those numbers survive in the open record [Chronicle of the Salty Dogs, Center for the Study of the Drone]. The record therefore holds a question in place of a vehicle, and the sections below take that question and ask what vehicle it demanded.

The Research Question

The binding unknown was whether removing the crew saves enough airframe weight to pay for twelve hours on station off a carrier deck.

That needs stating carefully. A carrier aeroplane is heavy for reasons that have nothing to do with its mission. It carries a tailhook, a strengthened keel, landing gear sized for an arrested descent rather than a runway one, catapult fittings that put the airframe in tension, and corrosion protection for a service life spent in salt air. Those masses are charged against the same gross weight that has to hold the fuel.

An unmanned aeroplane gives some of that back. It has no cockpit, no canopy, no ejection seat, no life support, no crew station displays and no windscreen structure. The question is whether the credit exceeds the debit, and the requirement for a naval unmanned combat air vehicle, designated UCAV-N, sets how large the credit had to be.

Written as a relation, the argument of the article reduces to one inequality. Let $\zeta_{\text{empty}}$ be the empty weight as a fraction of gross, let $\Delta_{\text{deck}}$ be what carrier suitability adds and $\Delta_{\text{crew}}$ what removing the crew saves, both as fractions of the same gross weight. Then

\[\zeta_{\text{empty}} = \zeta_{\text{ref}} + \Delta_{\text{deck}} - \Delta_{\text{crew}} \tag{1}\]

and the requirement is satisfiable only if

\[\Delta_{\text{crew}} - \Delta_{\text{deck}} \ \ge \ \zeta_{\text{ref}} - \zeta_{\text{req}} \tag{2}\]

The sections below attempt to put a number on the right-hand side, since $\zeta_{\text{ref}}$ is what manned carrier aircraft achieve and $\zeta_{\text{req}}$ the requirement’s target. Neither delta is published for any aircraft. Their difference is bounded below, and neither is estimated on its own.

The requirement, as the open record gives it, is a payload of four thousand pounds, an operational radius of six hundred and fifty nautical miles, an ability to loiter for up to twelve hours, and carrier takeoff and recovery [Chronicle of the Salty Dogs, Center for the Study of the Drone]. Three numbers and a constraint, and the analysis that follows derives what they imply.

The requirement as recorded does not say whether the three numbers hold simultaneously, and the difference is enormous. One secondary compilation, which attributes its figures to a single unnamed report, presents the radius as a strike mission and the twelve hours as a separate surveillance mission [X-46, GlobalSecurity], but no programme document settles the point. An aircraft that flies six hundred and fifty nautical miles, loiters twelve hours and returns is a very different aeroplane from one that does either separately. Both readings are computed below and the article does not pretend to know which was meant.

Programme Origin

The naval effort began as a study rather than as a construction contract. In June 2000 the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency awarded the first study contracts for a carrier-based unmanned combat aircraft, designated UCAV-N, to Northrop Grumman and to Boeing [Northrop Grumman X-47A Pegasus] [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles], each receiving two million dollars for an initial fifteen-month phase of trade studies, analyses and preliminary design [Naval Unmanned Combat Air Vehicle, GlobalSecurity]. Boeing’s answer received the designation X-46A and Northrop Grumman’s the X-47A.

The two answers were not equally conservative. Boeing proposed a vehicle derived from work it was already doing for the Air Force, described in the contemporary account as somewhat conservative and based on the existing X-45 [Chronicle of the Salty Dogs, Center for the Study of the Drone]. Northrop Grumman had no such inheritance and had instead built, at its own expense, a proof-of-concept airframe it called Pegasus, completed in July 2001 [Northrop Grumman X-47A Pegasus].

The competitor flew and this aircraft did not. The X-47A made its first flight on 23 February 2003, a milestone Northrop Grumman announced in terms of autonomous control rather than of speed or altitude [Northrop Grumman’s X-47A Pegasus first flight achieves milestone in autonomous control], and it was the only flight that airframe ever made [Chronicle of the Salty Dogs, Center for the Study of the Drone].

The end came in two steps and the dates are frequently conflated. In December 2002 the Department of Defense decided to merge the Air Force and Navy unmanned combat aircraft programmes into a Joint Unmanned Combat Air System [Unmanned vehicles for U.S. naval forces, Congressional Research Service RS21294]. The formal combination followed in April 2003, and the X-46 programme is described as terminated as redundant at that point [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles] [Boeing X-46]. A decision in one year and a termination in the next are not the same event, and an article that gives only one date makes the programme look shorter or longer than it was.

The X-45B and the X-46A were terminated together and neither had an airframe [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles]. Boeing was left building the X-45C, which the April 2003 announcement describes as a single design serving both services, with the naval version adding structural changes, landing gear, a tailhook and avionics for precision approach and landing [Boeing to develop new X-45C UCAV for Air Force and Navy demonstrations].

The requirement outlived the designation. A Navy-only demonstrator programme restarted in the summer of 2006, Boeing proposed the X-45N using material developed for the X-45 and the X-46 [Boeing X-46], and in August 2007 the Navy selected the X-47B [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles] [Northrop Grumman X-47B]. The carrier-based unmanned strike aircraft was eventually demonstrated, by the other contractor, in the decade after the study contracts. The vehicle class has a longer history than either programme [Unmanned combat aerial vehicle].

What the Record Does Not Contain

This section exists because its absence would be the article’s largest unstated assumption.

No programme source publishes a specification for the X-46A. The designation directory, which prints span, length, mass, thrust, speed, ceiling, radius and payload for both X-45 variants, prints none of those for the X-46A and says that Boeing disclosed minimal information [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles]. The encyclopaedia entry carries no specification table at all and cites three trade-press articles for a programme summary of five sentences [Boeing X-46]. One secondary compilation does print dimensions, a length of about thirty-four feet, a span of forty-four feet and a height of seven feet, which it attributes to a single unnamed report [X-46, GlobalSecurity].

One statement about the shape does survive, and it matters. The directory describes the X-46A as generally similar to the X-45B except for a new wing planform [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles]. That single clause is the only physical description of this aeroplane from a source that does not depend on an unnamed report. By that clause, the naval variant differed from its Air Force sibling in the wing alone.

Figures nonetheless circulate, and their provenance is the interesting part. A secondary compilation gives the X-46 a four thousand pound payload and a six hundred and fifty nautical mile radius [X-46, GlobalSecurity]. Those are the UCAV-N requirement numbers exactly [Chronicle of the Salty Dogs, Center for the Study of the Drone]. They are what the aircraft was asked to do, not what any aircraft was measured doing, and an article that repeated them as a specification would be presenting a requirement as a result.

The hazard is general. For a vehicle that was never built, the requirement is the only quantitative material available, so it migrates into the specification field of every compilation that has a specification field to fill. The distinction between what was demanded and what was achieved collapses whenever nothing was achieved, and it collapses silently, because the number does not change when its meaning does.

So this article uses those numbers deliberately and in the other direction. They are treated as the requirement they are, and the analysis asks what airframe would satisfy them.

Sizing From First Principles

The vehicle is unknown and the requirement is documented, so the requirement is the datum.

The Payload Fraction This Aeroplane Can Inherit

The previous article measured a design constant of this manufacturer’s unmanned line. The X-45A carries 680 kilograms of a gross 5,530 and the X-45C carries 2,040 of 16,600, and the two payload fractions agree to four significant figures across a tripling of payload [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles] [previous article],

\[\frac{m_{\text{payload}}}{m_{\text{gross}}} = \frac{680}{5{,}530} = 0.12297 \qquad \frac{2{,}040}{16{,}600} = 0.12289 \tag{3}\]

Two aircraft agreeing to four figures is too close to be an accident and indicates a design practice. A vehicle Boeing never built may reasonably be assumed to share that practice, and no other property, with the two it did. Taking the mean,

\[\overline{PF} = 0.12293 \tag{4}\]

The requirement then fixes the size before any aerodynamics are considered. A payload of four thousand pounds at that fraction gives

\[m_{\text{gross}} = \frac{4{,}000}{0.12293} = 32{,}539 \ \text{lb} \tag{5}\]

or 14,760 kilograms. Against the two aircraft that were built,

\[\frac{32{,}539}{36{,}597} = 0.889 \qquad \frac{32{,}539}{12{,}192} = 2.67 \tag{6}\]

That is 11.1 percent lighter than the X-45C and 2.67 times the X-45A, and it places the X-46A firmly in the larger class and out of the demonstrator class.

What the Mission Costs in Fuel

The mission is three segments and each has a closed-form weight ratio. For a cruise leg the Breguet range relation gives the ratio of weights across the leg,

\[R = \frac{V}{c} \left( \frac{L}{D} \right) \ln \frac{W_{0}}{W_{1}} \qquad \Longrightarrow \qquad \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} = \exp \left( - \frac{R c}{V (L/D)} \right) \tag{7}\]

and for a loiter leg, where the aircraft is buying time rather than distance, the endurance form applies,

\[E = \frac{1}{c} \left( \frac{L}{D} \right) \ln \frac{W_{0}}{W_{1}} \qquad \Longrightarrow \qquad \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} = \exp \left( - \frac{E c}{(L/D)} \right) \tag{8}\]

Both are standard and both are stated here because the remainder of the section is arithmetic on them [Raymer, Aircraft design, a conceptual approach] [Torenbeek, Synthesis of subsonic airplane design] [Anderson, Aircraft performance and design] [Nicolai and Carichner, Fundamentals of aircraft and airship design].

The assumptions are as follows and each is varied afterwards. Cruise is taken at 40,000 feet and Mach 0.75. Forty thousand feet is above the tropopause, so the standard atmosphere holds the temperature constant at its 11 kilometre value and the speed of sound with it [U.S. Standard Atmosphere 1976 1976] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1962],

\[T = 288.15 - 0.0065 \times 11{,}000 = 216.65 \ \text{K} \qquad a = \sqrt{\gamma R T} = 295.07 \ \text{m/s} \tag{9}\] \[V = M a = 0.75 \times 295.07 = 221.30 \ \text{m/s} = 430.2 \ \text{kn} \tag{10}\]

The cruise lift to drag ratio is taken as 16, just below the lower bound of 16.3 that the previous article pinned for the X-45C from that aircraft’s stated ceiling and thrust [previous article]. The loiter value is taken as 18, since loiter is flown nearer the best lift to drag ratio than cruise is. Specific fuel consumption is taken as 0.80 per hour in cruise and 0.75 in loiter, values typical of a non-augmented turbofan.

The three segment ratios are then

\[\frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \bigg|_{\text{out}} = 0.9272 \qquad \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \bigg|_{\text{loiter}} = 0.6065 \qquad \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \bigg|_{\text{back}} = 0.9272 \tag{11}\]

Segment ratios multiply, and that alone makes a mission of several legs tractable. With a five percent reserve,

\[\zeta_{\text{fuel}} = 1 - \prod_{i} \frac{W_{i+1}}{W_{i}} + 0.05 = 1 - 0.9272 \times 0.6065 \times 0.9272 + 0.05 = 0.5285 \tag{12}\]

More than half the aeroplane is fuel, and the loiter leg accounts for most of it. Splitting the product shows where it goes,

\[\zeta_{\text{cruise}} = 1 - \left( \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \right)_{\text{out}} \left( \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \right)_{\text{back}} = 0.1402 \tag{13}\] \[\zeta_{\text{loiter}} = \left( \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \right)_{\text{out}} \left( \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \right)_{\text{back}} \left[ 1 - \left( \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \right)_{\text{loiter}} \right] = 0.3383 \tag{14}\]

The two cruise legs together cost 14.0 percent of the takeoff weight and the twelve hours on station cost 33.8, and those two with the five percent reserve are the 0.5285 above. The loiter is charged after the outbound leg has already burned fuel, so it costs 33.8. Applied to the takeoff weight, its ratio would suggest 39.3.

The Empty-Weight Fraction the Requirement Demands

The weight fractions must sum to one, and that closes the problem.

\[\zeta_{\text{empty}} + \zeta_{\text{payload}} + \zeta_{\text{fuel}} = 1 \tag{15}\]

Every term on the left except the first is now known, so the requirement fixes the empty-weight fraction,

\[\zeta_{\text{empty}} = 1 - 0.12293 - 0.5285 = 0.3485 \tag{16}\]

This fraction is the central result of the article. The UCAV-N requirement, taken at face value and with the manufacturer’s payload fraction, demands an airframe whose empty weight is under thirty-five percent of its gross weight, and it demands it of an aeroplane that must also survive being stopped by a wire.

What Carrier Aircraft Weigh

The comparison is the point, and it does not flatter the requirement.

aircraft	empty lb	maximum lb	fraction
Grumman A-6E Intruder, land	26,660	60,400	0.441
Boeing F/A-18E Super Hornet	32,081	66,000	0.486
Lockheed S-3A Viking	26,581	52,539	0.506

Each row is the same fraction the requirement was solved for, and the smallest exceeds it by

\[\zeta_{\text{empty}} = \frac{W_{\text{empty}}}{W_{\max}} \qquad 0.441 - 0.3485 = 0.0925 \tag{17}\]

No carrier aeroplane in that table comes within nine points of the demanded fraction [Grumman A-6 Intruder] [Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet] [Lockheed S-3 Viking]. The S-3A is the closest analogue by mission, being a carrier-based twin-turbofan aeroplane built for long endurance rather than for speed, yet it has the highest fraction of the three.

All three are manned aircraft, and the argument turns on that. The difference between 0.35 and 0.44 is the crew and everything the crew requires, and the requirement is a bet that the difference is worth about nine points of gross weight. Twenty years later, the open literature has not answered that question for a carrier-suitable airframe.

The Same Requirement Read as Separate Missions

If the three numbers are alternative mission points rather than one profile, the problem changes completely.

Every row below assumes an empty-weight fraction of 0.42, the light end of what a carrier airframe plausibly achieves, and the payload fraction is what remains after the fuel,

\[\zeta_{\text{payload}} = 1 - 0.42 - \zeta_{\text{fuel}} \qquad m_{\text{gross}} = \frac{4{,}000}{\zeta_{\text{payload}}} \tag{18}\]

Each reading is a different product of the same segment ratios, and that product is all that distinguishes them,

\[\zeta_{\text{fuel}}^{\text{strike}} = 1 - (0.9272)^{2} + 0.05 = 0.190 \tag{19}\] \[\zeta_{\text{fuel}}^{\text{station}} = 1 - 0.6065 + 0.05 = 0.443 \tag{20}\] \[\zeta_{\text{fuel}}^{\text{both}} = 1 - (0.9272)^{2} (0.6065) + 0.05 = 0.529 \tag{21}\]

reading	fuel fraction	payload fraction available	gross mass for 4,000 lb
650 nm out and back, no loiter	0.190	0.390	10,263 lb
12 h loiter, no transit	0.443	0.137	29,297 lb
650 nm out, 12 h loiter, 650 nm back	0.529	0.051	77,713 lb

The third row cannot be right. An aeroplane of seventy-eight thousand pounds is larger than an F/A-18E at maximum takeoff weight [Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet] and is not what anybody was proposing to put on a deck as a demonstrator. The first row is equally implausible in the other direction. A payload fraction of 0.390 against the family constant is

\[\frac{0.390}{0.12293} = 3.17 \tag{22}\]

more than three times what this manufacturer’s aircraft achieve, so an aeroplane meeting the strike reading at that weight would not be one Boeing was building.

The more plausible reading is that the numbers are separate capability points, and that the twelve-hour figure and the six-hundred-and-fifty-mile figure describe different sorties. No programme document says so, although one secondary compilation describes the radius and the twelve hours as separate strike and surveillance missions [X-46, GlobalSecurity]. The arithmetic establishes that they cannot all three hold at once in an aircraft of the size Boeing was building.

Loiter Time at the Inherited Fraction

Turning the calculation around is more informative than the closure test. Fixing the payload fraction at the family value and assuming an empty-weight fraction, the loiter time follows,

\[\zeta_{\text{end}} = \zeta_{\text{empty}} + \zeta_{\text{payload}} = 1 - \zeta_{\text{fuel}} \qquad \left( \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \right)_{\text{loiter}} = \frac{\zeta_{\text{end}}}{(W_{1}/W_{0})_{\text{out}} (W_{1}/W_{0})_{\text{back}}} \tag{23}\] \[E = \frac{L/D}{c} \, \ln \frac{(W_{1}/W_{0})_{\text{out}} (W_{1}/W_{0})_{\text{back}}}{\zeta_{\text{end}}} \tag{24}\]

empty fraction	fuel fraction	loiter at 650 nm radius, hours
0.35	0.527	14.35
0.38	0.497	12.87
0.40	0.477	11.93
0.42	0.457	11.03
0.45	0.427	9.74
0.48	0.397	8.52

The requirement is demanding but not absurd. At an empty-weight fraction of 0.42, light for a carrier aeroplane and plausible for an unmanned one, the aircraft holds 11.03 hours on station at the full radius against a requirement of twelve.

The table is close to linear and its slope is the useful number. Differentiating the loiter relation with respect to the empty-weight fraction, at fixed payload fraction and reserve,

\[\frac{\partial E}{\partial \zeta_{\text{empty}}} = - \frac{L/D}{c} \, \frac{1}{\zeta_{\text{end}}} = -44.2 \ \text{hours per unit} \tag{25}\]

which is 0.442 hours per point of empty-weight fraction. Closing the remaining 0.97 hours therefore costs about two points, and solving the relation exactly gives

\[\zeta_{\text{empty}} = 0.3985 \quad \text{for} \quad E = 12 \ \text{hours} \tag{26}\]

The requirement sits 2.1 points of empty-weight fraction away from being met, a more informative result than a bare verdict on whether it closes.

Sensitivity to the Loiter Assumptions

The loiter lift to drag ratio and the loiter specific fuel consumption carry the result. Both enter only through the loiter ratio, so the demanded fraction has a closed form in them,

\[\zeta_{\text{empty}} (L/D, c) = 1 - \overline{PF} - \left[ 1 - \left( \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \right)_{\text{out}}^{2} \exp \left( - \frac{E c}{L/D} \right) + 0.05 \right] \tag{27}\]

loiter $L/D$	$c$ per hour	empty fraction demanded
16	0.65	0.3551
16	0.75	0.3169
16	0.85	0.2816
18	0.65	0.3845
18	0.75	0.3485
18	0.85	0.3149
20	0.75	0.3753
22	0.65	0.4302
22	0.85	0.3679

The demanded fraction ranges from 0.28 to 0.43 across that table and every value is below every carrier aeroplane in the comparison. The conclusion is therefore insensitive to the assumptions in direction while being very sensitive in magnitude. A result that survives its sensitivity table is stronger than one that depends on a particular row.

The Carrier Constraint

An approach speed limit is a wing loading limit once the maximum lift coefficient is chosen.

\[V_{\text{app}} = \sqrt{\frac{2 (W/S)}{\rho \, C_{L,\max}}} \qquad \Longrightarrow \qquad \frac{W}{S} = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho V_{\text{app}}^{2} C_{L,\max} \tag{28}\]

A tailless aeroplane has a low maximum lift coefficient and cannot easily be given a high one, because trailing-edge high-lift devices produce a nose-down pitching moment that a tailless configuration has no tail to balance [Etkin and Reid, Dynamics of flight]. The configuration is chosen for signature before it is chosen for aerodynamics [Knott, Shaeffer and Tuley, Radar cross section], and it has a documented history far older than the jet age [Wooldridge, Winged wonders, the story of the flying wings].

The wing loading then fixes the area, and the aspect ratio turns the area into a span. Both relations are needed to read the table and neither is more than a definition [Raymer, Aircraft design, a conceptual approach] [Nicolai and Carichner, Fundamentals of aircraft and airship design],

\[S = \frac{W}{(W/S)} \qquad A\!R = \frac{b^{2}}{S} \qquad \Longrightarrow \qquad b = \sqrt{A\!R \cdot S} \tag{29}\]

At the gross mass the requirement implies,

approach kn	$C_{L,\max}$	$W/S$ lb/ft²	wing area ft²	span at aspect ratio 5, ft
130	1.2	68.7	474	48.7
130	1.6	91.5	355	42.2
140	1.2	79.6	409	45.2
140	1.6	106.2	306	39.1
145	1.2	85.4	381	43.6
145	2.0	142.4	229	33.8

The first row lands on the aeroplane Boeing built. The X-45C spans 14.9 metres [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles], or 48.89 feet, and a 130-knot approach at a maximum lift coefficient of 1.2 and an aspect ratio of 5 gives 48.68,

\[\frac{\left| 48.68 - 48.89 \right|}{48.89} = 0.0043 \tag{30}\]

That agreement checks consistency without deriving anything, and the difference matters. Three parameters were chosen to produce it, being the approach speed, the maximum lift coefficient and the aspect ratio, and other combinations in the same table give spans from 34 to 45 feet. What the table establishes is that the requirement and the built aeroplane occupy the same region of the design space. A calculation with three free parameters can establish no more.

Dependent Systems

Each system below is dimensioned against the requirement, because there is no vehicle to describe.

The Wing

The single physical statement in the record is that the X-46A differed from the X-45B by a new wing planform [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles]. The sizing above explains why a naval variant would need one. The approach speed limit caps wing loading, the endurance requirement demands fuel volume, and both are wing problems while neither is a fuselage problem.

The planform did not vanish with the designation. The previous article recorded that the X-45C’s wing planform was changed to the naval one [previous article], and the directory describes the X-45C planform as similar to that of the X-46A [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles], so the surviving joint aeroplane carried a wing close to the one developed for the cancelled naval aeroplane. The clearest surviving trace of the X-46A lies in another aircraft.

Carrier Suitability as a Structural Tax

The April 2003 announcement itemises what the naval version required, being structural changes, landing gear, a tailhook and avionics for precision approach and landing [Boeing to develop new X-45C UCAV for Air Force and Navy demonstrations]. Every item on that list is mass and every item is charged against the empty-weight fraction the endurance requirement needs to be small,

\[\Delta_{\text{deck}} = \frac{m_{\text{hook}} + m_{\text{gear}} + m_{\text{structure}} + m_{\text{avionics}}}{m_{\text{gross}}} \tag{31}\]

No term on the right is published for this aircraft or for any comparable one. The deck penalty is bounded here only through its difference from the crew saving.

The tension is the article’s subject in one sentence. Carrier suitability makes the airframe heavier and the endurance requirement demands that it be lighter, and the crew is the only account with enough in it to pay both.

Propulsion

No engine is stated for the X-46A. The X-45A carried a Honeywell F124 of 28.0 kilonewtons and the X-45C a General Electric F404-GE-102D rated at 31.0 [previous article] [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles]. A vehicle of 32,539 pounds would need appreciably more than either. Installed thrust follows from the thrust to weight ratio directly [Raymer, Aircraft design, a conceptual approach] [Nicolai and Carichner, Fundamentals of aircraft and airship design],

\[T = \left( \frac{T}{W} \right) W_{\text{gross}} \tag{32}\]

$T/W$	thrust, lbf	thrust, kN
0.30	9,762	43.4
0.35	11,389	50.7
0.40	13,016	57.9

Even the lowest row is 40 percent above the X-45C’s 31.0 kilonewtons. The naval aeroplane needed a different engine or a considerably better one, and no source states which. The specific fuel consumption matters far more than the thrust here, because this aeroplane’s mission is dominated by loiter rather than by acceleration, and the sensitivity table already showed what a tenth of a unit of consumption is worth.

The Link and the Autonomy

The naval requirement makes the supervisory problem harder in a specific way. The previous article established the fan-out relation, in which the number of vehicles one operator can hold is one plus the ratio of neglect time to interaction time [previous article],

\[FO = \frac{NT + IT}{IT} = 1 + \frac{NT}{IT} \tag{33}\]

Latency enters by lengthening interaction without lengthening neglect, so a one-way delay $\tau$ acts only on the interaction time,

\[FO = \frac{NT + IT_{0} + 2\tau}{IT_{0} + 2\tau} \tag{34}\]

A carrier is a moving airfield, and recovery aboard it is the least neglectable phase of the sortie. This article does not compute a fan-out for the X-46A, because nothing about its ground station or its autonomy was published, and inventing one would be arithmetic without a datum.

The Flight Test Record

There is none. The section is kept because its emptiness is a finding.

No X-46A airframe was built [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles]. There were no taxi tests, no first flight, no envelope expansion and no measurements. The programme produced design work, a wing planform and a requirement flowdown, and those are the entire physical legacy.

The competitor’s record is the nearest substitute, and a short one. The X-47A Pegasus flew once, on 23 February 2003, and the announcement of that flight is framed as a demonstration of autonomous control [Northrop Grumman’s X-47A Pegasus first flight achieves milestone in autonomous control]. One flight by the other contractor is not evidence about this aeroplane, and it is recorded here only to establish that the naval competition had reached hardware on one side and not on the other when it was stopped.

Comparison With Ground Prediction

There is no comparison to make, because nothing flew. No X-46A airframe was built [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles], so flight returned no figure of any kind, and a table setting prediction beside measurement would have an empty column for every row.

What existed on the ground was a requirement, and a requirement is a prediction of capability rather than of performance. The open record gives a payload of four thousand pounds, an operational radius of six hundred and fifty nautical miles, a loiter of up to twelve hours, and carrier takeoff and recovery [Chronicle of the Salty Dogs, Center for the Study of the Drone]. The only further prediction comes from this article, being the gross mass of 32,539 pounds and the demanded empty-weight fraction of 0.3485 derived in Sizing From First Principles. No Boeing estimate of either was published, so the contractor’s ground prediction cannot even be set beside the article’s.

The figures that circulate as a specification are not results either. The payload and radius in a secondary compilation are identical to the UCAV-N requirement numbers, as What the Record Does Not Contain shows. Setting them beside the requirement would compare the requirement with itself.

The nearest thing to a comparison sets the requirement beside the aeroplane Boeing did build, and its evidence is a published dimension with no flight behind it. The article makes two. The X-45C’s internal payload of 2,040 kilograms, or 4,497 pounds, carries the four thousand pound requirement with a margin of 0.124, derived under What the Data Changed. The span derived from a 130-knot approach at a maximum lift coefficient of 1.2 and an aspect ratio of 5 is 48.68 feet against the X-45C’s 48.89, a match that Sizing From First Principles treats only as a consistency check with three free parameters.

The competitor’s single flight does not fill the gap. The X-47A flew once, on 23 February 2003 [Northrop Grumman’s X-47A Pegasus first flight achieves milestone in autonomous control], and it cannot stand in for evidence about this aeroplane.

The empty column is the finding. Epistemic State lists whether Boeing’s design met the requirement among the open questions, and no flight exists that could have settled it.

What the Data Changed

There is no data, so the question becomes what the programme changed without producing any.

The substantive answer is that the requirement survived the designation. The X-45C was announced as a single design serving both services, with a naval variant adding carrier equipment, and it carried two two-thousand-pound Joint Direct Attack Munitions [Boeing to develop new X-45C UCAV for Air Force and Navy demonstrations]. Four thousand pounds matches the UCAV-N payload requirement to the pound [Chronicle of the Salty Dogs, Center for the Study of the Drone]. The X-45C’s actual internal payload of 2,040 kilograms [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles] comes to 4,497 pounds and carries the requirement with margin,

\[\frac{4{,}497}{4{,}000} - 1 = 0.124 \tag{35}\]

The naval wing planform moved into the surviving aeroplane [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles] [previous article], so the aerodynamic work outlived the programme that paid for it.

The competition it was part of eventually delivered. The Navy restarted a demonstrator effort in 2006 and selected the X-47B in 2007 [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles], and in 2013 that vehicle made the first catapult launch of an unmanned aircraft from a carrier and the first arrested landing of one aboard a carrier at sea [Northrop Grumman X-47B]. The question the X-46A was asked was answered by the aeroplane that beat it, which the Navy selected seven years after the study contracts.

What the programme did not change is anything about how aircraft are designed, and an article that claimed otherwise would be inflating a study contract into an influence.

The Contemporary Literature

Cluster	Records
Aircraft sizing, mission analysis and the weight estimate	673
Aerodynamics of the configuration	564
Propulsion, inlet integration and installed performance	530
Aircraft design methods, configuration layout and wing design	490
Unmanned aircraft: systems, operations and military employment	431
Flight dynamics, control and system identification of unmanned and manned aircraft	296
Automatic takeoff, landing and carrier recovery	294
Structural loads, fatigue, corrosion and service life	287
Tailless configurations and their control effectors	265
Aircraft subsystems: hydraulic, electrical, fuel and environmental control	242
Autonomy, mission management and onboard decision making	229
Guidance, navigation, state estimation and path planning	188
Airspace integration, regulation, safety and the law of unmanned aircraft	178
Aircraft performance, range and cruise	178
Crew stations, escape and life support	163
Carrier operations, deck handling and the ship environment	144
Unmanned combat aircraft and the strike mission	132
Flight control law design and handling qualities	109
Multi-vehicle coordination and cooperative control	109
V/STOL, rotorcraft and unconventional configurations	98
Aircraft requirements, programmes, cost and supportability	90
Airframe structure, composites and affordability	85
Human supervisory control and the span of control	82
Stall, dynamic stall and high-incidence aerodynamics	73
Internal weapons carriage and store separation	57
The atmosphere and the flight condition	48
Landing gear, wheels, tyres and brakes	40
Verification, validation and the certification of autonomous software	36
Programme, acquisition and the cost of a demonstrator	33
Low observable design and signature	29
Infrared, acoustic and visual signature and detectability	29
Datalink, latency and beyond-line-of-sight command	21
Suppression of enemy air defences and time-critical targeting	20
Other aeronautical and autonomy literature	9
Total	6,252

Aircraft sizing, mission analysis and the weight estimate

This is the cluster this article argues from, which is unusual and follows from the record. No specification for the X-46A was published, so the analysis sizes the requirement instead of describing a vehicle, and the literature it leans on is conceptual design rather than flight test. Weight estimation and structural weight methods, the Breguet range and endurance relations, mission profiles and mission analysis, the design of endurance aircraft, design space exploration and multidisciplinary optimisation. The largest cluster in this survey, because the article’s keystone lives in it.

673 records. [Adeleke et al. 2022] [Abraham and Costello 2009] [Adelman and Mantay 1989] [Adler and Martins 2023] [Agte and Cohen 2008] [Aguiar et al. 2008] [Ahn and Ahn 2019] [Aircraft Conceptual Design 2012] [Aircraft Range and Endurance 2011] [Aircraft et al. 2011b] [Aircraft Sizing Engine Matching 2010] [Aircraft/Engine System Mission Analysis 2018] [Ajaj et al. 2013] [Al Atik et al. 2025] [Al-Shamma et al. 2017] [Al-Zubaidi and Stol 2022] [Alexander and Murphy 2014] [Ali and Al-Shamma 2026] [Allison and Myklebust 2015] [Almbrok et al. 2018] [Alsahlani and Rahulan 2016] [Alsahlani et al. 2017] [Altman 2015] [Amanatiadis et al. 2017] [Andrews and Perez 2012] [Andrews et al. 1988] [Datta 2021] [Ardema 2003] [Arhami et al. 2010] [Ascani 1974] [Asgari and Henke 2024] [Atreya et al. 2005] [Aubeelack] [Sahraoui et al. 2024] [Autry and Victorazzo 2019] [Aziz Alaoui] [Babitha Kodavanla et al and Tjprc 2018] [Bach et al. 2016] [Bagdatli et al. 2019] [Bakar et al. 2021] [Bardell 2000] [Barth et al. 2002] [Barton] [Barufaldi and Morales 2023] [Basis for Conceptual Design 2013] [Batill et al. 1999] [Batra et al. 2023] [Batra et al. 2024b] [Batra et al. 2024a] [Batra et al. 2026] [Baullinger and Page 1989] [Bekešienė and Ruzgas 2020] [Benard and Oates 1981] [Bendarkar et al. 2013] [Berman 1997] [Bernhard and Mokhoff 1981] [Bert 1981] [Bi et al. 2005] [Bierbaum et al. 1987] [Bindolino et al. 2010] [Bird and Langelaan 2017] [Bishop et al. 2010] [Boggero et al. 2017] [Bolandhemmat et al. 2019] [Booker et al. 2004] [Botero and Smart 2024] [Boyles and Barnett 1964] [Braafladt et al. 2020] [Brandt 2018] [Bronz] [Brown and Anderson 2020] [Bryson et al. 2016] [Building the Breguet 413 1935] [Burton and Hoburg 2017] [Burton and Hoburg 2018] [Butler et al. 1999] [Pedroso et al. 2023] [Cai et al. 2019] [Cai et al. 2022] [Caleb] [Cardoso et al. 2024] [Carreyette 1950] [Cassão Gatelli et al. 2018] [Cavagna et al. 2009] [Cavagna et al. 2010] [Cavagna et al. 2011] [Cavcar 2006a] [Cavcar and Cavcar 2005] [Centracchio et al. 2018] [Cestino 2006] [Cestino et al. 2023] [Cha et al. 2016] [Cha et al. 2021] [Chakraborty and Mishra 2021] [Chakraborty et al. 2014] [Chamchalaem and Drake 2016] [Chau and Duensing 2024] [Chen 2021] [Chen et al. 2015b] [Chen et al. 2023] [Chen et al. 2026f] [Chen et al. 2026i] [Cheng and Chen 2021] [Cheng et al. 2026] [Chiesa et al. 2011] [Chu 2017] [Chu et al. 2019] [Chudoba and Smith 2003] [Cinar et al. 2020] [Cinar et al. 2022] [Cinar et al. 2023] [Clark and Hallow 1972] [Coen and Foss 1986] [Coen and Foss 1985] [Coiro et al. 2007] [Coiro et al. 2008] [Collares] [Colozza 1990] [Commercial Aircraft Hydraulic System] [Conceptual Design 1998] [Conceptual Design 2024] [Conceptual Design 285 1998] [Conceptual Design 301 1998] [Conceptual Design and Execution 2019] [Conceptual Design Examples 2024] [Constant 1937] [Conte et al. 2019] [Control Authority Assessment 1993] [Coogan 2016] [Corman et al. 2014] [Cox and Roskam 1990] [Crossley] [Crossley and Rutherford 1995] [Crossley et al. 2011] [Crouse 2007] [Crouse and Sash 2004] [Cruise Performance and Flight 2021] [Cuerno-Rejado and Sanchez-Carmona 2016] [Cyrus 1986] [Cyrus 1995] [Cyrus 1996] [Czinczenheim 1977] [Danilin and Weisshaar 2000] [Danjuma et al. 2021] [Dantsker et al. 2018a] [Dantsker et al. 2019c] [Dantsker et al. 2020a] [Dantsker et al. 2021] [Daoud 2017] [Bertoli et al. 2016] [De Marolles 1930] [de Vries et al. 2020] [DeBilzan 1975] [della Noce et al 2021] [Demarchi and Haning 1978] [Deng et al. 2018] [Deuschle 2025] [Deuschle et al. 2024] [Di Rito et al. 2016] [Di Stasio et al. 2025] [Diez and Iemma 2012] [Dobrokhodov et al. 2024] [Doernte et al. 2026] [Doguet and Rancourt 2023] [Doman 2016a] [Doman 2016b] [Drake and Galloway 1969] [Drake and Solomon 2010] [Dunn et al. 1981] [Dwivedi et al. 2018] [Dybvad 1973] [Early Conceptual Design 2013] [Ecs 1988] [Ekvall et al. 1974] [Endurance Testing for UAS] [Engblom 2012] [Ernst 1994] [Fathi et al. 2025] [Fawcett and Martin 1986] [Fayez et al. 2021] [Feasibility Studies Trade Studies 2015] [Fedotov et al. 2017] [Fielding and Vaziry-Z 1995] [Finger et al. 2018b] [Finger et al. 2018a] [Finger et al. 2019] [Finger et al. 2020] [Finger et al. 2022] [Finn and Meyer 1984] [Fladeland et al. 2019] [Foch and Ailinger 1992] [Foss 1981] [Foss 1984] [Fowler 1965] [Frulla 2002] [Frulla 2004] [Frulla 2021] [Fuel Consumption Range 1992] [Furtado 2024] [Fusaro and Viola 2018] [Führer et al. 2016] [Chandana et al. 2024] [Gabriele 1991] [Gao et al. 2013b] [Gao et al. 2013c] [Garmilla Manzano et al. 2026] [Gates 1949] [Gavel et al. 2006] [Gern et al. 2001] [Giles 1995] [Glīzde] [Godbole et al. 2018] [Golombek et al. 2025] [Golombek et al. 2026] [Goncharenko 2022] [González et al. 2004a] [Goraj 2005] [Goraj et al. 1999] [Goyal 2026] [Graf et al. 2024] [Grand 2026] [Greenway and Koob 1978] [Gregory and Wilcox 1970] [Grendysa 2019] [Gu et al. 2018] [Gudmundsson 2014g] [Gudmundsson 2022g] [Gudmundsson 2022h] [Guo et al. 2011] [Gómez Rodríguez] [Gómez-Rodríguez et al. 2019] [Gómez-Rodríguez et al. 2021] [Haider 2024] [Hajela and Bach 1989] [Hajela and Chen 1986] [Hajela and Chen 1988] [Hall and Rogan 1988] [Hamilton et al. 2003] [Hannon et al. 2008] [Hannon et al. 2011] [Haoran 2020] [Harish et al. 2022] [Harris 2017] [Hayase 1974a] [Hayase 1974b] [Heat Exchanger Selection 2024] [Heller 1961] [Herbst et al. 2015] [High-Altitude Long-Endurance HALE Sensor 2026] [Hirschkron and Davis 1982] [Hiyama 1974b] [Hiyama 1974a] [Hon et al. 2022] [Horvath and Wells 2018] [Hosseini et al. 2013] [Hosseinisianaki and Mesbahi 2013] [Hou et al. 2024] [Howe 2000a] [Huang et al. 1996] [Huang et al. 2013] [Hudson and Parmee 1996] [Hughes Tool Co Culver City Ca 1963] [Hwang and Nam 2012] [Hwang et al. 2013] [Hwang et al. 2016b] [Ibrahim 2011] [Ingram et al. 2015] [Initial Sizing 2024] [Initial Tail Sizing 2013] [Initial Unmanned Aircraft Sizing 2014] [Initial Unmanned-Aircraft Sizing 2012] [Iqbal and Sullivan 2012] [Iqbal et al. 2009] [Irsyad Lukman and Agoes Moelyadi 2018] [Isikveren et al. 2014] [Jackson 2010] [Jagtap et al. 2024] [Jagtap et al. 2025a] [Jaiswal and Bhunia 2024] [Joseph et al] [Joseph et al] [Jenkinson and Marchman 2003] [Jeong et al. 2022] [Ji et al. 2013] [Jo and Majid 2023] [Johnson 1985] [Joksimovic et al. 2024] [Jones 1999] [Jordao et al. 2021] [Joshi and Geyer 2024] [Jun et al. 2020] [Jung et al. 2019] [Jung et al. 2025] [Jérémy’’ et al. 2022] [Kai et al. 2026] [Kalinowski 2017] [Kallou et al. 2022] [Kallou et al. 2024] [Kaloyanova et al. 2005] [Kamal and Ramirez-Serrano 2019] [Kao et al. 2018] [Kapania and Chun 2004] [Karabacak and Turan 2020] [Karagoz et al. 2019] [Karagoz et al. 2021] [Karpuk and Elham 2021] [Kaya et al. 2016] [Kei̇yi̇nci̇ and Aydin 2021] [Kemp 1988] [Khatri and Sinha 2023] [Kim and Lee 2018] [Kim and Lee 2020] [Kim and Son 2026] [Kim et al. 2014] [King 1988] [King et al. 2015] [Kolb 1988] [Kong 2009] [Kottapalli and Harris 2012] [Kowalski 1988] [Kowalski et al. 2021] [Krengel et 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[Mayfield et al. 1990] [McDonnell and Ning 2020] [McDonnell et al. 2018] [McMurtry 1980] [Meadows et al. 2012] [Mehta 2013] [Meier and Olson 1988] [Menon et al. 2007] [Mertika] [Meyer et al. 2007] [Meyer et al. 2008] [Meyer et al. 2009] [Meyer et al. 2025] [Millis et al. 2009] [Tint 2018] [Minkov et al. 2010] [Misley et al. 2023] [Mission Analysis 2002] [Mission Analysis 2012] [Mission Analysis 2022] [Mockelman et al. 2026] [Moelyadi et al. 2021a] [Moelyadi et al. 2021b] [Moffitt et al. 2006] [Mokotoff and Cinar 2026] [Mokotoff et al. 2025] [Mokotoff et al. 2026] [Mosca et al. 2021] [Multidisciplinary Design Optimization 1994] [Muskardin et al. 2016] [Myklebust and Gelhausen 1993] [Nam and Mavris 2018] [Nam et al. 2005] [Nascenzi et al. 2026] [Nekolny] [Neufeld 2021b] [Neufeld 2021a] [Newcome 2006] [Ng and Willcox 2016] [Nguyen et al. 2025] [Nickol et al. 2007] [Nigam et al. 2015] [Nitardi et al. 2017] [Octavianty et al. 2026] [Oetting 2020] [Oh 2018] [Oh et al. 2016] [Onat and Tolle 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Aerodynamics of the configuration

The flow the vehicle lives in. Lift, drag, vortex behaviour, boundary layers, wind tunnel technique and computation. The X-46A has no aerodynamic record at all because no airframe was built, and the only physical statement about it that this article has found is that it was generally similar to the X-45B except for a new wing planform.

564 records. [Adhikari and Nichols 2018b] [Adhikari and Nichols 2018a] [Adiwidodo and Wijaya 2022] [Aerodynamic Configuration Design Using 1993] [Aerodynamic Data of Real 2010] [Aerodynamic Design of Low-Speed 1986] [Aerodynamic Design 1969] [Aerodynamic Drag and Its 2013] [Aerodynamic efficiency and performance] [Aerodynamic Forces on Aircraft 1995] [Aerodynamic Performance 2012] [Aerodynamics 2024] [Aerodynamics and Airframe Configurations 2010] [Aerodynamics of Wing Body 2010] [Ahn et al. 2001] [Aircraft Aerodynamics 1997] [Aircraft Drag 2010] [Airfoil and Wing/Tail Geometry 2024] [Airfoils 1980] [Alley et al. 2007] [Alm and Li 2026] [Altstatt 1974] [Ames 1975] [Amrit et al. 2018] [An and Williams 2025] [An and Williams 2026] [Andreu Angulo and Babinsky 2022] [Anggraeni 2019] [Anyoji et al. 2013] [Appa et al. 1996] [Appendix G Aerodynamic Data 2010] [Appendix H Aerodynamics 2010] [Aprovitola et al. 2021] [Arnould and Laurendeau 2026] [Ashenberg and Weihs 1984] [Attinello 1956] [Axelson 1975] 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2023a] [Kryvokhatko 2023b] [Kryvokhatko 2024a] [Kryvokhatko 2024b] [Kryvokhatko and Sukhov 2013] [Kuhlman 1977] [Kuhn et al. 1993] [Kumar and German 2022] [Kurkova et al. 2026] [Kusunose and Yu 2003] [Kwiek et al. 2026] [Laban 2004] [Laitone 1978] [Lam and Maull 1993] [Lamar 1978] [Landa et al. 2015] [Lange 2018] [Lawson and Barakos 2010] [Lee and Batina 1991] [Lee and Kim 2024] [Lee and Davidson 1973] [Lee et al. 2025] [Lei 2008] [Lei and Zha 2021] [Leng] [Levinsky and Ramsey 1972] [Li and Tiniakov 2026b] [Li et al. 2014a] [Liebeck 1973] [Liebeck 1978] [Lift Coefficient According 1997] [Lin 2025] [Lin and Dominik 1997] [Lindblad and de Cock 1999] [Liu 2006] [Liu et al. 2020b] [Livne and Mineau 1997] [Lockhart] [Loferski 1975] [Lorber and Carta 1991] [Luchkov et al. 2020] [Luh and Mack 1984] [Luke and Bowman 2004] [Lundry 1967] [Lyu and Martins 2014] [Ma 1989] [Ma 2025] [Li et al. 2014b] [Magrini et al. 2023] [Malik and Lin 2004] [Marchman et al. 1983] [Mark and Dehart 1976] [Martin 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Propulsion, inlet integration and installed performance

The engine and what the airframe does to it. Turbofan cycles and installed performance, inlets and nozzles, thrust estimation and control, specific fuel consumption, and electric and hybrid propulsion. The article uses this literature for one purpose, being to bound the installed thrust a vehicle of 32,539 pounds would need, since no engine is stated for the X-46A.

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[Makino et al. 2007] [Malaek and Parastari 2001] [Mardanpour et al. 2014] [Markov et al. 2021] [Markov et al. 2022] [Marx et al. 2015] [Mastropierro et al. 2020] [Matter et al. 2019] [Mavris et al. 1998] [Mawid et al. 2002] [McAnally et al. 1970] [McAnally and Max T. 1971] [McDermott 1972] [Mehalic and Lottig 1987] [Meng et al. 2025] [Merical et al. 2014] [Minardi and Von Ohain 1983] [Mixed Flow Turbofan Engine 2018] [Mogorosi et al. 2021] [Monnier and Litherland 2026] [Morris 2007] [Morris et al. 2006] [Most and Feasey 2021] [Munson and Steinetz 1994] [Nagorny and Nos 2023] [Nam 2026] [null] [Boden 2026] [Nystrom 2000] [Oelberg and Rodrigues 2018] [Office of Naval Research Arlington VA 1993] [Orrick 2024] [Oğur et al. 2024] [Palaia et al. 2023] [Pan et al. 2025b] [Papageorgiou et al. 2022] [Park and Park 2025b] [Patel and Chudoba 2026] [Patterson et al. 1991] [Pavkovic et al. 2020] [Payne 1966] [Petit and Scholey 1973a] [Petit and Scholey 1973b] [Petty 1980] [Phillips et al. 1968] [Pickerell 1967] [Pilsch 1975] [Pizzo 1988] [Podhradsky et al. 2013] [Poland and Schwanebeck 1970] [Pontika et al. 2023] [Propeller Propulsion Systems 2010] [Propulsion 2017] [Propulsion 2024] [Propulsion and Engine Technology 2013] [Propulsion and Fuel System 2024] [Propulsion Control System Designs 1990] [Propulsion Data 2010] [Propulsion System 1998] [Propulsion System Fundamentals 2010] [Propulsion System Thrust Sizing 2010] [Propulsion Systems 2012] [Propulsion Systems 2014] [Przybylko 1993] [Puthoff 1970] [Pyle 1971] [Quinn 1972] [Ragni et al. 2012] [Rajendran and Pachidis 2019] [Rajendran and Pachidis 2020] [Rajendran and Pachidis 2021] [Rajput et al. 2021] [Rawikara et al. 2024] [Remiger et al. 2024] [Solutions et al. 2020] [Richey et al. 1983] [Richter 2011] [Ring and Henriksson 2006] [Rodriguez and Botez 2012] [Rodriguez and Botez 2013] [Romine and Johnson 1984] [Rooney and Wilt 1985] [Rosell] [Rouser et al. 2018] [Sabzehali and Alibeigi 2023] [Sadraey 2024] [Saha et al. 2025] [Salahudden et al. 2021] [Sallee 1969] [Samanich et al. 1980] [Sane et al. 2004] [Sarikaya et al. 2026] [Sarr et al. 2025] [Satria Palar et al. 2024] [Schierman and Lowell 1992] [Schkolnik 1993] [Schmidt 1985] [Schoelen 1981] [Scholz 2021] [Schweikhard and Berry 1974] [Sebastiampillai et al. 2019] [Seiler 1977] [Semakov and Semakova 2023] [Sens 1978] [Seyam et al. 2025] [Shen et al. 2014] [Shimoyama and Kamisori 2017] [Siddiqui 2022] [Silva and Guimarães 2020] [Sizing the Engine 2002] [Sizing the Engine 2018] [Sliwinski et al. 2017] [Smith and Wehofer 1982] [Snyder 2015] [Sokhey 1984] [Song et al. 2018] [Sosounov and Orlov 1990] [Sowers and Tabakoff 1983] [Speak et al. 2015] [Specific fuel consumption] [Stagliano and Hornung 2012] [Steinmetz and Wagner 1986] [Stepaniak et al. 2009] [Stephan and Fichter 2016] [Stephenson et al. 1974] [Strash et al. 1997] [Strash et al. 2000] [Strome 1969] [Suh 1990] [Suracharttumrongrat and Kampoon 2023] [Svoboda 2000] [Swavely and Soileau 1972] [Systems of Commercial Turbofan 2008] [Szafranski et al. 2014] [Taflan et al. 2026] [Tate and Gillard 1975] [Telectro-mek INC Fort Wayne in 1965] [Temporary Methods for Assessing] [The Measurement of Engine] [The Rolls-Royce RB.211 Three 1968] [Theys et al. 2016] [Throndson 1970] [Thrust Reverser Systems] [Thrust-Induced Effects on Pitching-up 1994] [Thrust-to-Weight Ratio and Wing 2024] [Traub 2022] [Turan 2012] [Turbine Engine Inlet Design 2010] [Turbofan & Turboprop Engines 2022] [Turbofan Engine Components 1998] [Tyson 1979] [Ulizar and Pilidis 1995] [Underwood] [Urban et al. 2023] [Van Dommelen 1995] [Vance 1973] [Varela Martínez] [Varsegov 2010] [Varsegov and Saukhin 2025] [Varsegov and Shabalin 2015] [Vegh et al. 2017] [Venkatraman 2009] [Venkatraman 2011] [Vos 2019b] [Vos et al. 2017] [Vyas et al. 2023] [Wang et al. 2022a] [Wang et al. 2023d] [Wang et al. 2023b] [Wang et al. 2025c] [Wannenburg 1963] [Warsch et al. 2026] [Wasson 1977] [Wei et al. 2024] [Weinberg and Wyzykowski 2001] [Weisshaar and Allen 1991] [Wen et al. 2024] [Werle 2020] [Whitfield and Blackburn 1965] [Whitten et al. 1976] [Wilson 1986] [Wilson and Mahoney 1987] [Wilson et al. 1975] [Wilson et al. 1999] [With Low Fuel Consumption 1974] [Xie et al. 2018] [Xin et al. 2021] [Xingjian et al. 1985] [Yalcin 2017] [Yang et al. 1983] [Yanik et al. 2014] [Yin et al. 2000] [York et al. 2018] [Young 1961] [Youngblood et al. 1984] [Yuhas and Ray 1992] [Yunusov et al. 2006] [Zaid 1960] [Zeising and Gerhardt 1993] [Zhang et al. 2021c] [Zhang et al. 2024b] [Zhao et al. 2024a] [Zhong et al. 2026] [Zhou and Prasad 2013] [Zhou and Xin 2020] [Zhou and Xin 2021] [Zhou et al. 2023b] [Zhu et al. 2022a] [Zhu et al. 2022b] [Zhu et al. 2024b]

Aircraft design methods, configuration layout and wing design

Aircraft design as a discipline, rather than sizing to one mission. Design texts and methods, configuration layout, wing design and its optimisation, weight and its estimation, and the selection and integration of engines at the design stage.

490 records. [Abbas 2018] [Abdelrahman et al. 2009] [Acaba and Bostic 1996] [Adamson et al. 1978] [Aerospace Conceptual Vehicle Design 1992] [Agrawal 1984] [Aircraft Anatomy 1985] [Aircraft Classification Statistics 2010] [Aircraft Compartment Design Criteria 1960] [Aircraft design] [Aircraft Design 2024] [Aircraft Design Fundamentals 2012] [Aircraft Design Optimization 2013] [Aircraft Design Optimization 1989] [Aircraft Weight Distribution 2012] [Aircraft Weights Data 2010] [Aircraft Wing Design 2005] [Aircraft with Annular Wing 2001] [Aircraft/Engine System Constraint Analysis 2018] [Airframe Computer-Aided Design 2021] [Airplane wing design] [Albuquerque et al. 2018] [Allison et al. 2006] [Altman 2002] [Shibanov 2024] [Anderson 1957] [Anderson 1995] [Appendix C 2002] [Argrow 2016] [Army Service Forces Washington Dc 1940] [Badyagin et al. 1979] [Bahar et al. 2003] [Baldock and Mokhtarzadeh-Dehghan 2006] [Ball 1966] [Banerjee and Taneja 2025] [Banerjee and Taneja 2026] [Bangert et al. 1983] [Barber 1963] [Barlow 1929] [Barlow 1999] [Başak and Akdemir 2024] [Bashkirov et al. 1997] [Bateman 1986] [Bateman et al. 2007] [Beebe 1968] [Belart 1938] [Belhafnaoui and Diouane 2026] [Bell Aerospace Co Buffalo Ny 1955] [Benassi 2024] [Bil 1989] [Birrenbach 2000] [Boden and Burschyk 2026] [Bodonyl 1994] [Bona and Risse 2018] [Boretz 1984] [Boretz 1985b] [Boretz 1985a] [Boudreault 1983b] [Boyer 1994] [Bruening et al. 2000] [Bruening et al. 2001] [Horvath and Wrenn] [Buda et al. 2026] [Bye 1993] [Camatti et al. 1998] [Cao et al. 2026a] [Carrier et al. 2021] [Carrier et al. 2022] [Casarosa et al. 2004] [Case Study 2007] [Catchpole 1990] [Cawthorne and Devos 2020] [CHAPTER SEVEN. Wings 1990] [Characteristics of Aircraft Types 2010] [Chattot 2005] [Chattot 2006] [Chaussee and Dervault 2013] [Chung et al. 2025] [Chuprun 1980] [Cipolla et al. 2022a] [Clark et al. 2019] [Cleveland 1970] [Cohen and Jones 1960] [Coirier et al. 2014] [Coiro and Nicolosi 2001] [Computer-Aided System of Aircraft 2018] [Concepts and Computational Models 2021] [Configuring Aircraft 2010] [Cosyn and Vierendeels 2006] [Cousin and Metcalfe 1990] [Cox et al. 2009] [Cox et al. 2010] [Cramer et al. 1993] [Crossley 2004] [D’Urso 1990] [Dang 2026] [Day 1966] [De Filippo 1983] [De Silva and Carmichael 1978] [Dehua and Changyou 1993] [Delavenne] [Demir et al. 2021] [Design and Development 2014] [Design and Fluid Flow 2015] [Design of the Well-Tempered 2013] [Design of Unique Aircraft 2024] [Development of Micro Air 2007] [Deyoung 1971] [Dixit and Patel 1980] [Dizdarevic 2013] [Dodds and Vahdati 2014b] [Dodds and Vahdati 2014a] [Dong et al. 2023] [Dovi and Wrenn 1989] [Dovi and Wrenn 1990] [Drinkwater and Rolls 1965] [Dudley 1986] [Duong Nguyen et al. 2022] [Eckels 1983] [Edgington 1978] [Edi 2022] [Effing et al. 2023] [Eisler] [Electric Aircraft 2024] [Elham and Ghasemi 2023] [Ellis and Maris 1977] [Engine Component Design 2002b] [Engine Component Design 2018b] [Engine/Airframe Performance Matching 1989] [Er-El 1988] [Erwin and Vitale 1972] [Eschweiler et al. 1977] [Escuret and Garnier 1995] [Estimating the Takeoff Wing 2010] [Eustace 1998] [Evolution of Modern Air 1980] [Fadel et al. 2022] [Fellers and Patierno 1970] [Fioriti 2014] [Flexible-Wing Micro Air Vehicles 2007] [Franco et al. 2019] [Fritzsche et al. 2026] [Fuel Flow Laboratory 1964] [Fuselages and Tails Empennage 2017] [Förster et al. 2022] [Gadh 2026] [Gallard] [Galloway 1989] [Gates 1992] [Generic Aircraft Design Flowchart 2017] [Ghiglino et al. 2026] [Ghosh et al. 2014] [Goddard and Eastgate 2010] [Goldschmied 1990] [Goldsmith and Bowles 1980] [González et al. 2004b] [Greenhalgh 1983] [Greeson et al. 2024] [Gudmundsson 2014a] [Gudmundsson 2014e] [Gudmundsson 2014c] [Gudmundsson 2014f] [Gudmundsson 2022e] [Gudmundsson 2022a] [Gudmundsson 2022c] [Gudmundsson 2022f] [Guerder] [Gupta 2026] [Gómez-Rodríguez and Cuerno-Rejado 2025] [Hague et al. 1972] [Haider et al. 2023] [Haim et al. 1996] [Hamilton and Welge 1992] [Hammond 1986] [Harasani 2010] [Hartney] [Haupt 1977] [Hawkswell et al. 2022] [Hays 1989] [Hein et al. 2025] [Hendrickson et al. 1978] [Henne 1981] [Henne 1989] [Hertel and Albers 1993] [Hicks and Henne 1977] [Hicks and Henne 1978] [High Altitude Reconnaissance Aircraft 1989] [Hileman et al. 2010] [Hill 1994] [Hirsh 1965] [Holloway et al. 1972] [Holst 1990] [Hood et al. 1984] [Howe 2000b] [Howe 2000c] [Hoying 1993] [Huang et al. 2024a] [Hwang et al. 2014] [Ibrahim 2004] [Ibrahim and Mohnot 2006] [Information Model of Aircraft 2021] [Irvine 1968] [Islam and Sjolander 1999] [Iwaniuk et al. 2016] [Vankan et al. 2021] [Jackson 1976] [James 1972] [Jansen and Perez 2010] [Janus 2006] [Jenkinson 1991] [Jinan and Xiaoxu 1985] [Johnson 1940] [Johnson and Silva 2026] [Johnson and White 1983] [Jones 1963] [Jones 1964] [Jones 1975] [Kalenskii et al. 2019] [Kawai 1973] [Kaymal 2016] [Keane et al. 2017] [Khare et al. 2024] [Kiely and Agarwal 2024] [Kilkis 2024] [Kim and Oh 2017] [Kim et al. 2001] [King] [Kirkham and Driver 1973] [Kolom 1965] [Kormanik et al. 2024] [Krenz 1979] [Kress 1983] [Krispin and Portnoy 1988] [Krone 1980] [Kroo 1988] [Kubrynski 2003] [Kulik et al. 2015] [Kumar and Khalid 2014] [Kumuk and Ilbas 2023] [Lamar 1980] [Landry and Baldwin 1992] [Lange 1983] [Lange 1984] [Lange and Mikolowsky 1979] [Lange and Rudnik 2019] [Lapeña-Rey et al. 2010] [Lawton 1990] [Lee and Boedicker 1985] [Lee et al. 2007a] [Lee et al. 2008] [Lefebvre and Zha 2015] [Li and Qin 2020] [Li and Tiniakov 2026g] [Li et al. 2013c] [Xi 2024] [Lindner] [Liseitsev 2025a] [Liseitsev et al. 2025] [Lissaman 1980] [Lou et al. 2017] [Love and Argrow 2021] [Lu et al. 2020] [Luo Xiuchun and Huang Ning 2005] [Luu 2025] [Lyu et al. 2021] [Major Changes 1993] [Majoros 1989] [Malaek and Soltan-Mohammed 2001] [Malone 1982] [Malone and Mason 1991] [Marretta et al. 1999] [Marti 1970] [Martinez-Rodriguez et al. 2021] [Mason 1990] [Mason and Iglesias 2001] [Masud et al. 2017] [Matching Engines and Airframe 2013] [Mathias et al. 1995] [Mattingly 1989] [Maughmer 1987] [Maute and Reich 2006] [McDonald and Stevens 1970] [Mechatronic Design of Unmanned 2015] [Mele et al. 2016] [Mirhashemi et al. 2022] [Mistree 1987] [Modern Aeroplane Types 1945] [Moosavian et al. 2014] [Morin and O’Connor 1987] [Morley 1961] [Morote and Liaño 2012] [Morozov 2015] [Morris 1984b] [Morris 1983] [Morris 1984a] [Mosimann and Ducard 2014] [Most 2016] [Most and Stroup 2021] [Murotsu 1990] [Naik and Ostowari 1990] [Namet-Allah and Birk 2015] [Nangia and Palmer 2007a] [Navaratna and Pontillo 2022] [Nelms et al. 1976] [Nelson and Dix 2003] [Neri et al. 2024] [Newey] [Nguyen et al. 2015] [Nguyen et al. 2026] [Nicolai 1978] [Nicolaides 1990] [Nie 2003] [Niedling 1980] [Nikolitsch 1978] [Nix et al. 2009] [Ol et al. 2008] [Olason 1969] [Olsen et al. 2000] [Olson and Henricks 2018] [Ormsby 1968] [Oyama 2021] [Oyibo et al. 1992] [Palaia et al. 2024] [Pallot et al. 2016] [Pant and Fielding 1999] [Park 2021] [Park et al. 2016] [Park et al. 2018a] [Patierno 1980] [Pehlivan et al. 2023] [Phoa et al. 1985] [Pogosyan 2025] [Polhamus 1983] [Prasad 2022] [Qi and Staudacher 2025] [Quest and Wright 2002] [Rao et al. 2004] [Raymer 2012b] [Raymer 2012a] [Raymer 2018] [Raymer 2024] [Reed 1984] [Reghunath and Ramaiah 2022] [Resulkulyeva and Serebryansky 2023] [Revell et al. 1982] [Rhode and Sobolik 1985] [Riaz et al. 2017] [Ribi and Dalbert 1999] [Robinson and Melary 1985] [Robson and Peters 1972] [Rocha et al. 2006] [Rodden 1972] [Rohl and Schrage 1992] [Rose et al. 2022] [Roskam and Malaek 1989] [Ross 1984] [Rusovici et al. 2017] [Ryan Aeronautical Co San Diego Ca 1962] [Ryan Aeronautical Co San Diego Ca 1963] [Gupta 2023] [Sachs 1969] [Sadraey 2008] [Sadraey 2010] [Sadraey 2026] [Saeed and Graham 2015] [Sakamoto and Cota 1965] [Salay and Elliott 1996] [Sanchez-Carmona et al. 2025] [Sanders 1957] [Sands 1952] [Santarelli et al. 2009] [Sarojini et al. 2017] [Sasamori et al. 2022] [Savoni and Rudnik 2018] [Scardelletti et al. 2022] [Scholz et al. 2023] [Schrage et al. 2001] [Schuck et al. 2003] [Schultz 1946] [Schwartz 1988] [Scott 2021] [Sears 1980] [Seow] [Serghides and Fielding 1988] [Seven Wings the F-4 1980] [Shankar and Malmuth 1982] [Sharma and Sim 1995] [Shubham et al. 2025] [Shubov 2001] [Simpson et al. 2004] [Sjoblom 1980] [Slender Aircraft for Flight 2012] [Small and Lewis 1985] [Smith and Lee 1989] [Sobieczky 1998] [Sobti] [Solvey 1951] [Sorensen et al. 1979] [Spacht 1980] [Span Load Program 1998] [Spearman 1985] [Spinelli and Kipouros 2025] [Spirochkin 2025] [Srokowski and Orszag 1977] [Stalcup and Heersema 2023] [Stringfield 1984] [Subramaniam et al. 2012] [Sunago et al. 2009] [Szodruch 2001] [Taig and Kerr 1973] [Takanashi 1985] [Takenaka et al. 2008] [Taylor 1940] [Templalexis et al. 2016] [The Design of Classical 2012] [Thin Wing Sections 2012] [Three-Dimensional Wing Synthesis 2014] [Tondji and Botez 2016] [Toor et al. 2018] [Toor et al. 2019] [Torenbeek 1976b] [Torenbeek 1976a] [Torenbeek 1982b] [Torenbeek 1982a] [Torenbeek 2013] [Turanoguz and Alemdaroglu 2015] [Turanoğlu Şirin 2023] [Turbine-Engined Transport Aircraft 1949] [Turevskiy et al. 2007] [Tye 1980] [Unmanned Aircraft Geometry 2014] [Unmanned-Aircraft Geometry and Configurations 2012] [Useful Aircraft Design Data] [Useful Aircraft Design Data 1999] [van Heerden et al. 2019] [Variable Sweep Wing Design 1980] [Variyar et al. 2014] [Vaughan and Anderson 2005] [Vessey 1938] [Viars 1989] [Wagner 1973] [Walker 1976] [Wallace 1952] [Ward 1983] [Ward and Jenal 2010] [Wasnik et al. 2025] [Wauters 2022] [Wells et al. 1999] [Weyl 1933] [Whitehead 1975a] [Whitehead 1975b] [Whitener 1978] [Whitener 1979] [Whitford 1990] [Whitford 1992] [Whitford 1993] [Whitford 1994] [Whitten and Woodrey 1977] [Why Should We Design] [Why Should We Design 1999] [Wiegand et al. 2025] [Willan 2011] [Williams 1970] [Wilson and Wilson 1997] [Wing Design 2012] [Wing Design 2025] [Wing Design Considerations 2021] [Wings 2017] [Woelk 1989] [Wolf et al. 2016] [Wolz and Shira 1995] [Wood et al. 2009] [Woodward 1968] [Worked Manned Aircraft Detail 2017] [Wu et al. 2000] [Wunderlich and Dähne 2026] [Wygonik 2013] [Xie and Haberland 1999] [Xu and Kroo 2014] [Xun et al. 1993] [Yazdi 1991] [Yongjie et al. 2021] [Yuchao and Chanying 2024] [Zhai et al. 2023] [Zhang and Zhang 2020] [Zhang et al. 2019] [Zhao et al. 2018b] [Zheng et al. 2026a] [Ziqiang and Sobieczky 1988] [Çakıcı and Leblebicioğlu 2016]

Unmanned aircraft: systems, operations and military employment

The vehicle class as a system and as a military instrument. Overviews and histories of unmanned aircraft, named systems such as the MQ-1C, MQ-4C and Compass Cope, operations and persistent surveillance, missions flown by several vehicles together, the roles of their operators, and their armed employment. Unmanned aircraft in general outnumber the combat class by more than three to one in this survey, which is why the strike literature is kept as its own narrower cluster.

431 records. [A Polish Medium Bomber 1938] [Ananyev 2019a] [Abdulla 2023] [Abeyratne 2016] [Abeyratne 2019] [Acevedo et al. 2015] [Aerospace series. Unmanned Aircraft] [Ahern et al. 1993] [Air National Guard Remotely 2015] [Air Proving Ground Center Eglin AFB FL 1954b] [Aircraft Payload Limits 1970] [Ajitha et al. 2024] [Al Nuaimi et al. 2020] [Alfredson and Ohlander 2019] [Alighanbari and How] [Altynova et al. 2011] [Analysis of at-Altitude LTE 2019] [Analysis of the Development 2022] [Angell 2009] [Anisimov et al. 2015] [Anzev and Sarychev 2023] [Arogeti and Ailon 2023] [Auborn et al. 2003] [Austin 2010] [Aviation and Troop Command (army) ST Louis MO 1995] [Aviation History and UAS] [Ayar and Karakoc 2023] [Baek and York 2020] [Ball and Atkinson 1998] [Ballard 1982] [Banks 2000] [Barbaroux 2019] [Харченко and Прусов 2012] [Bass 2006] [Batista da Silva et al. 2017] [Baxter 2013] [Bayramov and Hashimov 2019] [Belta 2012b] [Belta 2012a] [Bennett] [Bentz and Panagou 2017] [Bian et al. 2013] [Bishop et al. 2000] [Blask 2002] [Bolohin and Bolohina 2024] [Bonser and Mlinar 1977] [Booz-allen and Hamilton INC Mclean VA 2000] [Bostian and Young 2011] [Bostian and Young 2013] [Boutros 2015] [Box and Globus 2011] [Box et al. 2008] [Brewer 2017b] [Brown 1979] [Brown 1980] [Brown 2010] [Brungardt 2011] [Brungardt and Carraway 2021] [Buchanan 2010] [Buckner 2000] [Budd 2002] [Buerger et al. 2012] [Bulka et al. 2022] [Buric 2018] [Burke 2015] [Bushey] [Cao et al. 2024] [Carr et al. 2003] [Casey-Maslen 2018b] [Castanon and Cassandras 2010] [Cerezo Magaña 2025] [Chaari and Al-Maadeed 2021] [Chapter 1 2021] [Chen and Cenko 1990] [Chen et al. 2024c] [Chen et al. 2026d] [Chen et al. 2026g] [Chen et al. 2026c] [Chen et al. 2026b] [Chen et al. 2026a] [Cheng and Nicol 2023] [Cheng et al. 2024] [Chiesa et al. 2000] [Choi 2026] [Clare et al. 2012a] [Clark 2013] [Collins et al. 2021] [Masutti and Tomasello 2018a] [Connor 2020] [Considerations for Safe Store] [Control of cooperative unmanned] [Cookerly 1988] [Cooperative Communications in UAV 2020] [Cote 2015] [Crandall 1999] [Cummings 2014] [Dalamagkidis 2014] [Dalamagkidis et al. 2012a] [Dantsker and Mancuso 2019] [Darbha et al. 2013] [Deets and Brown 1986] [DeJarnette-Crumsey et al. 2022] [Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 1994] [FY2009-2034 Unmanned Systems Integrated 2009] [The U.S. Air Force 2005] [Dhanasekar et al. 2026] [Digman 2009] [Синеглазов and Дьяков 2011] [Dixon et al. 2005] [Doan] [DoD Office of Inspector General 2015] [Dodge 2015] [Doherty et al. 2013] [Donmez et al. 2008] [Drones and Unmanned Smart 2020] [Dubicki and Gorospe 2026] [Durmus et al. 2023] [Setiawan and Aldino 2026] [Edwards and Lennie O. 1990] [El-Ferik 2020] [Elia and Theocharides 2024] [Eremin 2025] [Esparza 1979] [Evaluating the Use 2015] [Evolution of Human Systems 2016] [Faied and Girard 2008] [Falahi and Mounir 2026] [Fang 2025] [Fant 2001] [Farrell 2011] [Ferrari and Daugherty 2010] [Fierro et al] [Fincannon et al. 2009] [Foch 1992] [Fogel et al. 1974] [Forsmo et al. 2013] [Frederick et al. 2001c] [Frederick et al. 2001a] [Frederick et al. 2001b] [Frederick et al. 2001d] [Frederick et al. 2002] [Frew and Brown] [Frey 2011] [Frontera Sánchez] [Fu et al. 2015] [Fukui et al. 2020] [Fulton et al. 2011] [Gacy 2011] [Gage 1994] [Gaub 2011] [Geister et al. 2017] [Geng et al. 2014] [Ghosh et al. 2020] [Glizde and Urbaha 2019] [Goerttler and Schnepf 2024] [Goncharenko 2013] [Gonzalez 2010] [González 2023] [Goudarzi and Richards 2020] [Graham et al. 2023] [Greaney 2010] [Gregory and Kim 2022] [Guijarro Reyes et al. 2018] [Gupta et al. 2019] [Hafez and Kamel 2016] [Hafez et al. 2015] [Hajiyev et al. 2015b] [Ham et al. 2022] [Hammack and Mullen 1995] [Han et al. 2019c] [Haritos and Barnhart 2021] [Hart and Williams 2008] [Hartuv et al. 2020] [Hatch et al. 2007] [Haus et al. 2013] [Hawkes 2009] [He et al. 2025] [Heyns and Borden 2017] [Hicks and Durbin 2014] [Hing and Oh] [Hinsz 2006] [Historical Aspects of Unmanned 2016] [Hobbs 2017] [Hobbs 2023] [Hobbs et al. 2016] [Hobe et al. 2026] [Hodgkinson and Johnston 2018c] [Holland et al. 2009] [Howard 1995] [Howard 1996] [Huang et al. 2018b] [Huang et al. 2018a] [Human Factors in Unmanned 2016] [Human Systems Integration 2016] [Scott and Huttunen 2023] [Initial Evaluation of Video 2012] [Introduction to the Aircraft 1985] [Introduction to the Aircraft 2003] [Introduction to Unmanned Aircraft 2010] [İşci and Günel 2021] [Jackson 2001] [Jackson et al. 1996] [Janetka et al. 2001] [Jenkins et al. 2005] [Jensen 2016] [Jensen 2021] [Jimenez et al. 2016] [John 2014] [Johnson and O’Neill 2003] [Johnson et al. 2005b] [Jones 1973] [Jorris et al. 2011] [Kafetzis et al. 2021] [Kearns 2018] [Kearns 2021] [Khan 2021] [Kim 2025] [Kim and Morrison 2013] [Kim et al. 2015b] [Klesh et al. 2009] [Knutzon] [Konar et al. 2024] [Korchenko and Illyash 2013] [Krings et al. 2013] [Кulyk et al. 2013] [Kumar 1997] [Kurkcu et al. 2011] [Larm 2004] [Lechniak and Melton 2017] [Lega and Ricci 2002] [Lewis and Pickering 2014] [Li and Fan 2018] [Li and Tiniakov 2026e] [Li and Tiniakov 2026f] [Li et al. 2015b] [Li et al. 2024c] [Liu and Bush 2004] [Liu et al. 2018b] [Liu et al. 2020a] [Logan and Glaab 2017] [Lovett 1984] [Lv et al. 2026] [Lynch 2012] [Ma and Jin 2025] [Maere et al. 2010] [Manyam et al. 2017] [Mao et al. 2025] [Marshall] [Martin et al. 2024] [Matlock et al. 2009] [Matolak and Sun 2014] [McIngvale and Dudley 1990] [McLaughlin and Perhinschi 2023] [Mei 2025] [Merhav and Grunwald 1978] [Merino et al] [Miura and Suzuki 2003] [Mohammad 2013] [Moser 2011] [Mulkerin 2007] [Mumm et al. 2020] [Muniraj and Farhood 2017] [Murray and Wild 2026] [Mutuel 2015a] [Naundrup] [Neal 2010] [Neff 2019] [Neff and Garman 2016] [Neuenswander 2013] [Karakoc et al. 2023a] [Karakoc et al. 2023b] [Newcome 2004] [Nguyen et al. 2022] [Ni et al. 2024b] [Nichols 1998] [Nichols 2021] [Nigam 2014] [Nigam and Kroo 2008b] [Nigam and Kroo 2008a] [Niles 1964] [Niu et al. 2019] [Nordholt and Greeff 2026] [Nusyirwan and Bil 2007] [Nygard 1995] [Oh et al. 2017] [Okcu 2016] [Olsen et al. 2019] [Ooi] [Operator Interface 2026] [Overholt 2007] [Overview of Unmanned Aircraft 2012] [Overview of Unmanned Aircraft 2014] [Pack and York 2008] [Pack et al] [Palmer 1970] [Pan et al. 2026a] [Papageorgiou et al. 2020] [Parasuraman and Miller 2006] [Park et al. 2017a] [Paul et al. 2013] [Pauls 2012] [Payton 2011] [Perry 2000] [Perry 2011] [Persistent tactical surveillance elements] [Perzanowski et al. 2000] [Piersol 1977] [Pomranky 2006] [Price and Forrest 2016] [Primatesta et al. 2021] [Prkačin et al. 2024] [Purvis 2003] [Pyzynski 2020] [Qu et al. 2015] [Ramachandra et al. 1980] [Ramasamy and Ghose 2016] [Rasmussen et al. 2006b] [Relationship between the Manned 1963] [Reorganization for the Era 2008] [Republic Aviation Corp Mineola Ny 1963] [Reynolds 2016] [Roden and Harrhy 1992] [Rodriguez 2013] [Rollo et al. 2015] [Romero 2015] [Ross 1954] [Ryan 1990] [” et al. 2017] [Sager 2009] [Saif et al. 2014] [Salinas et al. 2018] [Sandstrom et al. 2022] [Santamaría Barnadas] [Sastry 2001] [Schneider et al. 2011] [Schutz and Kutrzyba 2000] [Scott and Trimarchi 2024] [Sells and Crossley 2023] [Sherstjuk 2015] [Sherstjuk and Zharikova 2020] [Shi 2023] [Shi et al. 2024b] [Shima et al. 2014] [Shively and Barnes 2008] [Shmelova et al. 2017] [Singh and Ali Khan 2023] [Snyder 2000] [Solar Aircraft Achieves Longest 2010] [Sosa 1997] [Spearman 1984] [Special Topics in Unmanned 2014] [Specification for Design and] [Spry et al] [Squire et al. 2006] [Steeb et al. 1979] [Stewart et al. 2012] [Stuhne et al. 2023] [Summey et al. 2001] [Swift et al. 1990] [Taghizade 2026] [Tang et al. 2019] [Taylor et al. 2021] [Тамаргазін and Ліннік 2012] [The Control of Multiple 2026] [The Coyote Unmanned Air 2007] [The Future of Unmanned 2016] [The Path Forward 2016] [Tomczyk 2014] [Toussaint et al. 2007] [Towhidnejad and Clifford 2009] [Tvaryanas 2006] [Tvaryanas and Maupin 2013] [Tvaryanas et al. 2012] [Tweddale et al. 2011] [UAV System Deployment 2010] [UAV Systems Continuing Evolution 2010] [Lozano 2013] [Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 2016a] [Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 2020] [Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 2016b] [Unmanned Air Vehicles 2015] [Unmanned Air Vehicles 2017] [Unmanned Aircraft System Elements 2016] [Unmanned Aircraft System Operations 2016] [Unmanned aircraft systems] [Unmanned Aircraft Vehicles 2013] [Vahidi and Saberinia 2016] [Vahidi and Saberinia 2017] [Valavanis and Kontitsis] [Valavanis and Vachtsevanos 2014] [Valois et al. 2008] [Van Nederveen 2001] [Vashishth et al. 2024] [Venosa et al. 2017] [Vulnerability of Quick-Reacting Sheltered 1959] [Walker 2011] [Wang et al. 2019a] [Wang et al. 2019d] [Wang et al. 2023c] [Wanyonyi Rodgers 2024a] [Kaurin 2016] [Wasser et al. 2011] [Watson et al] [Watson et al. 2018] [Weaponised Unmanned Air Systems 2013] [White 2005] [Wierzbanowski and Kasten 1990] [Wilcox 1991] [Wilson 2011] [Wise 2004] [Wolfe] [Xu and Carrillo 2015] [Xu et al. 2024] [Yang et al. 2024b] [Yang et al. 2025a] [Yanushevsky 2026c] [Yao et al. 2018] [Yin et al. 2023b] [Yoo et al. 2014] [Yu et al. 2018b] [Yu et al. 2023b] [Yu et al. 2023a] [Yuma Proving Ground Az 2013] [Yuma Test Center Yuma Proving Ground AZ 2008] [Zhang et al. 2016] [Zhang et al. 2020a] [Zheng et al. 2014] [Zhiqiang and Wu 2017] [Zhong et al. 2025] [Zhou et al. 2022c] [Zhyvotovskyi and Petruk 2018]

Flight dynamics, control and system identification of unmanned and manned aircraft

How an aircraft moves and how its motion is measured. Equations of motion, stability and control, system identification, flight simulation and the flight control of manned and unmanned aircraft, together with the proceedings of the Atmospheric Flight Mechanics Conference.

296 records. [Abualigah et al. 2024] [Ackerman et al. 2019] [Adoghe] [Advanced Aircraft Control 2026] [Aircraft Dynamics and Classical 2015] [Aircraft Flight Control 2014] [Aircraft Maneuvers and Flight 2011] [Aircraft Models 2012] [Aircraft Stability and Control 2026] [Airframe Equations of Motion 1998] [Alatorre Sevilla] [Amin et al. 2016] [Appendix B Aircraft models] [Application of dynamic flight] [Autopilot Design Using Successive 2012a] [Autopilot Design Using Successive 2012b] [Aygün et al. 2014] [Azimov and Allen 2017] [Azizi et al. 2024] [Bean 1970] [Bernstein 2000] [Beyer et al. 2005] [Beyers 1983] [Bhardwaj et al. 1987] [Biber 2023a] [Blodgett and Lagor 2022] [Bodson 2001] [Bogos et al. 2018] [Boothe 1971] [Bretschneider et al. 2021] [Buck et al. 2004] [Cao et al. 2017b] [Carpenter and Jenny 1964] [Cen et al. 2018] [Chao et al. 2007] [Chapman et al. 2024] [Chatterjee and Basak 2021] [Chauhan and Lyshevski 2012b] [Chauhan and Lyshevski 2012a] [Chen and Zhao 2017] [Cheng and Pei 2020] [Cho and Nagati 1998] [Chodnicki et al. 2024] [Chu and Bryson 1987] [Chung 2012] [Costello 2009] [Cunis] [Cunningham 1976] [Curtiss 1970] [Cyrus and Fogarty 1979] [Dahleh and Tsitsiklis 2002] [Dakhno et al. 2021] [Danowsky et al. 2017] [Davidson et al. 1972] [de Divitiis 2006] [de Oca and Flores 2020] [Dehghan Manshadi and Saghafi 2021] [Dermer] [Dhiman et al. 2022] [Diez-Garcia and Dahm 2002] [Dlapa 2020] [Dobrokhodov 2014] [Dobrokhodov 2021] [Dollinger et al. 2021] [Dorobantu et al. 2013] [Dołęga et al. 2017] [Dukes 1970] [Erkol 2017] [Erturk and Dogan 2017] [Fan et al. 2021a] [Fantoni and Palomino 2013] [Feedback Flight Control 2026] [Flight Control 2015] [Flight Control Compartment Nomenclature] [Flight Dynamics of Elastic 2014] [Flight Envelope Awareness/Protection] [Flores and Lozano 2013] [Forkun et al. 2020] [Fung and Amitay 2002] [Gao et al. 2013a] [Gao et al. 2020] [Gatto 2009] [Generally on automatic flight] [Geronel et al. 2023] [Ghazi and Botez 2022] [Ghidella and Mosterman 2005] [Gilyard and Espana 1994] [Girish et al. 2014] [Goldberger 1966] [Goodner and Rao 1988] [Gray 1964] [Gu and Zhou 2002] [Gu et al. 2019] [Guclu et al. 2016] [Hajiyev et al. 2015d] [Hajiyev et al. 2015a] [Hall and Boothe 1972] [Hartmann et al. 2016] [Heald 1955] [Hegde 2020] [Henry et al. 2005] [Hernandez Ramirez and Nahon 2022] [Hess and Hess 1997] [Hill 1981] [Hill 1987] [Hoffer et al. 2013] [Hoffer et al. 2014] [Hoffer et al. 2015] [Hofmann and Riedel 1979] [Hongyan and Xiaoyong 2026] [Hossny et al. 2020] [How et al. 2014] [Hu et al. 2026a] [Huang 1969] [Huang and Zhang 2020] [Huber et al. 2024] [Iliff 1987] [Internal Model Control Tuned 2020] [Ivanova 2025] [Jafari and Xu 2018] [Jarrah and Ashley 1989] [Jategaonkar 2000] [Jategaonkar and Thielecke 1994] [Jianhong and Yanxiang 2026] [Kai 2024] [Kandath et al. 2023] [Kaye] [Khamvilai et al. 2024] [Khan and Khorasani 2010] [Khobin and Goncharenko 2021] [Kikkawa and Uchiyama 2017] [Kim et al. 2020] [Kirk et al. 2022] [Kitsios et al. 2020] [Kleinert et al. 2023a] [Klipp et al. 2021] [Krüger et al. 2010] [Kumar et al. 2007] [Kuppusamy and Yoon 2016] [Lanteigne and O’Reilly 2020] [Lee et al. 2011] [Li et al. 2016] [Liang 2026] [Linear Quadratic Flight Control 2026] [Ling 1970] [Liu and Singh 1995] [Liu et al. 2014] [Liu et al. 2016] [Liu et al. 2017b] [Long 1968] [Lu et al. 2011] [Lu et al. 2018] [Ma et al. 2015] [Maqsood and Go 2010] [Marino 2001] [Minto et al. 1989] [Mirchandani 2020] [Modeling Atmospheric Effects 1989] [Modeling the Aircraft 2015] [Morelli 1998] [Morse 1945] [Morton and Elgersma 1998] [Moua and Dees 2010] [Muhammad Aamir Zafar et al. 2011] [Muhammad Umer et al. 2020] [Murray 1999] [Murray and Doyle 2000] [Murray and Doyle 2001] [Mustapa 2015] [Müller and Moormann 2023] [Nelson 1974] [Nemati and Montazeri 2018] [Nicolosi et al. 2015] [Nie et al. 2021] [Obradovic and Subbarao 2011a] [Ogorodnikov 1993] [Okumoto and Elsanker 1973] [Oliveira and Guerreiro 2024] [Omran and Newman 2009] [Omran and Newman 2011] [Omran et al. 2008] [Owashi et al. 2017] [Paranjape 2023] [Patience and Nahon 2020] [Pauli 1964] [Pei et al. 2025] [Pham] [Pham] [Pizetta et al. 2014] [Placement in Flight Control 2026] [Porter and Manganas 1986] [Pradeep 1998] [Pujara and Shabbarhussein 1994] [Quantitative Design Requirements 2017] [Quigley et al. 1960] [Rabenberg and Palarz 1983] [Ramirez and Nahon 2021] [Rawson 1963] [Reinhardt and Johansen 2019] [Reinhardt and Johansen 2021] [Riedel 1979] [Riso et al. 2020] [Risse et al. 2014] [Rogalski 2018] [Rogalski et al. 2020] [Rogalski et al. 2021] [Rohlf et al. 2012] [Rolling Maneuvers 1996] [Rosario-Gabriel and Cortes 2018] [Rustenburg 1972] [Ryś et al. 2014] [Sadraey and Colgren 2006] [Sanchez-Rivera et al. 2019] [Sandino et al. 2013] [Sarabakha] [Sarigul-Klijn and Huber 2006] [Saxena and Faruque 2016] [Schütte and Hummel 2023] [Seanor] [Selvesyuk et al. 2019] [Seraj and Martins 2022] [Sgarioto et al. 2006] [Shao et al. 2024] [Sherstnev 2022] [Shore and Bodson 2004] [Shore and Bodson 2005] [Shukla et al. 2020] [Simms 2023] [Sims] [Sivrioglu 2023] [Sivrioğlu 2023] [Smith 1962] [Smith et al. 1973] [Song 2008] [Souanef 2024] [Specification for Low-Speed Flight] [Stability Considerations Affecting Aircraft 2010] [Stapleford 1978] [Stern 1984] [Stone] [Supsukbaworn and Lin 2014] [Szabolcsi 2018c] [Szabolcsi 2018a] [Szabolcsi 2018b] [Tantrairatn and Veres 2015] [Tekinalp and Prach 2013] [The Effects of Canard-Wing 1988] [Thelander 1965] [Theodore et al. 2004] [Thomasson 1995] [Thorne and Yim 2011] [Tischler 2018] [Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Dynamics 2016] [Valasek et al. 2009] [Validation and Verification Process] [Vehicle Management Systems] [Venkataraman and Seiler 2019] [Vepa 2016] [Vepa 2023b] [Vepa 2023a] [Vepa 2026] [Villanueva-Aguado and Bronz 2026] [Vishniak 1993] [Wagdi 1984] [Walker 1960] [Walker 1961] [Wang et al. 2025b] [Wasserman and Mitchell 1973] [Watts] [Wei Ren and Beard 2004] [Whiteside 1977] [Whiteside and Iffland 1977] [Williams and Trivailo 2006a] [Williams and Trivailo 2006b] [Wood et al. 2019] [Xie et al. 2026g] [Xu 2009] [Xu and Feng 2025] [Xu et al. 2013a] [Xu et al. 2013b] [Xu et al. 2014b] [Yan et al. 2023] [Yawing Maneuvers 1996] [Yildiz and Keskin 2023] [Yu et al. 2023c] [Zbrutsky et al. 2024] [Zhang and Bradley 2022] [Zhang et al. 2011] [Zhang et al. 2014] [Zhang et al. 2021a] [Zhang et al. 2023b] [Zhao et al. 2023c] [Zhou et al. 2016] [Zipfel 2011] [Zou et al. 2017a] [Żugaj 2017]

Automatic takeoff, landing and carrier recovery

Where an unmanned aeroplane earns or loses its case. Automatic takeoff and landing, carrier approach and recovery, arresting gear and catapults. Carrier recovery is the requirement that made the X-46A a naval aeroplane, and the April 2003 announcement lists avionics for precision approach and landing among what the naval version of the X-45C required.

294 records. [Abu-Akeel 1968] [Abu-Akeel 1969] [Aerospace Landing GEAR Systems] [Aircraft Automatic Approach 1996] [Aircraft Landing GEAR] [Aircraft Tires 2022] [Aircraft Wheels Brakes 2022] [Allen and Breitsamter 2008] [Allison 1972] [Apeng et al. 2018] [Arık and Bilgiç 2022] [Asyraf and Omar 2026] [Aubert et al. 2016] [Banks and Paulson 1985] [Bardera et al. 2019] [Batill and Bacarro 1988] [Belland et al. 2010] [Benditt 1963] [Berman 1974] [Berry 2000] [Berthomieu et al. 2014] [Best 1986] [Bi et al. 2021] [Bihrle 1969] [Billec 1967] [Black 1968] [Blackman and Eigenmann 1981] [Bly 2020] [Bodson and Athans 1985] [Bohao et al. 2026] [Bolonkin 2005] [Boullianne 1997] [Brown 2009] [Buell 1970] [Butler 1970] [Cai et al. 2018a] [Cao et al. 2026b] [Carrato et al. 1979] [Chai and Mason 1996] [Chaloff et al. 1974] [Chen and Chen 2026] [Chen and Yong 2023] [Chen et al. 2013] [Chen et al. 2015c] [Chen et al. 2021a] [Chen et al. 2024a] [Chernenko and Burnashev 2022] [Chester 1995] [Chisholm and Rudd 1957] [Collins et al. 2025] [Collyer et al. 1980] [Connelly 1982] [Connelly 1983] [Coutard et al. 2011] [Crashworthy Landing Gear 1998] [Crassidis and Mook 1991] [Crassidis et al. 1993] [CRITERIA-BASED MODELING OF SHIPBOARD 2020] [Cunningham 1981] [Currey 1988] [Dai et al. 2015] [Daly 1994] [Daughetee 1974] [De Lellis et al. 2013] [Delebarre 2019] [CHjen 2022] [Dewispelare and Stager 1981] [DeWispelare and Stager 1983] [Dhote et al. 2025] [Dinc and Gharbia 2023] [Di̇nç 2021] [Dong et al. 2021] [Douglas Aircraft Co Long Beach Ca 1962b] [Douglas Aircraft Co Long Beach Ca 1963] [Duan et al. 2022] [Durand and Teper 1964] [Durand and Wasicko 1965] [Durand and Wasicko 1967] [Dutta and Hemalatha 2024] [Dynamics of Shipboard Launch 2017] [Engelbeck et al. 1986] [Epp 2024] [Filippone 2008] [Finishing Systems for Naval 2006] [Fracture of an Aluminum 2019] [Franklin and Innis 1977] [Frost et al. 2002] [Gehring and George A. 1976] [Gevaert and Schulze 1978] [Ghiringhelli 2000] [Ghosh Dastidar and Frazzoli 2011] [Gibson et al. 1968] [Giridharan and Sivakumar 2022] [Godfrey 1953] [Gold 1974] [Gold and Walchli 1974] [Grantham and Williams 1987] [Grasso 1994] [Green and Findlay 2016] [Gressang 1976] [Guide for Installation of] [Han et al. 2019a] [Haoyuan et al. 2025] [Harper 1936] [Heirendt et al. 2014] [Hess 2019] [Hess and Judd 1976] [Hintzke and Haggard 1991] [Historical Design Information of] [Hoare 1968] [Horn 1973] [Hsin 1973] [Hsin 1974] [Huntington and Lyrintzis 1996] [Huntington and Lyrintzis 1998] [Jafar et al. 2006] [Jiang et al. 2013] [Jiang et al. 2018] [Jing and Zheng-Chun 2015] [Joshi and Compton 1985] [Kaminer et al. 2001] [Kansas Univ Lawrence 1952a] [Kaplan and Sargent 1970] [Kautz 1972] [Ke et al. 2014] [Kennedy and Floyd D. 1985] [Ketcham 1976] [Kewley et al. 2016] [King 1954] [Kitts and Lucas 1963] [Krabacher 1993] [KrÜGer et al. 1997] [Lai 2024] [Lai et al. 2026] [Lampton et al. 2018] [Landing GEAR - Aircraft] [Landing Gear Fatigue Spectrum] [Landing Gear Shock Absorption] [Lee and Chiou 1994] [Lee and Waldman 1994] [Lee et al. 2005] [Lehman 1964] [Lehman 1965] [Lehman 1966] [Li 2020] [Li and Майорова 2022] [Li et al. 2012b] [Li et al. 2014d] [Li et al. 2021] [Li et al. 2024a] [Lin et al. 2017] [Lion 1966] [Liu et al. 2023d] [Liu et al. 2023b] [Liu et al. 2025c] [Loftus and Piekarski 1994] [Lorenzetti et al. 1969] [Lorenzetti et al. 2020] [Low Plasticity Burnishing Tested 2006] [Lowrance and Smith 1996] [Lu et al. 2014a] [Lu et al. 2014b] [Lu et al. 2017] [Lu et al. 2022] [Lu et al. 2025] [Lv et al. 2011] [Makarenko et al. 2017] [Martorella et al. 1981] [Mayer 2000] [McDonald et al. 2020] [Meng and Li 2014] [Michini and How 2011] [Micklos 1991] [Miller 1970] [Miller and Seeliger 1975] [Misra and Bai 2018] [Misra and Bai 2019] [Morrison et al] [Mosby 1965] [Mottram 1997] [Naval Air Systems Command Washington DC 1978] [Naval Air Systems Command Washington DC 1980] [Nave 1973] [Nengjian Wang et al. 2016] [Nickerson et al. 2019] [Novakovic et al. 2016] [Overview of Aircraft Landing] [Owen et al. 2021] [Owen et al. 2023] [Peng et al. 2020] [Peng et al. 2025b] [Perkasa et al. 2024] [Perry and Schneider 1984] [Pervan et al. 2003] [National Bureau of Standards 1968] [Picard 2002] [Pollack 2013] [Prasad et al. 2020] [Promisel and Mustin 1951b] [Promisel and Mustin 1951a] [Qi et al. 2018b] [Quigley 2011] [Ramsey and Dixon 1967] [Redesigned Aircraft Landing Gear 1987] [Redesigning Landing Gear 2001] [Richards and Erickson 2019] [Richards and Tate 2023] [Richards et al. 2023] [Ridha 1968] [Rosa et al. 2007] [Rose et al. 2000] [Rudowsky et al. 2002] [Ruiyang et al. 2020] [Ryan et al. 2011] [Ryan et al. 2014] [Sankar 2012] [Schallhorn 2020] [Schmidt 2015] [Schmidt 2021] [Scholz et al. 2026] [Sedlmair et al. 2022] [Shafer et al. 2019] [Shao et al. 2023] [Shao et al. 2026] [Shimski et al. 2013] [Shipman 2014] [Siegel and Crain 1960] [Sivaramakrishnan 1981] [Stachiw et al. 2021] [Stanton et al. 2024] [Steinberg and Page 2001] [Streamline Development of Aircraft 2009] [Strietzel and Shefler 1963] [Structure with Carrier Suitability 1974] [Su and Abrial 2014] [Subrahmanyam 1994] [Sun et al. 2022] [Tang and Lai 2020] [Teledyne Ryan Aeronautical San Diego Ca 1974] [Tests, Impact, Shock Absorber] [Tseng and Epshteyn 2009] [Urnes and Hess 1985] [van Slagmaat 1992] [van Slagmaat 2004] [van Slagmaat 2026] [Wang 2022] [Wang and Carl 1999] [Wang et al. 2016c] [Wang et al. 2021b] [Wang et al. 2023a] [Wang et al. 2023f] [Wang et al. 2024a] [Wen et al. 2009] [Westra et al. 1981] [Whitehead 1960] [Wilkinson et al. 2001] [Wilson 2018] [Wilson 2019] [Witherell 1992] [Wong et al. 2017] [Wu et al. 2018] [Xiao et al. 2024] [Xu et al. 2017] [Xue et al. 2025] [Yang 1970] [Yang 1971] [Yang et al. 2016a] [Yang et al. 2024a] [Yang et al. 2025c] [Yilmaz and alaiwi 2024] [Yin et al. 2025] [Yoo et al. 2013] [York and Alaverdi 1996] [Young 2002] [Yuan et al. 2025] [Zakrajsek et al. 2017] [Zarchi and Attaran 2018] [Zhang et al. 2015] [Zhang et al. 2025a] [Zhang et al. 2025b] [Zhang et al. 2025e] [Zhang et al. 2026b] [Zhao et al. 2012] [Zhen et al. 2019] [Luo and Voronko 2023] [Zhimin and Guanxin 2013] [Zhimin and Guanxin 2014] [Zhou and Huang 2020] [Zhu and Qiu 2013] [Zhu Bin et al. 2018] [Zhu et al. 2018b] [Zhu et al. 2019] [Zhu et al. 2022c] [Zou et al. 2026]

Structural loads, fatigue, corrosion and service life

What the airframe must carry and how long it lasts. Design loads, gusts, flutter and aeroelasticity, fatigue, corrosion, structural integrity programmes, structural health monitoring and airframe manufacture. Corrosion is the carrier’s own structural subject, since the Research Question charges corrosion protection for a service life spent in salt air against the gross weight that has to hold the fuel.

287 records. [A Aircraft Rigid Body 2014] [A Static and Dynamic 1993] [Aeroelasticity and Loads Models 2014] [Aerospace Corrosion Control 1989] [Agrawal et al. 1992] [Ahmad et al. 2018] [Aircraft Flutter Control System 2011] [Aircraft Internal Loads 2014] [Aircraft Load 2010] [Aircraft Load Cases 2025] [Aircraft Moments of Inertia 1996] [Aircraft Structural Components 2015] [Airframe Components by ‘Chemical 1980] [Aly et al. 2002] [Appendix E. Airframe Parameters 2012] [Arrieta and Striz 2000] [Ashburn et al. 1970] [Aspects of Airframe Design 2010] [Austin and William H. 1964] [Bachman and Wells 1961] [Bahamonde Jacome and Elham 2017] [Bajurko 2019] [Baker and Wang 2018] [Balachandran 2014] [Baluch et al. 2007] [BAMS Airframe Risk Reduction 2007] [Barnard 1969] [Barnewitz 2009] [Becroft 2012] [Bell 1964] [Berci and Torrigiani 2020] [Bibin et al. 2012] [Biezad 1999] [Bolds 1961] [Bolds 1962] [Bolton and Rogers 1968] [Borden 2004] [Boudreault 1983a] [Boyd and Krishnan 1996] [Breitkopf 1989] [Brigham et al. 1973] [Bronstein et al. 2015] [Brown et al. 1980] [Brownfield and Badger 1960] [Bråmå 1987] [Burris and Bender 1969] [Butler 1998] [C Aircraft Symmetric Flexible 2014] [Calculation of Critical Flutter 1981] [Carr 2011] [Cea and Palacios 2021] [Chang et al. 2026] [Chiu 2010] [Constantin et al. 2023] [Corrosion of Low-Embrittling Cadmium] [D’Vari and Baker 1999] [Dal’Carobo and Fensterseifer 2010] [Das and Jones 2008] [Davis 1973] [de Jonge 1993] [Deburring Airframe Components 1988] [Delgado Regis et al. 2004] [Demo and Kim 2018] [Dempster and Bell 1965] [Disney 1966] [Doggett and Soistmann 1992] [Doherty and Butzel 1979a] [Doherty and Butzel 1979b] [Dowell 1996] [Duran 2010] [Dyess and William W. 1976] [Elham and Bahamonde Jacome 2016] [Elliott and Christian 1984] [Elsner et al. 1997] [Fagley et al. 2017] [Fang et al. 2017] [Figge 1973] [Figge and Bernhardt 1975] [Flansburg 2011] [Fonte et al. 2015] [Fortney and Avery 1957] [Fuller 1995] [Félix et al. 2019] [Gadomski et al. 2006] [Galffy et al. 2021] [Giles and McCullers 1975] [Giunta 1999] [Goncharov and Muravey 2019] [Gould 2001] [Grinsted 1949] [Gwin 1976] [Haftka et al. 2010] [Harter and Litvinov 2001] [Henderson et al. 2016] [Hoener et al. 1968] [Holzwarth 1998] [Hooker and Waisman 1954] [Hooker and Waisman 1956] [Horizontal Tail Loads 1996] [Horton and Mayers 1965] [Hunt and Brillhart 1993] [Ilesanmi et al. 2025] [Inoyama et al. 2008] [Ishii 1965] [Airbus Defence & Space et al. 2024] [Johnson et al. 1979] [Jones 2009] [Julke and Kawa 2000] [Kambampati and Smith 2017] [Kao et al. 1990] [Karniadakis 2004] [Katz 1979] [Kaufmann et al. 2009] [Kilimtzidis and Kostopoulos 2026] [Kim et al. 2009] [Kliment et al. 2018] [Krishnan et al. 1995] [Krog et al. 2004] [Krueger et al. 2017] [Krüger et al. 2022] [Laitone 1994] [Lanteigne et al. 2020] [Lappe 1966] [Lee et al. 2007b] [Lewolt and Okeefe 1979] [Lightening the Load 2002] [Lissandrello 2004] [Lizotte and Lokos 2005] [Lomax 1996] [Long and Ellis 1986] [Lovejoy et al. 2021] [Low VOC Military Aircraft 2008] [Luderer and Thielecke 2025] [Lushkin et al. 2026] [Luttgeharm 1990] [López et al. 2023] [Maekawa and Takegaki 2005] [Maekawa et al. 2007] [Majumder and Rao 2009] [Manimala et al. 2006] [Manning et al. 1984] [Masud and Khan 2015] [Materials and Material Requirements 2012] [Matsushita et al] [McCarty 1973] [McCombs et al. 1968] [McCray et al. 2005] [McDonnell Aircraft Corp St Louis Mo 1963] [Meadows et al. 2008] [Megson 2010a] [Megson 2010b] [Megson 2013] [Megson 2017] [Megson 2018a] [Megson 2018b] [Megson 2022] [Miller and Jansen 2023] [Miller and Schuessler 1989] [Mills 2009] [Miura et al. 1988] [Montel and Thielecke 2015] [Moon 1996] [Moosavi 2025] [Mori] [Mullen 1979] [Muller 2001] [Murty and Agarwal 2007] [Nagesh et al. 2015] [Nam et al. 1996] [Negaard 1980] [Newell and Harrington 1939] [Nickerson 2015] [Norrefeldt and Riedl 2021] [Norrefeldt and Riedl 2022] [Northrop Aircraft INC Hawthorne CA 1953a] [O’Brien 1989] [Oakley et al. 1997] [Obradovic and Subbarao 2010] [Obradovic and Subbarao 2011b] [Olson 2005] [Onkar et al. 2024] [Paget et al. 2004] [Paletta et al. 2010] [Pantelakis 2009] [Panzarella 1962] [Patrick 1981] [Petersson et al. 2010] [Pfingstl et al. 2022] [Poplingher and Raveh 2023] [Poplingher and Raveh 2024] [Pototzky and Moses 2005] [Pozzi et al. 2012] [Practice for Aircraft Simplified] [Practice for Aircraft Water] [Practice for Simplified Aircraft] [Preisighe Viana 2025] [Putscher 1967] [Rainey 1968] [Raley and Wang 1999] [Ranson 1993] [Rao 2018] [Raveh and Karpel 1999] [Raveh et al. 2000b] [Riso et al. 2021] [Robinson 2004] [Rodzewicz and Glowacki 2014] [Roe and Kattus 1957] [Romano and Mercurio 2017] [Rondeau et al. 1996] [Rose and Legg 2013] [Rose and Legg 2015] [Rosende 1979] [Rothwell 2001] [Rutkowski 1979] [Sachse 1998] [Sakata et al. 1975] [Sakata et al. 1976] [Samuels 1982] [Sandoz 1966] [Schmidt 1984] [Schuster 2013] [Scott and Clayman 2013] [Scott et al. 1992] [Sensburg et al. 1988] [Seshadri and Krishnamurthy 2017] [Sevy and Clark 1970] [Shen and Ferguson 2004] [Shipilov 2025] [Singletary 1987] [Snider 1967] [Sodja et al. 2021] [Standard Practice for Aircraft] [Standard Practice for Aircraft] [Standard Practice for Simplified] [Static Aeroelastic Considerations 1996] [Strganac 2007] [Stroud et al. 2002] [Structural Loads Analysis 1998] [Structural Weight Comparison 1981] [Study on Aircraft Structure 2015] [Su et al. 1995] [Sulaeman 2012] [Suleman 2007] [Svoboda 1999] [Switzky 1962] [Taylor et al. 2003] [Testing Relevant to Aeroelasticity 2014] [The Wing Structure 2013] [Thomas 1961] [Torenbeek 1972] [Trapp et al. 1977] [Tuegel et al. 2013] [Tyrer 1973] [Ungwattanapanit et al. 2016] [Velicki and Barkey 1992] [VFW 614 Airframe 1974] [Wallace 2000] [Wang] [Wang et al. 2017a] [Waszak and Buttrill 1991] [Watanabe and Scheumann 1998] [Waterhouse 1988] [Syed KashifHussain 2016] [Weisshaar 1979] [Wellen and Bartholomew 1987] [What’s Under the Skin?] [What’s under the Skin? 1999] [Whirl Flutter Optimisation-Based Solution 2017] [Wick] [Wilhem 1970] [Wilkinson et al. 1974] [Wilkinson et al. 1976] [Wing Loads 1996] [WlTTEL and DlSNEY 1967] [Wollner 1971] [Xu and Ping 2014] [Xue et al. 2011] [Yang 1980] [Yang and Li 2022] [Yang and Manning 1994] [Yu 2018] [Yu et al. 2019] [Zainuddin et al. 2021] [Zhou et al. 2008] [Zink] [Zou et al. 2017b] [Özöztürk et al. 2011]

Tailless configurations and their control effectors

The configuration, and the thread this article inherits from its predecessor. Tailless and flying wing aerodynamics and flight control, control allocation among redundant effectors, split drag rudders and yaw by thrust vectoring. A tailless aeroplane has a low maximum lift coefficient and cannot easily be given a high one, and the carrier approach speed limit turns that into a limit on wing loading.

265 records. [Agenbag et al. 2009] [Agte et al. 1997] [Ahmed et al. 2024] [Alex 2014] [Alipour et al. 2022] [Alyanak and Pendleton 2014] [Amanuddin and Dey 1980] [Anderson et al. 1997] [Ashkenas and Klyde 1989] [Atay et al. 2021] [Atmaca et al. 2026] [Banerjee 1984] [Banerjee 1988] [Barker and Balas 1999] [Begin 1983] [Bergman 1979] [Bishop 1961] [Boraas and Ashby 1969] [Boskovic and Mehra 1999] [Boskovic and Mehra 2000] [Boskovic et al] [Bourdin et al. 2007] [Bradley et al. 2012] [Bramsiepe et al. 2020] [Brinker and Wise 1998] [Brinker and Wise 1999] [Brinker and Wise 2000] [Brinker and Wise 2001] [Brodsky and Luby 2013] [Bronz 2019] [Buch and George M. 2010] [Buffington 1997] [Buffington 1999a] [Buffington 1999b] [Buffington and Sparks 1998] [Buffington et al. 1998] [Burkhalter et al. 1992] [Calise 2000] [Calise et al. 1998] [Calise et al. 2001] [Cheng and Pei 2021] [Chudoba and Cook 2003] [Colgren and Loschke 2008] [Collins 2005] [Control Surface Loads 1996] [Control Surface Sizing Criteria 2010] [Cook and Hauser 2018] [Cox et al. 1949] [Culpepper et al. 2021] [Cusher and Gopalarathnam 2006] [Cusher and Gopalarathnam 2012] [Dakka and Johnson 2019] [Das et al. 2024] [Davis and Hines 1976] [DeLaurier 2022] [Denieul et al. 2015] [Deslich et al. 2021] [Eberhardt and Ward 1999] [Ebrahimi Fakhari et al. 2024] [Ericsson and Beyers 2002] [Erwin et al. 1964] [Experimental Investigation of Synthetic 2023] [Fernando 2018] [Лемко 2008] [Foster et al. 1993] [Friehmelt 1996] [From Tube and Wing 2013] [Gillard et al. 1997] [Gingerich et al. 2026] [Giuliano et al. 1994] [Giuliano et al. 1997] [Goldthorpe et al. 2010] [Gopejenko et al. 2026] [Gregory et al. 2007] [Guiler] [Guiler and Huebsch 2005a] [Guiler and Huebsch 2005b] [Harris and Harris 1997] [Hassairi and Abid 2021] [Hauser 1999] [Hefazi et al. 2013] [Hoffler et al. 1986] [Hou et al. 2022] [Howard et al. 2002] [Hu et al. 2026b] [Huang and Wei 2025] [Huber 1995] [Huber 2022] [Huber et al. 2012] [Innocenti and Tonon 1988] [Islam et al. 2024] [Jiang et al. 2019] [Jiang et al. 2024a] [Jiguang Li et al. 2016] [Johnson 1949] [Jun 2023] [Jyothi et al. 2006] [Karimi Kelayeh and Djavareshkian 2024] [Kazarin et al. 2017] [Keidel et al. 2019] [Keidel et al. 2020] [Ko et al. 2019] [Kumar et al. 2020a] [Kumar et al. 2020b] [Kwiek 2019b] [Kwiek and Figat 2016] [Li et al. 1996] [Li et al. 2017c] [Li et al. 2018b] [Liebeck 2004] [Lin et al. 2026a] [Liu and Zhang 2022] [Liu et al. 2021] [Loechert et al. 2018] [Love and Kapania 2020] [Löchert et al. 2019] [Ma and Wang 2009] [Ma et al. 2008] [Mader and Martins 2010] [Mahantesh Katagi et al. 2015] [Maimako et al. 2026] [Mansor et al. 2019] [Mardanpour and Hodges 2013] [Mardanpour and Hodges 2014] [Marques 2013] [Mason and Crowther 2004] [Matamoros and de Visser 2018] [McBreen et al. 2023] [McKeehen 1998] [Meheut et al. 2012] [Mertzlufft et al. 2022] [Metin et al. 2023] [Miller 1983] [Mitcham et al. 1956] [Molinari et al. 2015] [Molinari et al. 2018] [Morris 1992] [Morris and Tigner 1995] [Mullins et al. 1996] [Murray 1949] [Myatt et al. 1998] [Nazim et al. 2026] [Nieto-Wire and Sobel 2007] [Nieto-Wire and Sobel 2009] [Nieto-Wire and Sobel 2011] [Oganyan and Loginov 2025] [Orhan and Subbarao 2021] [Oshin Mittal et al. 2024] [Pan and Huang 2019] [Pan et al. 2025a] [Paranjape and Chung 2010] [Paranjape et al. 2011] [Parello] [Park et al. 2017b] [Paul et al. 1997] [Peng et al. 2014] [Phan and Park 2018] [Postma 1970] [Protz and Sparks 1998] [Qi et al. 2017] [Qi et al. 2018c] [Rajamurugu et al. 2026] [Rajput et al. 2014] [Rajput et al. 2015] [Ramprasadh and Devanandh 2015] [Reist et al. 2022] [Richter et al. 2021] [Richter et al. 2022] [Riethausen 2026] [Rojas Carvajal and Amitay 2023] [Rojas Carvajal and Amitay 2025] [Rojas Carvajal et al. 2022] [Roy 2009] [Roy and Ghosh 2010] [Rui et al. 2007] [Saephan and van Dam 2006a] [Saephan and van Dam 2006b] [Saheby et al. 2026] [Saucez] [Saucez and Boiffier 2012] [Schuette et al. 2018] [Schwagerus et al. 2025] [Seebass 1997] [Sharma and Hosder 2024] [Shayan and Van Kampen 2021] [Shen 2026] [Shi and Wu 2022] [Shtessel et al. 1999] [Shtessel et al. 2002] [Shuang et al. 2016] [Shuang et al. 2017] [Simon et al. 1993] [Sineglazov and Karabetsky 2013] [Song et al. 2014] [Sparks] [Sparks and Sparks 1997] [Stenfelt and Ringertz 2009] [Stenfelt and Ringertz 2010] [Stenfelt and Ringertz 2013] [Strüber and Hepperle 2006] [Sun et al. 2005] [Sun et al. 2024b] [Surapaneni et al. 2016] [Suresh et al. 2013] [Tal and Karaman 2021] [Tal and Karaman 2022] [Tan et al. 2014] [Tanveer and Ahmad 2023] [Tao et al. 2016] [Tao et al. 2018] [Teel 1999a] [Teel 1999b] [Tingting and Aijun 2014] [Tohidi et al. 2018] [Tomac and Stenfelt 2014] [Torenbeek 1991] [Torvik 1990] [Tournes and Johnson 1999] [Tournes et al. 1997] [Traas et al. 2026] [Ulizar 1997] [Vale 2013] [Variable Mode Turbofan Jet 2002] [Velden 1997] [Vertical Tail Loads 1996] [Voss 2018] [Voß 2019] [Wahler et al. 2023b] [Wang and Wang 2012] [Wang and Zhou 2022] [Wang et al. 2020d] [Wang et al. 2024b] [Wang et al. 2025a] [Weyl 1944] [Weyl 1945e] [Weyl 1945d] [Weyl 1945c] [Weyl 1945a] [Weyl 1945b] [White and Innis 1959] [Wing and Asbury 1991] [Wise et al. 1999] [Wooten et al. 1984] [Xi and Zhao 2017] [Xie et al. 2011] [Yao et al. 2017] [Yeo et al. 2015] [Yu et al. 2023d] [Yu et al. 2024a] [Yue et al. 2009] [Yue et al. 2013b] [Yue et al. 2013a] [Zhang and He 2026a] [Zhang and He 2026b] [Zhang and Zhao 2023] [Zhang et al. 2013a] [Zhang et al. 2017a] [Zhang et al. 2018a] [Zhang et al. 2023c] [Zhang et al. 2025d] [Zheng et al. 2025] [Zhou et al. 2022b] [Zhou et al. 2023a] [Zhu et al. 2016] [Zhu et al. 2025]

Aircraft subsystems: hydraulic, electrical, fuel and environmental control

The systems an airframe carries whether or not anyone is aboard. Hydraulic, electrical, fuel, pneumatic and environmental control systems, avionics and instruments, and weight and balance systems. These masses are part of the empty-weight fraction the requirement demands be small.

242 records. [A Thermodynamic Analysis 2003] [Adler et al. 2022] [Aerospace - Design and] [Aerospace - Lightning Effects] [Aerospace Hydraulics and Actuation] [Aerospace Vehicle Wiring, Lessons] [Air Conditioning of Aircraft] [AIR Conditioning of Subsonic] [Airborne Hydraulic and Control] [Airborne Monitoring of Commercial] [Airborne Windshear Systems] [Aircraft batteries] [Aircraft Compartment Automatic Temperature] [Aircraft Components and Subsystems 2011] [Aircraft et al. 2011a] [Aircraft Electrical Power Systems 2025] [Aircraft Engine Fuel Feed] [Aircraft Environmental Control Systems 2025] [Aircraft Flexible Tanks General] [Aircraft Flight Control Actuation] [Aircraft fuel] [Aircraft Fuel System Design] [Aircraft Fuel System Pressure] [Aircraft FUEL System Vapor-Liquid] [Aircraft Fuel Weight Penalty] [Aircraft Hydraulic System Characteristics] [Aircraft Indicating Systems] [Aircraft Indicating Systems Optical] [Aircraft On Board Weight] [Aircraft Pneumatic Power Systems 2025] [Aircraft Secondary Power Systems 2025] [Aircraft Thermal Management System] [Aircraft Weight and Center 2010] [Aircraft/Engine Fuel Pump Net] [Airframe Avionics and Systems 2017] [Wyatt and Tooley 2009] [Airframe Systems Design Process 2025] [Akrim] [Alatishe et al. 2007] [Altimeter, Pressure, Compensated Turbine] [Aluc and Komurgoz 2023] [Amin 2023] [Arthurs and Valasek 2016] [Automatic Pilots Turbine Powered] [Autopilot, Flight Director, and] [Avionics Flight Software 2012] [Bachman 1988] [Baig et al. 2024] [Baker 1955] [Barber and Lavi 1970] [Bejan 2010] [Bendix Corp York Pa 1963] [Bennett and Bennett 1997] [Burnside 1974] [Buzzelli and Lauer] [Castrillo et al. 2017] [Chandler et al. 1993] [Chawla and Alexander] [Clark et al. 2023] [Combined Environmental Control 2001] [Compass, Magnetic, Non-Stabilized TYPE] [Control for Wireless Charging 2025] [Cook et al. 1975] [Coordinating Research Council INC Atlanta GA 1988] [Cox 1989] [Cuifeng and Wenqiang 2016] [Cun Shi et al. 2018] [Dantsker et al. 2020b] [Davis 1988] [De Hoff and Hall 1978] [Dell’Amico 2024] [Deresh 1982] [Design and Installation of] [Detail Requirements for 4,000] [Di Stasio et al. 2026] [Dickey and Marek 1963] [Directional Indicating System Turbine] [Dogga et al. 2024] [Doman 2015] [Drummond 1971] [Dyer 1977] [Eichler 1975] [Engelhardt 2004] [Enhanced Vision System 1999] [Environmental Control for Civil] [Environmental Control Systems ECS] [Equipment Cooling in Present] [Expósito Turbak et al. 2023] [Fazeli et al. 2016] [Feucht et al. 1978] [Flight Directors Turbine-Powered Subsonic] [Flight Test Procedures for] [Flilght Directors Turbine-Powered Subsonic] [Ford 1995] [Fu 1972] [Fuel and Oil Quantity] [Fuel System Functions 2009a] [Fuel System Functions 2009b] [Fuhrmann et al] [Garmendia et al. 2016] [General Requirements for Application] [General requirements for the] [George and Burton 1979] [Gill] [Goebel et al] [Goh and Zekavat 2021] [Gong 2023] [Gorgulu et al. 2023] [Green 1998] [Gregory and McCrink 2016] [Grenich et al. 1984] [Guide for Aircraft Electrical] [Gupta and Kumar 2022] [Gutterman 2007] [Guven and Hajiyev 2023] [Harriman and Palosky 1981] [Himich and Kineyko 1981] [Hovering Wireless Charging 2025] [Hydraulic System Survivability for] [Hydraulic Systems, Aircraft, Design] [Hydraulic Systems, Military Aircraft] [Jacobs] [Jansen et al. 2015] [Jansen et al. 2016] [Jenab and Rashidi 2009] [Jensen 2001] [Jiang et al. 2016a] [Johnsen et al. 2021] [Johnson 1995] [Jung et al. 2018] [Kaman Nuclear Colorado Springs Co 1963] [Kamboj and Sun 2026] [Key Characteristics of Aircraft 2012] [Key Characteristics of Aircraft 2019] [Kineyko 1982] [Kish et al] [Koopman 2021] [Krupen and Rogers 1964] [Ku and Andersson 2003] [Kulkarni and Corbetta 2019] [Larson 1958] [Leuchter 2013] [Li 2024] [Li et al. 2018a] [Lighting, Integral, for Aircraft] [Lighting, Integral, For Aircraft] [Lighting, Integral, for Aircraft] [Lightning Effects on Hydraulic] [Lightning Test Waveforms and] [Lin et al. 2026b] [Mach Meters Turbine Powered] [Magnetic Coupler Design 2025] [Mahulkar 2010] [Malpica Hincapie and Bejarano Cifuentes 2026] [Mare 2006] [Marhefka and Burnside 1978] [Markas 1993] [Marques et al. 2022] [Martin 1978] [Maximum-Allowable-Airspeed Instruments Turbine Powered] [Mayerson 1969] [McCarroll and Jackel 1961] [McElreath 1972] [MCMillan and Preston 1966] [Menke and Dombro 1957] [Moody et al. 2019] [Mullin 1986] [Mutar 2022] [Nagy 1979] [National Research Council Washington DC 2001] [Naval Air Development Center Warminsterpa 1975] [Nedresky 1996] [Neusypin and Selezneva 2019] [New York Univ Ny School Of Medicine 2001] [null] [Obrien 1984] [Ohio State Univ Columbus Electroscience Lab 1968] [Overspeed Warning Instrument Turbine] [Oz 1998] [Parker 1980] [Parts 1979] [Pathak 1976] [Pisani 1977] [Pressure Fueling Simulator for] [Primary Flight Controls by] [Reid and Albayati 2021] [Remote Servoed Air Data] [Requirements for Aircraft on] [Robertson and turnbow 1966] [Roland and Rumpfkeil 2017] [Rose et al. 1986] [Rosenthal 1970] [Samy et al] [Sasanapuri 2015] [Sawata and Sangha 2009] [Saxena et al. 2012] [Schleicher 1966] [Semke 2016] [Semke 2021] [Shah 2023] [Shang et al. 2025] [Shull 1952] [Shull 1953] [Sjovold et al] [Slapnicar] [Smith 1997] [Spreen 2019a] [Springer et al. 1982] [Spurthy et al. 2024] [Stall Warning Instrument Turbine] [Striebich 1986] [Tai 2005] [Takeoff Performance Monitor TOPM] [Te-Chang Li and Shaner] [Technical requirements for small] [Temperature Control Equipment, Automatic] [Temperature Instruments Turbine Powered] [Terörde et al. 2013] [Test Requirements and Means] [Testing of Airplane Installed] [Testing of Commercial Airplane] [The Aircraft Systems 2012] [The Aircraft Systems 2019] [The Influence of Modern 1966] [Thompson and Robertson 1990] [Three Loop Adaptive Robust 2025] [Togayev] [Total Temperature Measuring Instruments] [Transport Aircraft Fuel Tank 2000] [Tu and Lin 2011] [Tuck et al. 2018] [Vance 1984] [Vetsch and Burgener 1988] [Vlasov 1969] [Wang et al. 2018b] [Webb 2022] [White and Hanna 2026] [Wochholz 1989] [Yadav 2025] [Zhang et al. 2025f] [Zokowski 2020] [Ürgen and Altınel 2026]

Autonomy, mission management and onboard decision making

What the X-46A’s autonomy would have had to deliver, and nothing about it was published. Autonomous flight and landing, mission planning and mission management, contingency handling, autonomous aerial refuelling, and the ethics and law of autonomous weapons. The competitor’s single flight was announced in terms of autonomous control rather than of speed or altitude, and this is the field that framing was drawn from.

229 records. [Heidari and Abbaspour 2014] [Abershitz et al. 2009] [Aguiar and Pascoal 2012] [Alam et al. 2026] [Albaker and Rahim 2011] [Alijani and Osman 2021] [da Silva 2019] [An et al. 2023] [Anitha and Kumar 2012] [Arora et al. 2022] [Ashokkumar 2023] [Atkinson 2009] [Automation and Autonomy 2016] [Autonomous Control of Unmanned 2012] [Autonomous Control of Unmanned 2019] [Autonomous unmanned aircraft RandD 1994] [Baca et al. 2017] [Barbier and Chanthery 2004] [Bardhan et al. 2017] [Barlow 2004] [Barnhart 2012] [Bassi 2008] [Bestaoui and Lakhlef 2013] [Bhatia et al. 2021] [Blidberg 2003] [Borshchova and O’Young 2017] [Boskovic and Redding 2009] [Brinker 2004] [Brockett et al. 2002] [Bryant et al. 2015] [Bulka and Nahon 2017] [Cai et al. 2026b] [Campbell 2009] [Cappuzzo et al. 2022] [Castillo-Effen and Visnevski 2009] [Cetin and Yilmaz 2013] [Cetin et al. 2010] [Chaikalis et al. 2023] [Chakrabarty et al. 2016] [Chandra and Ghosh 2019] [Chen and Duan 2016] [Chen and Molnar 2002] [Chen et al. 2025b] [Hartmann et al. 2024a] [Clare et al. 2012c] [Clough] [Cooper and Ravela 2024] [Crump et al. 2002] [Davoudi et al. 2023] [de Bruin and Jones 2016] [Design, control, and autonomous] [Doherty et al. 2023] [Drusinsky et al. 2022] [Duraklar 2024] [Eubank and Atkins 2011] [Fan et al. 2019] [Fan et al. 2021b] [Frau 2022] [Fu et al. 2014] [Fukuda and Takimoto 2014] [Gallo and Barrientos 2022] [Gallo and Barrientos 2023] [Gallo Olalla] [Galway 2008] [Garcia and Casbeer 2017] [Gardi et al. 2015] [Gautam et al. 2014] [Getir Yaman et al. 2025] [Grecu and Gonsalves 2000] [Gu and Enoiu 2023] [Guide for Unmanned Undersea] [Gunawardana and Alonso 2013] [Gunetti et al. 2013] [Hanford et al. 2005] [Healey and Kim 2005b] [Herbst and Klöckner 2014] [Hinchey et al] [Hirsch and Schroeder 2014] [Hongfu Liu et al. 2012] [Horn et al. 2014] [Horn et al. 2015] [Horowitz et al. 2014] [Hsiao et al. 2002] [Hu et al. 2018] [Huan et al. 2015] [In-Flight Demo of Multiple 2007] [Innocenti et al. 2006] [Jahangirova et al. 2021] [Jiang et al. 2016b] [Jiaxin et al. 2017] [Johnstone and Arntz 1990] [Jones and Dye 2016] [Senthil Kumar and Shanmugam 2023] [Kaidan 2026] [Karásek et al. 2026] [Kaynak 2010] [Ke et al. 2009] [Keke et al. 2014] [Kelly 1994] [Kendall et al. 2022] [Khanafseh and Pervan 2007] [Kiam and Schulte 2017] [Kim et al. 2022] [Koh and Paranjape 2020] [Konert and Balcerzak 2021] [Koo and Sastry 2003] [Kopeikin et al. 2013] [Кукла 2026] [Kurnaz et al] [Kwon et al. 2013] [Lee et al. 2018b] [Lee et al. 2021] [Lee et al. 2026] [Leylek and Costello 2010] [Li and Chen 2003] [Lieret et al. 2021] [Linne 2022] [Liu and Valavanis 2026] [Liu et al. 2019] [Lowe et al. 2026] [LP Based Path Planning 2013] [Lugo and Zell 2013] [Lungu et al. 2022] [Luo et al. 2016] [Madej 2024] [Mammadov and Gueaieb 2014] [Mata and Insa 2024] [McManus and Walker 2006] [Mejias 2014] [Mersha et al. 2020] [Shoukun et al. 2024] [Mohammadi et al. 2020] [Morris et al. 2005] [Munoz et al. 2013] [Müller and Bauer 2024] [Navickiene et al. 2025] [Neace et al. 2017] [Niendorf et al. 2012] [Nijveldt and Ijtsma 2022] [Nikolaidis et al. 2025] [Ogorzalek et al. 2019] [Ogren et al. 2006] [Opening up Civil Airspace 2007] [Ozerdem 2023] [Papa 2023] [Papa et al. 2026] [Patel et al. 2011] [Patel et al. 2021] [Pedrozo 2022] [Peng 2021] [Peng et al. 2016] [Pessanha Santos et al. 2023] [Peter et al. 2024] [Pieniążek 2003] [Polvara et al. 2018] [Pouya and Saghafi 2009] [Powell 2001] [Primatesta 2025] [Prohorov et al. 2025] [Qiu and Ye 2012] [Qu et al. 2011] [Qu et al. 2013] [Ramos et al. 2011] [Raza] [Ridder and HandUber 2005] [Rodriguez-Ramos et al. 2017] [Rosales et al. 2021] [Ruff and Calhoun 2013] [Rumba and Nikitenko 2020] [Safeer and Costello 2026] [Saghafi and Esmailifar 2009] [Sato et al. 2016] [Scheidt 2014] [Schopferer and Benders 2020] [See et al. 2017] [Seitzer 2003] [Shin et al. 2013] [Silva] [Simpson 2021] [Song et al. 2023] [Tan et al. 2019] [Tan et al. 2022] [The Algorithm 2020] [Tin et al. 2020] [Tinoco] [Tomczyk and Gruszecki 1999] [Torno et al. 2014] [Tošić 2023] [Tsoukalas et al. 2026] [Tsourveloudis and Doitsidis 2025] [Tweedale 2012] [Unmanned Autonomous Vehicle 2016] [Usach Molina] [Vachon et al. 2002] [Vankadari et al. 2018] [Vanualailai et al. 2013] [Venugopalan et al. 2012] [Visnevski and Castillo-Effen 2010] [Voznesenskii 2021] [Wang and Wang 2020] [Wang Chang-qing et al. 2016] [Wang et al. 2009] [Wang et al. 2020e] [Wang et al. 2022b] [Wang et al. 2025e] [Webster et al. 2012] [Weiskopf et al. 2002] [Wu and He 2022] [Wu et al. 2023] [Xie et al. 2019b] [Xiong et al. 2022] [Xu 2018] [Xu et al. 2014a] [Yang et al. 2024c] [Yavnai 2003] [Yomchinda 2015] [Yoon et al. 2009] [Young et al. 2005] [Zhang and Li 2023] [Zhang et al. 2017b] [Zhang et al. 2022] [Zhang et al. 2023a] [Zhao and Pei 2012] [Zhao and Zhu 2016] [Zhao et al. 2013] [Zhao et al. 2018a] [Zhao et al. 2019] [Zhao et al. 2021] [Zheng et al. 2017]

Guidance, navigation, state estimation and path planning

Where the aircraft is and where it goes next. Navigation and state estimation, path and trajectory planning, wind estimation, cooperative target tracking, collision avoidance and the selection of an emergency landing site by an unmanned aircraft.

188 records. [Airborne Landing Guidance System] [Akagi et al. 2024] [Amelin 2022] [Andert and Mejias 2015] [Antony et al. 2024] [Approach to Landing Guidance] [Asfour et al. 2025] [Azad et al. 2024] [Bageshwar 2017] [Balaji et al. 2020] [Balmer et al. 2018] [Battiston et al. 2017] [Ben-Asher 1992] [Benders 2018] [Benders and Koch 2019] [Benders et al. 2018] [Benders et al. 2020] [Birnbaum et al. 2014] [Blomenhofer et al. 1994] [Borrelli et al. 2006] [Brezoescu et al. 2013] [Bulka and Nahon 2019] [Caballero et al] [Cao et al. 2017a] [Cao et al. 2025] [Capitan et al. 2014] [Castrillo et al. 2018] [Julian L. Center 1975] [Ceren and Altuğ 2011] [Chan and Hsiao 2011] [Chan et al. 2011] [Chang and Laliberté 2023] [Cheng et al. 2014] [Chitrakaran et al. 2005] [Chitrakaran et al. 2006] [Coombes et al. 2013] [Coombes et al. 2015] [Coombes et al. 2017] [Cordero et al. 2014] [Cross] [Dai and Cochran 2009] [Dang et al. 2019] [Darbari et al. 2017] [de Cos et al. 2017] [de Souza et al. 2018] [Deal and Mazumdar 2026] [Di et al. 2011] [Dobrokhodov 2011] [Eaton and Chen 2015] [Elston et al. 2015] [Eun and Bang 2009] [Fahimi 2005] [Fahimi and Thakur 2013] [Farmani et al. 2015] [Frew et al. 2006] [Gabrlik and Cihlar 2026] [George and Ghose 2009] [Gladkov I. a. Application 2017] [Gomez and la Cour-Harbo 2021] [Gruszecki et al. 2007] [Guo et al. 2020] [Hajiyev 2024] [Hajiyev et al. 2015c] [Hamanaka 2023] [Hamnanaka 2018] [Hari et al. 2019] [Huang et al. 2017] [Huang et al. 2020] [Huang et al. 2021] [Huang et al. 2025] [Humphrey and Humphrey 1997] [Iglesis et al. 2021] [Iglésis] [Incremona and Ferrara 2023] [Jafari et al. 2017] [Jain et al. 2017] [Jameson et al. 2009] [Janoušek et al. 2023] [Jun and D’Andrea 2003] [Kahn 2010b] [Kamanlı 2023] [Kaminer et al] [Kharchenko and Mukhina 2014] [Kim and Bang 2016] [Koch et al. 2016] [Kohno and Sasa 2005] [Kumon et al] [Lee et al. 2016] [Lei and Liu 2019] [Lei et al. 2025] [Li et al. 2024b] [Liang et al. 2014] [Male and Bodenhorn] [Malhotra et al. 2026] [Mathur and Atkins 2025] [McGee 1977] [McGee and Hedrick 2006] [McKinnis et al. 2021] [Mengying et al. 2017] [Microwave Landing System MLS] [Milijas et al. 2021] [Minervini et al. 2024] [Mingfeng Zhang and Liu 2012] [Montiel-Varela et al. 2016] [Moon et al. 2014] [Mueller 2018] [Mueller and Kochenderfer 2016] [Nakamura and Johnson 2016] [Natesan et al. 2008] [Nospes and Stütz 2023] [O’Rourke et al. 1999] [Olivares Méndez] [Opromolla 2020] [Ostheimer and Giguere 1963] [Pang] [Parada et al. 2017] [Path Planning for Multiple 2010] [Pelizer et al. 2017] [Petnga and Xu 2016] [Pierson 1986] [Pinchetti et al. 2022] [Potes et al. 2026] [Pravitra and Puntunan 2016] [Qu et al. 2017] [Ragi and Chong 2013] [Ramasamy 2015] [Ramasamy et al. 2015] [Ren 2007] [Rhudy et al. 2019] [Rhudy et al. 2023] [Ringkowski and Chao 2017] [Sabatini et al. 2014] [Sabatini et al. 2015] [Saeed Mirza] [Safaei and Sharf 2021] [Sajjadi et al. 2026] [Sakamaki et al. 2017] [Sandino et al. 2015] [Schopferer and Pfeifer 2015] [Schopferer et al. 2018] [Schwung and Lunze 2021] [Sease et al. 2023] [Seiferth et al. 2020] [Sharma and Hablani 2014] [Sharma et al. 2009] [Sharma et al. 2012] [Shiyan et al. 2016] [Sivrioglu and Basaran 2024] [Sollie et al. 2024] [Stachura and Frew 2011] [Static Output Feedback Control 2014] [Sun et al. 2025] [Surkova et al. 2026] [Ta et al. 2014] [Tang] [Tang 2013] [Tekinalp and Ariyibi 2015] [Thrasher 1969] [Tomczyk 2003] [Tomczyk and Rogalski 2005] [Tosun 2023] [Tsourdos et al. 2010] [Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Path 2014] [Vuppala and Kara 2022] [Váňa et al. 2020] [Wang et al. 2018a] [Wang et al. 2020a] [Wenz and Johansen 2020] [Wu and Mueller 2018] [Xie et al. 2026a] [Xie et al. 2026f] [Xie et al. 2026b] [Xie et al. 2026c] [Xie et al. 2026e] [Xie et al. 2026d] [Yacef et al. 2014] [Yang et al. 2020] [Yanushevsky 2026b] [Yanushevsky 2026a] [Yoon and Kim 2010] [Youngrun and Jung 2025] [Zarzhitsky et al. 2009] [Zelenka et al] [Zhang et al. 2020b] [Zhao and Tsiotras 2013] [Zheng et al. 2026c] [Zhou et al. 2012] [Zhubin and Ruikun 2023]

Airspace integration, regulation, safety and the law of unmanned aircraft

The conditions under which an unmanned aircraft may fly at all. Integration into controlled airspace and traffic management, detect and avoid, regulation and law, airworthiness standards, safety and risk assessment, and the law and ethics of armed unmanned aircraft.

178 records. [Abouzahr and Jacob 2023] [Air Force Safety Agency Kirtland AFB NM 2000] [Air Tracking and Monitoring 2019] [Alharasees and Kale 2023] [Alieksieiev and Tsybov 2025] [Allouche 2005] [Ates et al] [Ayhan et al. 2016] [Barbeau and Jacob 2017] [Baum 2021b] [Baum 2021a] [Ben et al. 2017] [Berger 2013] [Breunig and Sayed 2018] [Bulusu et al. 2020] [Burke 2019] [Canolla et al. 2017] [Casey-Maslen 2018a] [Casey-Maslen 2018d] [Casey-Maslen 2018c] [Casey-Maslen et al. 2018] [Castagno et al. 2018] [Categorization and classification of] [Cho 2017] [Clothier and Walker 2014] [Conducting Unmanned Aircraft Flight 2015] [Cour-Harbo 2018] [Cour-Harbo 2020] [Cronk 2007] [Current Manned Aviation Regulation] [Cwojdziński et al. 2012] [Dalamagkidis et al. 2012c] [Dalamagkidis et al. 2012b] [Dang 2025] [Devasia and Lee 2016] [Edwards and Mackay 2017] [Feltman et al. 2020] [Flight performance of civil] [Funk 1964] [Gardi et al. 2016] [Geister and Geister 2013] [General requirements for tethered] [George 2015] [Gerster and Niederl 2025] [Grisworld 2008] [Guerin 2015] [Hamnanaka 2019] [Harrison 2011] [Hartmann et al. 2024c] [Hartmann et al. 2024b] [Henderson 2023] [Hodgkinson and Johnston 2018a] [Hodgkinson and Johnston 2018b] [Howard 2023] [Huang et al. 2024b] [Integrating Remotely Piloted Aircraft 2016] [Jamoom et al. 2016] [Janisch et al. 2023] [Jaussi and Hoffmann 2018] [Joslin 2015] [Kaliardos and Lyall 2014] [Kallinen] [Kallinen et al. 2020] [Kasim 2018] [Kasprzyk and Konert 2020] [Kenny] [Kephart and Braasch 2008] [Kim 2018] [Kim 2019] [Ko and Kumar 2019] [Konert and Kasprzyk 2024] [Kushneruk 2026] [König et al. 2023] [La Monica 2021] [Liu et al. 2022b] [Liu et al. 2026b] [Londner 2016] [Longino 1994] [Lunsford] [Luxhoj and Morton 2011] [Magister 2010] [Maki et al. 2010] [Maki et al. 2012] [Masutti 2009] [Matsuno and Andreeva-Mori 2023] [McFadyen and Martin 2016] [Mendes de Leon and Scott 2015] [Milano et al. 2022] [Moody and Strain 2009] [Mostafa and Schnell 2016] [Murray et al. 2022] [Mutuel 2013b] [Mutuel 2013a] [Mutuel 2020] [Nadler 2015] [Newton 1978] [Noth 2011] [Noth and Luke 2011] [Nysetvold and Salmon 2019] [Ogan 2014] [Oncu and Yildiz 2014] [Oren and Kocyigit 2016] [Orrell et al. 2017] [Pappas 2016] [Park et al. 2014] [Perz 2023] [Petnga 2018] [Petrock and Huizenga 2006] [Phillips and Herr 2020] [Pieniazek and Ciecinski 2021] [Policy Issues of Remotely 2016] [Novgorodov 2025] [Practice for Application of] [Practice for Methods to] [Practice for Unmanned Aircraft] [Rainer 2014] [Rainer 2015] [Randolph 1997] [Range of Safety Issues 2008] [Rocchio et al. 2017] [Rollo et al. 2024] [Rudy 2013] [Sabó et al. 2025] [Sacharny and Henderson 2022b] [Sacharny and Henderson 2022a] [Sahawneh and Beard 2014] [Sampigethaya et al. 2018] [Schalk 2017] [Schoenbein 2009] [Schulzke 2016] [Shah 2013] [Shen et al. 2017] [Singh 2024] [Specification for Aircraft Flight] [Specification for Design and] [Specification for Design, Construction] [Specification for Design, Construction] [Specification for Small Unmanned] [Specification for Unmanned Aircraft] [Standard Practice for Methods] [Standard Specification for Design] [Standard Specification for Design] [Standard Specification for Small] [Standard Terminology for Unmanned] [Stellatou and Erotokritou 2024] [Strawser 2013] [Sutcliffe 2002] [Tabassum et al. 2020] [Templin and Mohammad 2011] [Terminology for Unmanned Aircraft] [Test methods for civil] [Thomas and Takahashi 2020] [Tran] [Tran et al. 2020] [Trimarchi 2023] [Truong et al. 2024] [Truxal and Scott 2024] [Uncrewed aircraft systems�� UAS] [Unmanned Aircraft Categories 2012] [Unmanned Aircraft Categories 2014] [Masutti and Tomasello 2018b] [Unmanned Aircraft Systems Airspace 2011] [Unmanned Aircraft Systems Regulation] [Unmanned aircraft systems UAS] [Unmanned Systems Terminology Based] [Van Trees 2015] [Wallace et al. 2019] [Wang et al. 2025g] [Wanyonyi Rodgers 2024b] [Weizmann 2018] [Westat INC Rockville MD 2001] [White] [Xiaofei et al. 2025] [Xue and Do 2019] [Zhang] [Zhou et al. 2024] [Zoldi et al. 2016] [Zvyagina and Mordovin 2026]

Aircraft performance, range and cruise

The performance the segment ratios summarise. Cruise, range and endurance performance, climb, takeoff and landing performance, and the optimisation of cruise altitude and speed, which What the Mission Costs in Fuel holds fixed at one altitude and one Mach number.

178 records. [Adami et al. 2024] [Aggarwal et al. 1979] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1979] [Aircraft Cruise in Steady 2011b] [Aircraft Cruise in Steady 2011] [Aircraft Landing Procedure 1998] [Aircraft Operating Envelope 2010] [Aircraft Performance 2007] [Aircraft Performance 2010] [Aircraft Performance 2026] [Aircraft Performance Methods 2010] [Aircraft Steady Gliding Longitudinal 2011b] [Aircraft Steady Gliding Longitudinal 2011a] [Aircraft Steady Level Turning 2011b] [Aircraft Steady Level Turning 2011a] [Aircraft Steady Longitudinal Flight 2011b] [Aircraft Steady Longitudinal Flight 2011a] [Aircraft Steady Turning Flight 2011b] [Aircraft Steady Turning Flight 2011a] [Aircraft Basic Forces 1995] [Alexandrov et al. 2023] [Anderson 1986] [Appendix C 1997] [Appleman 1957] [Avanzini and Giulietti 2013] [Aydın et al. 2025b] [Baker 2006] [Banister and Hereford 1982] [Barman and Erzberger 1976] [Barufaldi and Annes Da Silva 2020] [Barufaldi et al. 2022] [Bilimoria 1989] [Blakey et al. 2011] [Block Novelo et al. 2019] [Bonnin and Hoogreef 2025] [Bovet 2005] [Boyle 2011] [Carson 1980] [Cavcar 2006b] [Cavcar and Cavcar 2004] [Chase 1944] [Chu et al. 2010] [Climb Performance 2012] [Coales 1931] [Collins 1982] [Cruise Performance 2012] [Cruise Performance 2022] [Cutler et al. 2010] [de Nercy - Maingard and Palies 2023] [Delgado et al. 2024] [Design Constraints 1993] [Diallo 2012] [Dowling and Costello 2017] [Edwards 1950] [Effect of High Mach 2010] [Ekici et al. 2024] [Energy Approach to Performance 2003] [Fairey 1929] [Filippone 2010] [Flittie and Curtin 1998] [Foss 1944] [Foster et al. 2018] [Galvão 2007] [Gavrilovic et al. 2017] [Ghaemi et al. 2019] [Gibelli 2023] [Gilbert and Lyons 1981] [Gilbert and Parsons 1976] [Glīzde 2017] [Gomez-Tierno et al. 1999] [Glowacki and Kawalec 2015] [Hale and Steiger 1978] [Hale and Steiger 1979] [Hall et al. 2018] [Hawkins 1982] [Helmken et al. 1996] [Hetherington et al. 2025] [High-Altitude Atmospheric Density 1960] [Holmes 1982] [Holzapfel et al. 2006] [Hoogreef 2026] [Jagtap et al. 2023] [Jagtap et al. 2025b] [Jameson 2009] [Johnson 1972] [Jones 1948] [Joo et al. 2015] [Kale 2024] [Kang and Ryu 2021] [Klaproth and Hornung 2021] [Larsen 1966] [Level Flight Performance Jet 2003] [Li and Hansman 2018] [Lin 1982] [Linnell 1963] [Manon 1981] [Martinez-Val et al. 1994] [Marwa et al. 2017] [McDonald 2011] [Mendoza et al. 2015] [Menon 1986] [Miller 1965] [Miller 1993] [Miller and Koch 1985] [Morris 1954] [Mosyam and Ardian 2026] [Ötkür 2021] [Murthy 1996] [Myschik et al. 2010] [Nicks 1983] [Ohme 2009] [Ohme and Raab 2008] [Ozcan and Alemdaroglu 2015] [Palaia and Abu Salem 2023] [Paranjape and Ananthkrishan 2005] [Pargett and Ardema 2005] [Pavitpok et al. 2020] [Perez and Jansen 2014] [Piloted Aircraft Performance 2004] [Pourtakdoust and Mortazavi 2008] [Riboldi 2019] [Roberts 1990] [Ruan and Wu 1985] [Sachs 2012] [Sachs 2013] [Sachs and Christodoulou 1987] [Sachs et al. 2021] [Sadraey 2017a] [Sadraey 2023] [Schairer 1946] [Schopferer et al. 2016] [Shankar and Cliff 1988b] [Shankar and Cliff 1988a] [Shankar et al. 1989] [Simpson 1979] [Singh and Dhawan 2015] [Slingerland and Volders 2003] [Sogut 2025] [Soltmann and Hall 2017] [Spark et al. 2026] [Stratford 1948] [Suchomel et al. 2008] [Sun et al. 2020] [Suwal and Cliff 1990] [Tang et al. 2024] [Tang et al. 2025] [Tich et al. 1987] [Torenbeek 1997] [Torenbeek and Wittenberg 1983] [Turgut 2017] [Turgut and Rosen 2012] [Ucar et al. 2023] [Unified Cruise Performance 2013] [Update of Knowledge-Based Aircraft 2008] [Vaidya and Peter-Contesse 1985] [Valenzuela and Rivas 2014] [Vallone] [Vazquez et al. 2017] [Velásquez-SanMartín et al. 2021] [Verstraete 2013] [Very High Altitude Science 2026] [VIII. High Altitude Flight 1938] [Wagenmakers 2020] [Wang 2026a] [Wang and Mesbahi 2020] [Wei et al. 2010] [White 1992] [Wild 2021] [Wittenberg 2001] [Wortmann et al. 2015] [Wu et al. 2024] [Yechout 1986] [Yechout 1988] [Yokell and Baker 1994] [Young 2010] [Zaprianov et al. 1987] [Zheng et al. 2026b] [Özer and Baklacioglu 2026]

Crew stations, escape and life support

This is the literature of what a crew costs. Cockpits and crew stations, ejection and escape, oxygen and life support, pressurisation, crew seats and crashworthiness, displays, and the crew’s own physiology. These are the masses the Research Question lists as given back by an unmanned aeroplane, and Thin Subjects records that no title in the survey puts a weight on them as a whole.

163 records. [A Crew for Big 1914] [Aircraft Cabin Pressurization Control] [Aircraft Crew Escape System 2014] [Aircraft Instrument Standards Wording] [Altava et al. 2020] [Analytical Methods for Aircraft] [Aponso and Johnston 1988] [Aragon] [Aryaman et al. 2023] [Ast and Green 1981] [Barnes 1968] [Barnett 1961] [Basic Aircraft Oxygen Systems] [Beaudet et al. 1987] [Blevins et al. 1989] [Boscola 1973] [Breitmaier 1988] [Bridges 1988] [Brown 1978] [Buller 2017] [Cabin Air Requirements 1972] [Catelani et al. 2015] [Chang 2006] [Chen et al. 2026h] [Cockpit Crew Oxygen Equipment] [Cockpit Visibility for Commercial] [Continuous Flow Aviation Oxygen] [Convenient Location of Oxygen] [Cottrell 1988] [Crew Compartment and Aircraft 1965] [Crew Safety Provision for] [Crew Safety Provisions for] [Crew Station Lighting] [Crewmember Demand Oxygen MASK] [Daidzic and Simones 2010] [Delgado 2018] [Design Criteria for Airborne 1975] [Desjardins and Laananen 1980] [Douglas Aircraft Co Long Beach Ca 1983] [Dufour and McGillivary 2007] [Echols 1953] [Ergonomic Aspects of Crew 1974] [FAR Regulatory Requirements] [Farmer and Seibert 1992] [Field 1999] [Flight Crew Interface Considerations] [Flight Deck Escape Provisions] [Flight Deck Instrumentation, Display] [Flight Deck Interior Doors] [Flight Deck Lighting for] [Flight Deck Lighting for] [Flight DECK Seats for] [Folds] [Formisano 2024] [Frazier and McElreath 1976] [Freeman et al. 1962] [Games et al. 1954] [Geiselman et al. 1993] [Genco and Task 1981] [Gifford and Gaito 1957] [Gorham and Livingston 1967] [Grether 1973] [Hackenberger and Mattenson 1965] [Harris 2007] [Harris et al. 2005] [Harrison et al. 2007] [Henry 1953] [Hicks et al. 2014] [High Altitude Chamber Training 2015] [Hinton and Oseguera 1993] [Houtsma 2003] [Instrument and Cockpit Illumination] [Instrument and Cockpit Lighting] [Instrument Panel Arrangement for] [Integration Procedures for the] [Itt Systems Rome Ny 1987] [Jet Blast Windshield Rain] [Jines 1983] [Johnson 1986] [Johnson 1989] [Johnson and Robertson 1980] [Keller and Plaga 2008] [Kennedy 1999] [Ketchel and Jenney 1968] [Kiehl 1960] [Knobs, Control Aircraft, Recommended] [Kumar et al. 2019] [Laananen 1980] [LaPuma and Bridenbaugh 1988] [Dargent and Hervé 2022] [Lebedev and Kulida 2021] [Lehman et al. 1994] [Location and Actuation of] [Location and Actuation of] [Lorch 1981] [Loudon 1973] [Lowry et al. 1994] [Lypaczewski et al. 1987] [Magruder et al. 1968] [Maldonado and Stork 1983] [Masud and Ayyaz 2014] [McCarty and Smith 1983] [McGrath 2000] [Middleton 1959] [Newman and Stanzione 1991] [Night Vision Goggles NVG] [Norton and Dyme 1952] [null] [O’Donnell et al. 1988] [Oxygen Regulators for Commercial] [Ozone in High Altitude] [Ozone Problems in HIGH] [Parate 2020] [Parate 2022] [Parate 2026] [Parate et al. 2026] [Parisi 2004] [Zuo et al. 2023] [Pilot Versatility From the] [Pilot Visibility from the] [Pilot Visibility from the] [Rash 2001] [Reardon et al. 1999] [Reed and Avery 1966] [Regan 1986] [Regulatory Requirements Covering the] [Risby et al. 2013] [Rodak 2019] [Rothe et al. 1963] [Safety Considerations - Flight] [Schoenbeck and Schultz 1999] [Schwartz and Shearer 1964] [Schwartz et al. 1999] [Seats for Flight DECK] [Seats for Flight Deck] [Selcon 1990] [Selcon et al. 1995] [Shannon 1973] [Sherry and Mauro 2014] [Shevchenko et al. 2023] [shi et al 2024] [Shu et al. 2023] [Singh et al. 2013] [Specification for Crew Interface] [Specification for general design] [Standard Specification for Crew] [Subsonic Aircraft Instrument Standards] [Swingle 1995] [Tauby 1979] [Test methods for transparent] [Newman and Greeley 2017] [Trikha and Creighton 1989] [Veitengruber 1977] [Vivona 2002] [Welbourn and Lachance 1961] [Williamson 1966] [Winder and Michaelis] [Wynveen 1966] [Yipton and Blachowski 1996] [Zehner 2001] [Zehner and Hudson 2002] [Zhang and Sun 2013] [Zhang and Yi 2011]

Carrier operations, deck handling and the ship environment

The ship the aeroplane has to live on. Deck operations and their scheduling, deck motion and ship air wake, carrier landing control and guidance, steam and electromagnetic launch, mooring, and the carrier and its air wing as a combat system.

144 records. [Aircraft Carrier Base 1987] [Algorithm for Evaluation 2020] [Anderson 1996] [Baker et al. 2000] [Barnett and White 1963] [Baumgartner et al. 1979] [Bernardin 1961] [Brodersen and Sauer 1992] [Brodzinsky 1959] [Calvano and Harney 1998] [Chen 2025a] [Chen et al. 2015a] [Chen et al. 2018] [Chessman 2022] [Cook 1964] [Coutard and Chaumette 2011] [Crafton 1965] [Cui et al. 2020] [Ding et al. 2015] [Dong et al. 2020] [Englebry 1980] [Englebry 1981] [Чжан 2021] [Ferrier and Duncan 2012] [Fish and Sitzman 2008] [Flansburg 2015] [Flansburg 2016] [Frost 1968] [Ge et al. 2025] [Guo and Kang 2019] [Guo et al. 2025] [Guo et al. 2026] [H H Aerospace Design CO INC Bedford MA 1987] [Haitao and Yan 2021] [Han 2022] [Han et al. 2026] [Hausknecht and Vaitys 1961] [Helliwell 1952] [Hicks 1968] [Hicks et al. 2002] [Hone et al. 2011] [Hoy 1963] [Hu 2024] [Initiative for Aircraft Launch 2007] [Jiang et al. 2014] [Jiang et al. 2017] [Johnston and Swenson 2009] [Johnston and Swenson 2010] [Kansas Univ Lawrence 1952b] [Kaplan 1965] [Kaplan 1969] [Kaplan and sargent 1965] [Kistyarev and Wang 2025] [Kovtun and Tkachenko 2018] [Kozol and Tankins 1993] [Krahnstoever et al. 2026] [Krawczyk et al. 2019] [La Porte et al. 1988] [Lawrence and Draper-Donley 2005] [Lawson 2001] [Lehman and Kaplan 1965] [Li 2016] [Li et al. 2013b] [Li et al. 2013a] [Li et al. 2014c] [Li et al. 2015a] [Li et al. 2026b] [Liang 2017] [Liang et al. 2020] [Lin et al. 2015a] [Liu and Qu 2005] [Liu and Wang 2025] [Liu et al. 2018a] [Liu et al. 2022a] [Liu et al. 2023c] [Liu et al. 2023a] [Liu et al. 2025a] [Liu et al. 2026a] [Lu and Xu 2024] [Lu et al. 2024] [Luan and Sun 2020] [Luan et al. 2018] [Mann 1963] [Mathew et al. 2021] [Mazzitelli 1966] [Mazzitelli 1967] [Meyer 2013] [Meyer 2015] [Mirzaei et al. 2008] [Nan et al. 2024] [Nebiker 1981] [Norris 1998] [Norwood and Chichester 2015] [Qi and Wang 2016] [Qiao et al. 2008] [Yiming et al. 2022] [Rosenthal and Walsh 1996] [Ryan and Cummings 2016] [Savuran and Karakaya 2015b] [Savuran and Karakaya 2015a] [Shi et al. 2025] [Shujun et al. 2014] [Si et al. 2024] [Su et al. 2018c] [Su et al. 2018d] [Su et al. 2018b] [Su et al. 2018a] [Su et al. 2019] [Sun et al. 2015] [Sun et al. 2021] [Swett and Blanche] [Thompson 1965] [Tian and Zhao 2012] [K.А. 2023] [UAVs 1999] [Wadley et al. 2003] [Wang and Wang 2013] [Wang et al. 2016a] [Wang et al. 2016b] [Wang et al. 2023e] [Watson et al. 2020] [Watson et al. 2025] [Wilson 1992] [Wu et al. 2016] [Xia et al. 2016] [Xie and Xu 2024] [Xing and Ai 2023a] [Xing and Ai 2023b] [Yang and Li 2019] [Yang et al. 2019] [Yang et al. 2021b] [Yin et al. 2013] [Yongtao and Zhi 2014] [Yongtao et al. 2021] [Yujie et al. 2024] [Zhang and Wang 2023] [Zhang and Zhu 2025] [Zhao et al. 2023a] [Zhao et al. 2023b] [Zhenxing Ding et al. 2016] [Zhou et al. 2022a] [Zhu et al. 2011] [Zhu et al. 2012] [Zhu et al. 2020]

Unmanned combat aircraft and the strike mission

The vehicle class, as distinct from the far larger literature on unmanned aircraft in general. Armed unmanned aircraft, strike mission analysis and the operational arguments for and against them. This cluster is deliberately narrow, because the civil small aircraft literature now dwarfs the combat one and would otherwise swamp the survey.

132 records. [Ananyev 2019b] [Ahn et al. 2023] [Aleisa et al. 2023] [Aslan and Erkin 2023] [Aslan and Oktay 2023] [Baba et al. 2002] [Bakirci and Ozer 2022] [Bookstaber 2000] [Booz 1998] [Bozov and Universitatea Națională Militară 2023] [Brown 1989] [Brown 1998] [Cao et al. 2012] [Celestine 2021] [Chang et al. 2022b] [Chaplin and Birch 2012] [Chen and Hu 2012] [Chen and Wang 2014] [Choi et al. 2010] [Cox 2009] [Cummings and Schütte 2012] [Cummings et al. 2003] [Cummings et al. 2008] [Cummings et al. 2018] [Davidson 2004] [Dewangga and Sasongko 2019] [Dickes et al. 2002] [Dong et al. 2017] [Dong Kangsheng et al. 2016] [Elkhoury 2008] [Elkhoury and Rockwell 2004] [Elkhoury et al. 2005] [Eom 2023] [Eremenko 2006] [Ernest and Carroll 2016] [Ernest and Cohen 2016] [Faisal and James 2025] [Fedorovich et al. 2026] [Flow Control and High-Lift 2016] [Franke 2016] [Fu Li et al. 2008] [Gal-Or 2015] [Gangl et al. 2013] [Ganglin 2009] [Gao et al. 2024] [Ghee 2002] [Giannini 2003] [Gordnier et al] [Gordnier et al. 2006] [Gordnier et al. 2007] [Grzesik and Sobolewski 2014] [Gu et al. 2013] [Haiwen et al. 2015] [Hansu Dai and Jihong Zhu 2010] [Howitt and Platts 2002] [Huang et al. 2022] [Jung et al. 2014] [Khalid 2023] [Khreish et al. 2005] [Klein 2002] [Kontis et al. 2025] [Kumar 2020] [Kumar et al. 2026] [Lei 2020] [Lewis 2002] [Li and Kun 2011] [Li et al. 2024d] [Liersch and Bishop 2018] [Lima Filho et al. 2021] [Lin and Liu 2015] [Liu and Ma 2017] [Liu et al. 2022c] [Liu et al. 2025d] [Matsushima 2001] [Minglang et al. 2018] [Mishra et al. 2022] [Nguyen et al. 2009] [Nguyen et al. 2013] [Ordaz et al. 2004] [Pradeep 2002] [Qinkun Xiao et al. 2006] [Ramin et al. 2022] [Reichenbach 2003] [Renehan 1997] [Roosenboom et al. 2013] [Ruetten 2018] [Ruetten et al. 2014] [Rybalko et al. 2019] [Sudhakar et al. 2025] [Sathe and Pant 2010] [Schneider 1989] [Secretary Of The Air Force Washington Dc 2001] [Sepulveda Palacios and Smith 2019] [Sijabat and Indriyanto 2021] [Talley and Mavris 2006] [Talley et al. 2004] [Tekinalp and Cavus 2012] [Tianyuan and Xiongqing 2009] [Tomac et al. 2012] [Twesme and Corzine 2003] [Vallespin et al. 2011] [van Rooij and Cummings 2018] [van Rooij et al. 2018] [van Rooij et al. 2019] [Venetsky et al. 2003] [Vicroy et al. 2012] [Vicroy et al. 2018] [Vicroy et al. 2014] [Vos et al. 2002] [Voss et al. 2011] [Wan et al. 2025] [Wang et al. 2019b] [Wang et al. 2020c] [Wang et al. 2021a] [Wang et al. 2026b] [Wills 2015b] [Wills 2015a] [Wilt et al. 2022] [Wise 2003] [Woo et al. 2022] [Woodbury 2003] [Wyatt 2003] [Wyatt 2021] [Xin et al. 2019] [Yagci and Nikbay 2022] [Yang 2024] [Yang et al. 2022] [Yin et al. 2020] [You 2026] [Yue et al. 2025] [Zhou et al. 2015] [Zhu et al. 2024a]

Flight control law design and handling qualities

What replaces the pilot’s hands. Control law design, adaptive and robust control, stability augmentation, and the handling qualities framework that an unmanned aeroplane inherits without inheriting the pilot who defined it. A handling quality is a statement about a human being, and this cluster is where the field works out what the term means when there is nobody aboard.

109 records. [Aerospace - Flight Control] [Aerospace - Vehicle Management] [Agarwal et al. 2021] [Aircraft Flight Control Systems] [Aircraft Lateral-Directional Handling Qualities 2011] [Aircraft Longitudinal Handling Qualities 2011] [Alazard 2001] [Amato et al. 2022] [Baughman and Longeauay 2015] [Bazzocchi and Suleman 2023] [Beaufrere 1988] [Beh et al. 2018] [Berry and Powers 1970] [Bingaman 2012] [Black and Thomas] [Blight et al. 2018] [Bouadi] [Boudreau 1977] [Brandon et al. 1995] [Breul 1963] [Chaikalis et al. 2020] [Chance Vought Corp Dallas Tx 1979] [Clark 1964] [Configuration Development and Flying 2021] [Cosenza and Vos 2017] [Crespo et al. 2010] [Cromwell and Koven 1965] [Cully and Boller 1973] [Davis et al. 1977] [Design Objectives for Flying] [Design Objectives for Handling] [Development of a robust 1994] [Difranco 1969] [Dragos Daniel et al. 2026] [Duggan and Bhandari 2021] [Farhadi and Kortunov 2017] [Fielding and Southworth 2001] [Flight control system for] [Flower 1980] [Flying Qualities 2003] [Gao et al. 2021a] [Gerken 1979] [Gresham et al. 2022] [Grossman 1957] [Ha 1990] [Harper and Cooper 1984] [Harris et al. 1984] [Hart 1956] [Herrmann and Ben-Asher 2016] [Higgins and Shomber 1964] [Hoh and Mitchell 1983] [Hyde and Glover 1991] [Hyde and Glover 1993] [Integrated Flight Instruments and] [Ito et al. 2016] [Jansen 1980] [Junfeng et al. 2020] [Kadiri et al. 2019] [Kahn 2010a] [Kannan et al. 2014] [Key 1971] [Kim and Kunz 2017] [Kisslinger and Wendl 1971] [Kocurek et al. 1997] [Kong et al. 2024] [Kubica and Livet 1994] [Larrabee and Tymczyszyn 1968] [Larsson 2025] [Lavretsky 2014] [Lei and Shuguang 2011] [Liang et al. 2024] [Luo et al. 2022] [Ma] [Maria-Agneta and Stef 2011] [Martin 1963] [Mikami and Uchiyama 2015] [Montgomery 1972] [Montgomery and Price 1976] [Mullen et al. 2016] [Northrop Aircraft INC Hawthorne CA 1952a] [Oosterom and Babuska 2001] [Ossmann et al. 2019] [Ozimina et al] [Peng et al. 2018] [Peng et al. 2025a] [Perhinschi et al. 2006] [Peters et al. 1997] [Place et al. 1974] [Rhoads 1967] [Safwat et al. 2018] [Sato et al. 2017] [Schmidt 1986] [Schmidt 2016] [Shi et al. 2018] [Shweyk and Hyde 2013] [Simulation Requirements for Flight 2017] [Smith and Geddes 1979] [Solies 1995] [Suresh and Kannan 2008] [Teofilatto 2001] [Teper and Stapleford 1965] [Teper and Stapleford 1966] [Weiser 2025] [Weiser and Ossmann 2022a] [Wilhelm and Schafranek 1986] [Yu and Yin 2026] [Yu et al. 2018a] [Yuksek and Inalhan 2022] [Zhang et al. 2018b]

Multi-vehicle coordination and cooperative control

The other half of the fan-out problem, approached from the machine’s side. Cooperative control, task allocation, consensus, formation flight and swarm coordination. Autonomy raises the fan-out by raising neglect time, and this cluster is where the algorithms that do so live.

109 records. [A Prediction Method 2017] [Abas et al. 2013] [Ali Dehghani and Bagher Menhaj 2016] [An and Kim 2025] [Anum et al. 2022] [Bailey 2008] [Bao et al. 2026] [Bayraktar et al. 2004b] [Bayraktar et al. 2004a] [Braasch 2006] [Cai et al. 2018b] [Cetin and Yilmaz 2014] [Chen et al. 2016] [Chen et al. 2017] [Chen et al. 2020] [Chen et al. 2026e] [Choi and Hwang 2024] [Cooper and Schierman 2014] [Cosenzo 2010] [Costa et al. 2023] [Cui et al. 2022] [D’Andrea 2008] [de Vries and Subbarao 2011] [Dehghani and Menhaj 2016] [DeLima and Pack 2008] [Dong and Gu 2026] [Dong et al. 2009] [Dong et al. 2011] [Duan 2013] [Dudek and Schulte 2022] [Eun and Bang 2004] [Eun and Bang 2006] [Feng et al. 2025] [Formation and Adjustment 2018] [Hammarbäck 2022] [Han et al. 2019b] [Han et al. 2022] [Haque et al. 2013] [Hino and Tsuchiya 2013] [Hoke 2018] [Hou et al. 2021] [Hudak et al. 2021] [Huhn et al. 2009] [Huo et al. 2021] [Jia et al. 2016] [Jianan Wang and Ming Xin 2013] [Kniffin et al. 2016] [Korecki and Hoika 2026] [Korkischko and Konrath 2017] [Leonard et al. 2013] [Li et al. 2017a] [Li et al. 2019] [Lin 2002] [Liu and Bucknall 2018] [Liu and Hao 2023] [Liu et al. 2018c] [Liu et al. 2022d] [Lukacovic] [Malhotra et al. 2024] [McLain and Beard 2004] [McLemore et al. 2016] [Meyer and Schulte 2020] [Miller 2006] [Mingfeng Zhang and Liu 2013] [Misra et al. 2019] [Orozco et al. 2026] [Oruc and Baklacioglu 2024] [Pack et al] [Park and Kim 2026] [Rasmussen and Schumacher 2007] [Ray et al. 2002] [Rosa and Belo 2021] [Roth and Schulte 2022b] [Roth and Schulte 2022a] [Ru and Subbarao 2017] [Sadraey 2018] [Sadraey 2025] [Safe Coordinated Maneuvering 2016] [Sauter et al. 2005] [Shang et al. 2022] [Sherstjuk et al. 2019] [Singh] [Sperling et al. 2008] [Sun et al. 2024a] [Tancredi et al. 2013] [Teague et al. 2008] [The People’s Liberation Army’s 2025] [Uybarreta et al. 2025] [Wang and Wang 2017] [Wang and Xin 2012] [Wang et al. 2020b] [Weijun et al. 2008] [Wen et al. 2023] [Wu and Han 2019] [Xue et al. 2024] [Yang et al. 2016b] [Yang et al. 2024d] [Yang et al. 2026b] [Ye Wen et al. 2009] [Yen-Chen Liu 2013] [Yin et al. 2023a] [Yoo et al. 2021] [York et al] [Yu et al. 2022] [Yu et al. 2024b] [Yunhui et al. 2024] [Zhang 2025] [Zhang and Mehrjerdi 2013] [Zhou et al. 2014]

V/STOL, rotorcraft and unconventional configurations

The configurations that set the conventional aeroplane in proportion. Vertical and short takeoff aircraft, rotorcraft, tilt-wing and tilt-rotor aircraft, compound and stopped-rotor concepts, and joined, oblique and morphing wings.

98 records. [Alves et al. 2022] [Anwar 2025] [Bai et al. 2022a] [Barra et al. 2020] [Bell Aerospace Co Buffalo Ny 1956] [Beyne and Castro 2022] [Briardy et al. 1970] [Brown 1950] [Brown 1965] [Cabarbaye et al. 2016] [Campbell 1960] [Carlson 2014] [Chana and Sullivan 1992] [Chen 2025b] [Chen and Hubner 2021] [Craig et al. 1991] [Daud Filho] [Desilets] [Detore and Gaffey 1969] [Dudley et al. 1986] [Dumond 1969] [Fenwick 1966] [Fenwick 1967] [Ford 1977] [Fradenburgh 1991] [Gallman et al. 1990] [George et al. 1964] [Giurca 2014] [Gu et al. 2017] [Guertin 1985] [Guo and Liang 2024] [Harding] [Harned and Head 1965] [Head 1966] [Hebert et al. 1973] [Herdiana et al. 2023] [Hosseini et al. 2024] [Hu-Sheng Wu et al. 2015] [Hubbard and Caldwell 1990] [Irvin and Swan 1956] [Jiang et al. 2025] [Klemin 1940] [Krosche and Heinze 2015] [Kubo and Suzuki 2008] [Kuhn 1979] [Layton 1986] [Levinsky et al. 1969] [Levinsky et al. 1970] [Lim] [Lind and Tamplin 1981] [Liseitsev 2025b] [Liu et al. 2017c] [Manoilo 2025] [Marchese 1963] [McCarthy and Kelly 1993] [McNeill et al. 1974] [Mihalik and Keane 2022] [Moschetta 2010] [Mrusek 2021] [Nakadate 2005] [Nakadate and Maekawa 2007] [Nangia and Palmer 2007b] [Oblique Wing Aircraft 2020] [Painter 1983] [Painter and Erickson 1984] [Papadales and Basil S. 1979] [Price 1964] [Prior 2018] [Qi et al. 2013] [Rasmussen et al. 2006a] [Richardson and Liiva 1970] [Richardson et al. 1970] [Rosenthal et al. 1988] [Rutherford et al. 1991] [Rutherford et al. 1993] [Sachs 2016] [Schrage and McKeithan 1989] [Shirbhate et al. 2025] [Shuang and Zhang 2021] [Snyder 1950] [Stange 1959] [Stepniewski and Schneider 1964] [Stone 2002] [Stone et al. 2008] [Sullivan 1993] [Takita and Kashitani 2016] [Takita and Kashitani 2017] [Thome 2003] [Vasista et al. 2019] [Wang] [Wang et al. 2025d] [Wiler and White 1984] [Winslow et al. 2018] [Wolkovitch 1984] [Yanev and Staack 2026] [Yeol and Lin 2014] [Çelebi and Aydın 2025] [Özbek et al. 2023]

Aircraft requirements, programmes, cost and supportability

How an aircraft is specified, paid for and kept flying. Aircraft requirements, programme histories, cost estimating relationships, maintenance cost, supportability, readiness and operational suitability testing.

90 records. [Air Proving Ground Center Eglin AFB FL 1944] [Air Proving Ground Center Eglin AFB FL 1949] [Air Proving Ground Center Eglin AFB FL 1954a] [Air Proving Ground Center Eglin AFB FL 1955a] [Air Proving Ground Center Eglin AFB FL 1955b] [Aircraft Cost Considerations 2010] [Anton et al. 2010] [Army Aviation Materiel Labs Fort Eustis VA 1963] [Baily and Gilbertson 1980] [Ballou 1963] [Beron 1979] [Bogdan 2015] [Booz-allen and Hamilton INC New York 1957] [Brand and Dresksler 1995] [Brewer 2017c] [Brewer 2017a] [British Aircraft Corporation 111 1961] [Burleigh and Fielding 1983] [C 2006] [Carico 1995] [Carlyle 1976] [Chapa 2013] [Cheney and Holzer 1987] [Chuprun 1984] [Considerations for Requirements, Specifications] [Cost-Estimating Relationships for Aircraft 1972] [Dahlin 1984] [Dana 1993] [Dawson 2015] [Debutts 1964] [Di Giorgio 1983] [Duperre et al. 1978] [Duperre et al. 1979] [Eichorn 1989] [Erdman and Mitchum 2013] [Fioriti et al. 2018] [General Database for Commercial 2014] [Gudmundsson 2014b] [Gudmundsson 2022b] [Harvey 1967] [Hatfield and Honecker 2025] [Hoang and Soban 1993] [Hopp and Kuo 1998] [Johnson 1993] [Kaminski 1997] [Kaminski and Ralston 1996] [Kaplan 1981] [Karagoz 2025] [Kayten et al. 1984] [Kenyon 1974] [Killingsworth and Wolz 1990] [Kindley 2015] [Lemmon 2013] [Lemmon 2015] [Madni et al. 2021] [Makrygianni and Tsarouhas 2021] [Martin 1979] [McDevitt 2005] [McGahern 2000] [Meister 1967] [Mikolowsky and Garrett 1980] [Morley 2013] [Morrison 1980] [Nash 1982] [Natural Environment Requirements Definition 1993] [Naval Air Systems Command Patuxent River MD 2013] [Palomino and Epp 2012] [Peteilh et al. 2020] [Peterson and Finkenstadt 2011] [Peterson and Staley 2011] [Pittsburgh Univ Washington DC Research Staff 1966] [Reliability of Aircraft as 1969] [Richardson 1992] [Rosenman and Hoekstra 1964] [Dronov 2021] [Safoklov and Serebrianskii 2025] [Schrage 1983] [Serebryansky and Bekirov 2023] [Shang 1994] [Skira 1999] [Spreen 2019b] [Spreen 2023] [Stahl et al. 1984] [Steiner 1977] [The New Large Aircraft 2003] [Vaughan and Johnson 2010] [Venaccio 1989] [Wilkinson 1951] [Wise 1990] [Yates 1964]

Airframe structure, composites and affordability

Affordability is an argument made for the vehicle class, and the requirement this article works from states no cost objective for the X-46A. Composite airframe structure, structural design and its cost. The comparison aircraft are all manned and a modern composite airframe should do better than any of them, and the argument for an unmanned strike aircraft has always been partly that it can be built cheaply enough to lose.

85 records. [Abelkis 1967] [Acar and Haftka 2007] [Adams 1974] [Aircraft Manufacturing Considerations 2010] [Al-Bahkali et al. 2015] [Austin 1965] [Bellinger 2009] [Bokuchava et al. 2019] [Bowkett 1986] [Bramsiepe et al. 2018] [Brzęczek et al. 2014] [Budd CO Fort Washington PA Technical Center 1978] [Burdette et al. 2016] [Cherry 1975] [Clayton 1970] [Cosmin 2011] [Cruise 1995] [Dotseth et al. 1977] [Fisher 1950] [Foster 1957] [Gajek 2022] [Gerhards et al. 2000] [Gintert 1995] [Goyal et al. 2021] [Grover 1966] [Guo et al. 2005] [Gurdal 2002] [Haas 1955] [Harvill and Kizer 1976] [Harvill et al. 1972] [Harvill et al. 1973] [He et al. 2016] [Hewitt et al. 2005] [Irving 2024] [Jones 2013] [Jones and Eftis 1981] [Kapidžić et al. 2014] [Kim 2026] [Kolesov and Takahashi 2020] [Kozel 1985] [Lawrence et al. 2009] [Li and Tiniakov 2026c] [Lindsey 1977] [Liu et al. 2015] [Logan 1985] [Luber 2025] [Lyons et al. 1981] [Mannepalli and Yedla Bala 2026] [Marx et al. 1994] [Meyerhoefer and Trost 2006] [Michaud et al. 2018] [Molent 2021] [Molent and Wanhill 2021] [Nordby and Crisman 1964] [Norwood 1992] [Ogburn 1998] [Oskay 2012] [Practice for Design and] [Practice for Design and] [Practice for Design and] [Raper 1991] [Rarthlomeusz et al. 1993] [Ridgard 2008] [Robinson et al. 1975] [Sahadevan et al. 2006] [Saltzgaber and Miller 2003] [Schneider 1976] [Schulz et al. 2024] [Shiao and Chamis 1994] [Siegel 1972] [Simpson 1958] [Smith 1968] [Smith 1996] [Soutis 2020] [Stauffer 1964] [Stepanova 2025] [Urbahs et al. 2019] [Walters et al. 2002] [Wang et al. 2000] [Wanhill 2018] [Wasmi and Rahim 2016] [Wert et al. 1983] [Whinery et al. 1971] [Zhou et al. 1991] [Zucca et al. 2018]

Human supervisory control and the span of control

This is the cluster the fan-out relation comes from and it is not an aeronautical literature at all. Supervisory control of one and of many unmanned vehicles, operator workload and situation awareness, levels of automation, trust in automation, ground control stations and teleoperation. No title in the survey names the fan-out relation or neglect time, as Thin Subjects records, so the relation rests on the previous article and on the models of supervisory control gathered here rather than on a literature that uses its name.

82 records. [Aldridge et al. 2011] [Alexander et al. 2000] [Alzahrani] [Avdonin et al. 2016] [Badole et al. 2022] [Bostock et al. 2024] [Brooks 1989] [Buchner et al. 2013] [Calhoun et al. 2017] [Chen et al. 2011] [Clare et al. 2010] [Clare et al. 2012b] [Clauss and Schulte 2014] [Cuevas and Aguiar 2017] [Cummings and Guerlain 2007] [Cummings and Mitchell 2007] [Cummings et al. 2013] [Doane 2003] [Donmez and Cummings 2009] [Donmez and Cummings 2010] [Donmez et al. 2009] [Draper 2008] [Fan Liu and Narayanan 2011] [Flach et al. 2013] [Friedrich and Vollrath 2022] [Friedrich et al. 2022] [Fuchs et al. 2013] [Ghofur et al. 2020] [Ground Control Station 2020] [Haber and Chung 2016] [Hawley and Mares 2006] [Healey and Kim 2005a] [Hughes et al. 2012] [Hunt et al. 2026] [Johnson et al. 2005a] [Johnson et al. 2007] [Kamel] [Kidwell et al. 2012] [Kilgore et al. 2009] [Lim et al. 2018] [Lin et al. 2015b] [Lintern and Hughes 2008] [Liu 2023] [Liu et al. 2017a] [Luo Jun et al] [Lysaght et al. 1989] [McKendrick et al. 2013] [McLeod 2025c] [McLeod 2025b] [McLeod 2025a] [McLeod 2025e] [McLeod 2025d] [Measurement of Operator Workload 1988] [Mekdeci and Cummings 2009] [Miller 2013] [Mir et al. 2024] [Nelson and Bolia 2006] [Nelson et al. 2006] [Nicolás et al. 2009] [Oliver 2012] [Parasuraman et al. 2013] [Patzek et al. 2013] [Poma et al. 2024] [Pomranky and Wojciechowski 2007] [Rasmussen 1979] [Rencken and Durrant-Whyte] [Roltgen and Gilbert 2010] [Ruff et al. 2002] [Sadraey 2017b] [Sheridan and Hennessy 1984] [Shigekuni et al. 2015] [Stephenson et al. 2026] [Terwilliger and Ison 2014] [Uhrich and Walton 1995] [Wang et al. 2025f] [Wewrinke 1974] [Widiyanti et al. 2022] [Williams 2012] [Wolf 1978] [Zak et al. 2018] [Zeng 2011] [Zhang et al. 2008]

Stall, dynamic stall and high-incidence aerodynamics

What happens at and beyond the maximum lift coefficient. Stall and its control, dynamic stall of pitching wings, abrupt wing stall, deep stall, wing rock and departure. The maximum lift coefficient is where the carrier constraint enters this article, through the approach speed relation in The Carrier Constraint.

73 records. [Andreu Angulo and Ansell 2018] [Anılır and Kurtuluş 2023] [Auerswald and Bange 2015] [Basescu and Moore 2020] [Bowman 1965] [Buzica and Breitsamter 2017] [Chanez Dozal et al. 2024] [Cook et al. 2005] [Coton and Galbraith 2003] [Currao and Jiang 2026] [Daniel and Traub 2013] [De Voogt and Ganapathisubramani 2022b] [De Voogt and Ganapathisubramani 2022a] [Ekaterinaris 1995] [Ericsson 1996] [Ericsson 1997] [Ericsson 1998] [Fricke et al. 2015] [Funda and Anlr 2022] [Garmann and Visbal 2023] [Go and Ramnath 2001] [Green and Ott 2003] [Green and Ott 2005] [Gross et al. 2016] [Hall 2005] [Hall and Woodson 2003] [Hall et al. 2003] [Hammer et al. 2021a] [Hammer et al. 2021b] [Jamwal et al. 2018] [Jiang et al. 2024b] [Kaufmann et al. 2016] [Kleinert et al. 2023b] [Kokolios et al. 2003] [Kumar et al. 2025] [Kölzsch et al. 2016] [Lee and Gross 2024] [Li et al. 2023] [Lindsay 2021] [Lohry et al. 2013] [Lorber 1992] [McMillin et al. 2003] [Midhat 2017] [Nial 1972] [Niewoehner and Filbey 2005] [Pabla 2021] [Paranjape 2022] [Patel and Smith 1996] [Pietrzak and Piechna 2013] [Planeaux and Barth 1988] [Pulimeno et al. 2025] [Ramirez Zeigler and Avery 2026] [Rawlins 2005] [Rohlmann 2015] [Salahudden et al. 2020] [Salari and Roache 1990] [Salmon and Ahmed 2004] [Tan et al. 2018] [Turner et al. 2025] [Ullah et al. 2022] [Visbal 2012] [Visbal 2017] [Visbal and Garmann 2016] [Visbal and Garmann 2017a] [Visbal and Garmann 2017b] [Visbal and Garmann 2019] [Wang 1979] [Wang 1984] [Wang and Zhao 2019] [Winkelmann 1989] [Yang and Przekwas 1993] [Zhang et al. 2021b] [Zhou and Wu 2025]

Internal weapons carriage and store separation

A bay is a hole in a low observable aeroplane and opening it is the moment it stops being one. Weapons bay flow and acoustics, cavity flow, internal carriage and store separation. The UCAV-N requirement the X-46A answered was a payload of four thousand pounds, and the X-45C that absorbed it was announced as carrying that payload as two two-thousand-pound Joint Direct Attack Munitions.

57 records. [American Airpower in World 2008] [Anderson and Teope 2017] [Bacci and Saddington 2022] [Bacci and Saddington 2024] [Ben-Gida 2022] [Ben-Gida 2023] [Beuerlein 1968] [Bi et al. 2025] [Boman 2009] [Cain et al. 1999] [Cavallo et al. 1999] [Cenko 2009] [Cenko et al. 1981] [Clark 1975b] [Davis et al. 2009] [Flotten 2005] [Gong and Wang 2019] [Gough and Carlson 1979] [Johnson et al. 2008] [Jolly and Coley 2026] [Kim et al. 2015a] [Kugler 2007] [Lackey et al. 2011] [Le et al. 2005] [Lee 2010] [Loupy et al. 2018] [Mills et al. 2002] [Nichols 2008] [Nichols and Westmoreland 2006] [Nichols and Westmoreland 2007] [Rokita et al. 2012] [Sainio and Krandel 1993] [Schmit and Raman 2006] [Schmit et al. 2005] [Seiner et al. 2008] [Shaw and McGrath 1996] [Shaw and Smith 1977] [Shaw et al. 1987] [Shaw et al. 1988] [Sheta et al. 2015] [Sheta et al. 2017] [Sinha et al. 2000] [Sinha et al. 2001] [Smith et al. 2002] [Song and Ai 2021] [Stanek 2002] [Stanek 2003] [Stanek 2007] [Tait et al. 2009] [Teng and Yu 2023] [Weapons Carriage and Guidance 2006] [Welterlen 2000] [Wolfe et al. 2024] [Yoo and Meade 2005] [Yu et al. 2021] [Zhu et al. 2018a] [Zhu et al. 2021]

The atmosphere and the flight condition

The article displays a relation that uses this literature. The standard atmosphere, atmospheric property tables, the tropopause and the speed of sound. The cruise analysis holds the temperature constant above the tropopause, which is the standard atmosphere’s model, and the U.S. Standard Atmosphere of 1976 is cited for it.

48 records. [A 2006] [Air Force Test Pilot School Edwards Afb Ca 1962] [Andrews 2019] [Appendix a. the Standard 2011] [Appendix B 2013] [Atmosphere Model 1993] [Atmospheric Structure with Altitude] [Bass et al. 2007] [Brown 2012] [Dean 1979] [Definition of the Standard 1954] [Diehl 1926] [Fels 1986] [Galeriu 2022] [Gregg 1923] [Groves 1977] [Atmospheric and Space Environments CoS 2010] [Imanov 2025] [Ismanto et al. 2023] [Kang et al. 2023] [Kirtskhalia 2012] [Kirtskhalia 2021] [Kumar 2025] [Kurzke and Halliwell 2018] [Li et al. 2017b] [Minzner 1967] [Minzner et al. 1976] [Ouseph and Link 1984] [Peters 1977] [Report No. 538 Altitude-Pressure 1935] [Standard Atmosphere 1955] [Standard Atmospheric Profilesa aSource 2002] [Standard Atmospheric Properties 1977] [Stratospheric Aircraft Blimps Balloons 1997] [Turns and Kraige] [U.S. Standard Atmosphere Supplements 1966] [U.S. Standard Atmosphere 1962 1962] [U.S. Standard Atmosphere 1976 1976] [1976 US Standard Atmosphere 2014] [Vaquero et al. 2004] [Vaughan 2003] [Vaughan 2015] [Brombacher 1926] [Brombacher 1935] [Webster 1947] [Worland and Wilson 1999] [Yager 2013] [Zuppardo 1993]

Landing gear, wheels, tyres and brakes

The undercarriage that an arrested descent sizes. Landing gear design and landing loads, tyres, wheels and brakes, and air cushion landing systems. The Research Question names landing gear sized for an arrested descent among the masses a carrier aeroplane carries for reasons unrelated to its mission.

40 records. [Aircraft Landing Measurement System 1971] [Aircraft TIRE Condition Monitoring] [Aircraft Tire Pressure Monitoring] [Aircraft Tire-to-Wheel Performance Characteristics] [Aircraft tyres and rims] [Aircraft. Tow bar attachment] [Anderson 1973] [Anggoro 2021] [Beaulieu et al. 2007] [Blinkhorn 1958] [Case 1965] [Castrichini et al. 2017] [Castrichini et al. 2018] [Chester 2002] [Clarke and Merson 1979] [Design and Implementation 2014] [Dickinson and Goggin 2000] [Digges 1971] [Douglas Aircraft Co Long Beach Ca 1962a] [Gamon 1979] [Kandarpa et al. 1992] [Kidwell 1963] [Lloyd et al. 1978] [Moore et al. 1979] [Muehter 1974] [null] [Pond 1973] [Pressure Die Cast Aircraft] [Recommended Practice for Measurement] [Reinbold 1954] [RlDHA 1969] [Rotorcraft Application of Existing] [TAIL Bumpers for Piloted] [Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems] [Wei and Nie 2005] [Wheel and Brake Design] [Wheel and Brake Design] [Wheel and Hydraulically Actuated] [Wheels and Brakes Minimum] [Zhao et al. 2024b]

Verification, validation and the certification of autonomous software

The reason an autonomous combat aircraft is hard to field rather than hard to fly. Airworthiness and certification of unmanned and manned aircraft, verification and validation of flight software, fault tolerance and redundancy management, and a study of safety cases. A demonstrator may fly on a waiver and a fielded aeroplane may not, and the X-46A reached neither state, since no airframe was built.

36 records. [Aircraft Design and Certification 2014] [Airworthiness Considerations for Airframe 2016] [Almendra and Silva 2022] [Ashforth and Ilcewicz 2022] [Ashton and Skaperdas 2019] [Bellocq et al. 2015] [Breunig 2017] [Bryant et al. 1984] [Classification for Unmanned Aircraft] [Cook 2024] [Cook and King 2018] [Corwin et al. 1989] [Della Vecchia et al. 2025] [Galea and Rajic 2015] [Gao et al. 2021b] [Gómez-Rodríguez et al. 2024] [Halefom et al. 2021] [Jian and Yao 2011] [Ko and Kim 2016] [Krishnamoorthy] [Li and Tiniakov 2026d] [Lochow et al. 2025] [Marx et al. 1990] [Masters 1993] [Methodology to Aircraft Design 2010] [Mutuel 2015b] [Panchal et al. 2024] [Practices for Unmanned Aircraft] [Ricciardi et al. 2013] [Schmollgruber] [Shriwastav and Song 2020] [Tao et al. 2011] [Thipphavong et al. 2017] [Xiao and Li 2024] [Xie et al. 2022] [Xie et al. 2023]

Programme, acquisition and the cost of a demonstrator

Programmes, demonstrators and what they cost. Technology demonstrators and their flight test programmes, aircraft programme histories and acquisition, programme management, and life cycle and unit cost estimation. The X-46A was terminated as redundant in April 2003 before any airframe had been built, after a decision in December 2002 to merge the Air Force and Navy programmes.

33 records. [Alexander 1979] [Alley et al. 2010] [Bell 1993] [Blackwell and Eastlake] [DeCAMP and Hardy 1981] [Design of the Circulation 1979] [Draper et al. 1983] [ECO Demonstrator Begins Flight 2018] [Elena 2026] [Flight Test Programme 1970] [Fuel Cell Demonstrator Aeroplane 2007] [Gilge 2010] [Henley 2020] [Holubik 1988] [Integrated Wing Research Programme 2006] [Judas and Deligiannidis 2013] [Malone et al. 2013] [Marx et al. 1995] [Nippress and Wilson 1992] [Olejnik et al. 2019] [Parametric Flyaway Cost Estimating 2024] [Reed et al. 1982] [Shane 1992] [Shanks et al. 1993] [Shawler 1981] [Simpson et al. 2005] [Smith et al. 1987] [Tirovolis and Serghides 2005] [UAV Demonstrator Opens up 2006] [UAV Demonstrator Opens up 2007] [Verma 2018] [Wang 2026b] [Yates 1976]

Low observable design and signature

Why a configuration of this class is chosen for signature before it is chosen for aerodynamics. Radar cross section and its shaping, absorbing materials, low observable intakes, infrared signatures of plumes and airframes, and the survivability these buy. The premise is taken from this literature and nothing in it is computed here.

29 records. [Altman 2008] [Andersson 2017] [Bacci and Vagias 2023] [Baranwal and Mahulikar 2021] [Brown 1993] [Cho et al. 2015] [Coiro 2013] [Design for Stealth 2010] [Edefur and Tormalm 2018] [Fry 2008] [Gaitanakis et al. 2020] [Guy et al. 1995] [Haoqin et al. 2015] [Hitzel 1988] [Jeong et al. 2018] [Lee et al. 2018a] [Lu 2026] [Orhan 2020] [Papageorgiou et al. 2018] [Paterson 1999] [Paterson and Paterson 1997] [Rao 2011] [Rao and Mahulikar 2005] [Strattan 1978] [Sutrakar et al. 2026] [Varney 1979] [Vinayak and Mahulikar 2024] [Vinh et al. 1997] [Zhang et al. 2026a]

Infrared, acoustic and visual signature and detectability

The signatures other than radar. Infrared, acoustic, visual and magnetic signatures of aircraft, their detection by sensors and by observers, and countermeasures, which complement the radar signature records of the low observable cluster.

29 records. [Barbarosou et al. 2016] [Bezandry et al. 2016] [Bishop 1991] [Bullard and Dowdy] [Bursać 1999] [Chen 1995] [Childers and Condon 2004] [Forrester] [Frederickson et al. 1967] [Garnet and Altman 2009] [Hept 2002] [JanakiRam and Scruggs 1982] [Kurdyla 1963] [Lindsey et al. 2000] [Mahulikar et al. 2022] [Marcus 2020] [Minwalla et al. 2016] [Nieuwoudt and Botha 2000] [Nieuwoudt and Botha] [Pham and Sim 2002] [Quaranta and Dimino 2007] [Saravanakumar and Senthilkumar 2014] [Siegel and Lanterman 1963] [Thomas 2003] [Wallace and Vance 2019] [Walters] [Welch 1989] [White 2012] [Wright 1966]

Datalink, latency and beyond-line-of-sight command

The link is what makes supervision possible and what makes it fragile. Command and control links for unmanned aircraft, their spectrum and capacity, data link design and network-centric command. A small cluster for a large subject, and the latency term of the fan-out relation is thinner still, as Thin Subjects records.

21 records. [Box et al. 2016] [Box et al. 2018] [Carney 2008] [Diepstraten] [Girard 1990] [Gray 2015] [Havir and Durbin 2004] [Henriksen 2007] [Hunn 2005] [Jain et al. 2011] [Pugh et al. 2020] [Reichstein et al. 2022] [Specification for Design of] [Spura et al. 2005] [Van Dyke et al. 1990] [Vidal et al. 2014] [Wang et al. 2017b] [Yuan et al. 2026] [Zhang et al. 2024a] [Zolanvari et al. 2018] [Çuhadar and Dursun 2016]

Suppression of enemy air defences and time-critical targeting

A mission of the vehicle class and not one the open record assigns to the X-46A, whose requirement states a payload, a radius, a loiter time and carrier operation and no target set. Suppression of enemy air defences, the air defence systems a strike aircraft must penetrate, and unmanned aircraft in that role. A mobile emitter that shuts down sets a deadline, and whether the loop closes inside it is the question the mission poses to the autonomy.

20 records. [Al-Rabi 1990] [APPENDIX 1. the Suppression 2017] [Army War Coll Carlisle Barracks Pa 1982] [Barkdoll et al. 2002] [Bronk 2024] [Chen and Liu 2012] [Gaver and Jacobs 1998] [Hazinedar 2015] [Heilenday 2000] [Horrigan 1990] [Khurramov and Bobomurodov 2021] [Mustopa 2022] [Sands 2009] [Smith et al. 1999] [Stegall 2001] [Suminsby 2002] [Sutton 2005] [Sutton 2006] [Wiler and White 1985] [Zhang et al. 2026d]

Other aeronautical and autonomy literature

The residual, reported and not hidden. A record is placed here only when its title bears on a subject the argument uses and names none of the literatures above, and nine records meet that rule. They are flight testing, aviation hazards and human error, a decision aid, an advisory, the steering of a variable-bend body, and the future of electric aviation.

9 records. [Bailey et al. 1962] [Hightower 1985] [Human Error in Aviation 2016] [Larkin and Thomas 1978] [Ralles 1966] [Singer 2011] [System in-Flight Testing 2010] [Karakoc et al. 2025] [Vick and Carter 1963]

Where the Framing Breaks Down

Five places.

Sizing a requirement is not the same as describing an aeroplane, and the article’s central number is an inference. The empty-weight fraction of 0.3485 is what the requirement demands under the stated assumptions. It is not a measurement of anything, no Boeing document is known to state it, and if the twelve-hour and six-hundred-and-fifty-mile figures are not simultaneous then the number describes a mission nobody intended to fly.

The inherited payload fraction is the weakest load-bearing assumption, and the survey can be measured on the point. It is drawn from two aircraft, and the previous article was careful to say that their agreement is a fact about a held mission fraction rather than about geometry. Only three cited research titles contain the phrase payload fraction, so the constant every mass figure here depends on is supported by a pair of measurements and not by a literature. A naval variant might not hold it, because carrier equipment is charged to empty weight and a designer under that pressure may well give up payload fraction to avoid a larger aeroplane.

The comparison aircraft are all manned and all older. The A-6E entered service in 1970, the S-3A in 1974 and the F/A-18E in 1999 [Grumman A-6 Intruder] [Lockheed S-3 Viking] [Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet], and structural materials moved considerably across that span. A modern composite airframe should do better than any row in the table, so the nine-point gap overstates the difficulty by an unknown amount. The comparison establishes that the requirement is demanding, not by how much.

The Breguet relations assume a constant lift to drag ratio and a constant specific fuel consumption over each segment, and neither is constant. The relations used above are the closed-form solution of the fuel-flow equation [Anderson, Aircraft performance and design] [Torenbeek, Synthesis of subsonic airplane design],

\[\frac{dW}{dt} = - c \, T = - c \, \frac{W}{L/D} \tag{36}\]

under exactly that assumption, and a real analysis would integrate

\[E = \int_{W_{1}}^{W_{0}} \frac{L/D}{c \, W} \, dW \tag{37}\]

with the ratio and the consumption varying along the path. Over a twelve-hour loiter the aircraft becomes much lighter and its best lift to drag ratio moves. The error is in the direction of pessimism, since an aircraft flown at its optimum as it lightens does better than one flown at a fixed condition, so the demanded empty fraction is if anything a little less severe than stated.

The carrier span agreement is the weakest attractive result in the article. Three free parameters were chosen and one combination reproduced the built span to within half a percent. A calculation with three free parameters can be made to hit almost any target, so it is reported as a consistency check and should be read as nothing more.

The Source Base

The research survey is drawn from the Technical Reports Server of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, or NASA, from the Defense Technical Information Center and from the Crossref index of the journal and conference literature, and it holds 6,252 records. Each is on this article’s subject by its title, and every one of them is cited in a cluster row of The Contemporary Literature. Of the 6,046 records that carry a year, 2,625, or 43.4 percent, date from 2015 or later, 1,725 predate 2000, and the median publication year is 2012.

The argument rests on five documents and none of them is a Boeing engineering report.

One carries the programme. The specialist designation directory gives the contract award, the designations, the relationship to the X-45B, the termination and the statement that Boeing disclosed minimal information [Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles]. It is a secondary source and it is the best one available, and apart from one compilation that prints the aeroplane’s dimensions on the authority of a single unnamed report [X-46, GlobalSecurity], it is the only source consulted that describes the aeroplane’s shape at all.

One carries the requirement. The UCAV-N payload, radius and endurance come from one account of the programme [Chronicle of the Salty Dogs, Center for the Study of the Drone], which one compilation repeats as the X-46’s own capability on the authority of a single unnamed report [X-46, GlobalSecurity], and the carrier constraint comes from the open programme literature [Naval Unmanned Combat Air Vehicle, GlobalSecurity]. This article’s entire analysis rests on those four figures, which is a narrower foundation than any other article in this series has used.

One carries the ending. The Boeing announcement of 29 April 2003 states what replaced the X-45B, what the naval variant required, and what payload it would carry [Boeing to develop new X-45C UCAV for Air Force and Navy demonstrations]. It is a primary source in the strict sense, being the manufacturer’s own contemporaneous statement, and its silence about the X-46 is itself evidence.

One carries the date that is usually wrong. The Congressional Research Service report places the decision to merge in December 2002 [Unmanned vehicles for U.S. naval forces, Congressional Research Service RS21294], where most accounts give only the April 2003 formal combination.

One carries the competitor. The Northrop Grumman announcement of the X-47A first flight establishes that the naval competition had flying hardware on the other side [Northrop Grumman’s X-47A Pegasus first flight achieves milestone in autonomous control].

No primary programme document for the X-46A was located. No design report, no weight statement, no wind tunnel data and no requirements document has been found in the open literature. The analysis is built so that none of its results depends on one, resting on a published requirement, a payload fraction measured from two other aircraft, and textbook relations.

The Definition of Primary

Two definitions of primary are used, and both count a record by its identifier. A report primary is a NASA Technical Reports Server record or a Defense Technical Information Center record, which Crossref registers under the 10.21236 prefix, and the survey holds 806 of them, which is 12.9 percent. The broader definition is fitted to a subject that is conceptual design rather than flight test. It also counts a paper of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, SAE International, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers or the Association for Computing Machinery as primary, because aircraft sizing, weight estimation and carrier suitability were published in those venues rather than in journals, and on that definition 3,920 records, or 62.7 percent, are primary.

Two foundational primaries anchor the flight condition, being the U.S. Standard Atmosphere of 1976, which is the model behind every altitude figure here, and a performance flight test volume of the Air Force Test Pilot School that shows how a test discipline actually uses it.

Thin Subjects

Six subjects that this article’s derivations depend on have thin literatures. Each count below is the number of research records in this survey whose title carries at least one of the listed terms, with a hyphen read as a space. Where a row joins two groups of terms with the word together, a title must carry a term from each group.

Subject	Title terms counted	Records
the payload fraction a family of aircraft holds	payload fraction	3
the weight penalty of carrier suitability	carrier, naval, shipboard, deck together with weight, mass	0
the weight of a crew and its equipment	crew, cockpit, ejection, pilot together with weight, mass	0
approach speed as a carrier design constraint	approach speed, approach speeds	1
the fan-out relation	fan out, neglect time	0
latency in the supervision of unmanned aircraft	latency, delay, delays, delayed, other than titles on stall, pitch up or eddy simulation	6

The payload fraction is the thinnest support in the survey and it should be said plainly. The single constant this article inherits, and the one every mass figure in Sizing From First Principles depends on, appears as the phrase payload fraction in only three cited research titles. Beyond those three, the cited titles reach the concept only indirectly, through the payload-range diagram of transport aircraft and payload and range trade studies in conceptual design, and the argument rests on two aircraft measured in the previous article rather than on a literature. That is stated in Where the Framing Breaks Down and it is repeated here because it is the analysis’s weakest joint.

The penalty for carrier suitability is not published as its own subject. No title joins a carrier term to a weight term. It is a term inside a weight equation, so the field’s words for it are structural weight estimation, wing weight equations and component weight methods.

The literature of crew systems is present and the weight of the crew is not. The 163 records of Crew stations, escape and life support treat cockpits, ejection seats, oxygen and pressurisation, and 69 titles treat manned and unmanned aircraft together, but no title puts a weight on the crew and its equipment. The article’s central claim, that the gap between what carrier aircraft weigh and what the requirement demands is the crew, is therefore an attribution by subtraction, which the survey can describe but does not measure.

Approach speed is named once, as the effect of wind over the deck on carrier approach speeds. No title treats it as the constraint on wing loading that The Carrier Constraint derives, and the 22 titles that name wing loading and the 26 that name maximum lift treat each without the other.

The fan-out relation has no title of its own, and latency has six. The relation in The Link and the Autonomy comes from the previous article and from the models of supervisory control gathered in that cluster, and the six titles on latency or delay treat teleoperation, the control of formations and swarms, remote piloting and detect and avoid rather than the fan-out of a supervising operator.

The relation this article displays for installed thrust is a definition rather than a result, and a definition does not have a literature of its own. The engine literature is the propulsion cluster of 530 records, and the constraint-analysis literature that selects a thrust to weight ratio sits inside aircraft sizing.

One claim stands on the documents rather than on the survey, because it belongs to another discipline. The claim that a published figure can be a requirement standing in for a measurement is a claim about documentation practice, and its literature is data provenance and bibliographic accuracy, which belongs to information science rather than to aeronautics. In aircraft titles the word specification names component specifications and design standards, such as specifications for crew interfaces, oxygen systems and small unmanned aircraft, which specify hardware rather than describe how specifications are recorded. The claim therefore rests on the documents themselves.

What the Survey Admits

A record is admitted only when a person reading its title finds it on this article’s subject, which here means that the title bears on a subject the argument uses. Those subjects are sizing, weight and performance, propulsion, aerodynamics and stall, carrier operation and recovery, landing gear, flight dynamics and control, airframe structure and loads, aircraft subsystems and crew stations, unmanned aircraft and their autonomy, guidance, supervision and links, airspace and certification, programmes and cost, the atmosphere, weapons carriage, signature, and the strike and suppression missions.

A record that shares only a word with this subject is excluded, and this subject’s words are unusually common outside aeronautics. Loiter also names an everyday act in poetry and sociology, Breguet also names the horologist, high altitude also names a setting in medicine, climatology and limnology, fuel consumption also names road and marine engines, furnaces, boilers and power stations, design space exploration also names a method of computing hardware design, conceptual design also names products, plants and structures that are not aircraft, unmanned also names tests of diving apparatus and marine hardware, the speed of sound is also measured in seawater, in tissue and in salt mixtures, and thrust deduction belongs to ship propellers. A low observable target is also a dim radar return in sea clutter, a mission profile life test is also the life test of an ion thruster, and thrust also names a bearing, a geological fault and the push of a masonry arch. Bird, bat and insect flight, ships and shipboard equipment, and earth and life science studies that use an unmanned aircraft only as an instrument are excluded for the same reason. Correction, retraction and withdrawal notices, figures and supplementary files, peer-review reports and decision letters, and journal indexes and calls for papers are excluded as well, because the survey counts research records and those are parts of works or editorial events rather than works. Book reviews, unsigned news items and encyclopedia and dictionary entries of two pages or fewer are not admitted either, nor is the record of a whole conference volume, which lists a meeting’s papers rather than reporting work, and nor is a second deposit of a document already held, such as a report-server copy of a meeting paper whose publisher record is kept, because counting it would count one work twice.

Aeronautical subjects that the argument does not use are excluded too. They are aircraft noise, icing and de-icing, air traffic management and airline operations, airports and ground equipment, supersonic cruise and sonic boom, hypersonic flight, rockets, spacecraft and missiles in their own right, balloons and airships, rotor blade dynamics, training and personnel selection, parts, quality and management standards, and military doctrine, force structure and unit history.

Some records of doubtful relevance are kept. Studies of the autonomy and supervisory control of undersea, ground and space vehicles share the supervision problem this article treats, measurements of the speed of sound in the open atmosphere share its flight condition, aircraft designed for flight at Mars share the sizing of a long-endurance aircraft, and bare titles such as Conceptual Design are kept as chapters of aircraft design texts, so each is kept and a reader may weigh it accordingly.

The residual cluster, Other aeronautical and autonomy literature, admits a record only when its title bears on a subject the argument uses and names none of the other thirty-three literatures, and it holds 9 records, which is 0.1 percent of the survey.

Every research title has been read for relevance, so the off-topic share that remains is a matter of reading judgement. A reading of titles cannot show that a work is relevant in substance, so this is a statement about titles only.

Epistemic State

Historical Fact

In June 2000 the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency awarded study contracts for a carrier-based unmanned combat aircraft to Boeing and to Northrop Grumman, and the resulting designs received the designations X-46A and X-47A.

The Department of Defense decided in December 2002 to merge the Air Force and Navy programmes, and the formal combination into the Joint Unmanned Combat Air System followed in April 2003.

The X-45B and X-46A were terminated before any airframe had been built.

Boeing announced the X-45C on 29 April 2003 as a single design serving both services, with a naval variant adding structural changes, landing gear, a tailhook and precision approach and landing avionics.

The X-47A flew once, on 23 February 2003.

The Navy selected the X-47B in August 2007.

Verified by Independent Derivation

The two X-45 payload fractions are 0.12297 and 0.12289 and their mean is 0.12293, recomputed here from the published masses rather than carried across from the previous article.

A four thousand pound payload at that fraction gives a gross mass of 32,539 pounds, which is 14,760 kilograms and 11.1 percent below the X-45C.

The mission fuel fraction is 0.5285 and the demanded empty-weight fraction is 0.3485 under the stated cruise, loiter and consumption assumptions, and the sensitivity table brackets the latter between 0.2816 and 0.4302.

The empty-weight fractions of the three comparison aircraft are 0.441, 0.486 and 0.506, computed from published weights that were checked against their sources before use.

Analysis

The requirement demands an empty-weight fraction below that of every manned carrier aeroplane examined, and the margin is the crew and its supporting structure.

The three requirement numbers cannot hold simultaneously in an aircraft of the size Boeing was building. Read as one profile they imply a gross mass of about seventy-eight thousand pounds.

At a plausible unmanned empty-weight fraction of 0.42 the aircraft holds about eleven hours on station at the full radius, one hour short of the requirement.

Inference

The wing planform is the reason the naval variant needed a separate designation at all, inferred from the directory’s statement that this was the only difference from the X-45B and from the fact that both the approach constraint and the fuel volume are wing problems.

The published X-46 payload and radius figures are the requirement rather than a specification, inferred from their exact agreement with the UCAV-N requirement and from the absence of any measured vehicle.

What the Record Does Not Settle

Whether the twelve-hour loiter and the six-hundred-and-fifty-mile radius were meant to be flown in one sortie. Every quantitative result in this article depends on that reading and the sources do not resolve it.

What the X-46A weighed, spanned or was powered by. No weight or engine figure has been found, and the one reported span comes from a single unnamed report.

Whether Boeing’s design met the requirement. The company never published a weight statement and the aircraft was never built.

Why the X-46 is absent from the announcement of its replacement. The document names the X-45B and not the X-46A, and whether that reflects contractual structure, classification or presentation is not answered in the record.

On Sources Used With Reservation

Two of the five load-bearing sources are secondary compilations. The designation directory is written by a specialist and is careful about its uncertainty, but it is not a programme document. The requirement figures are presented as a requirement by one account only, and the one compilation that repeats them attributes them to the aircraft and to a single unnamed report, so the requirement on which every derivation here depends rests on a single secondary source.

The circulating specification figures are used only as evidence about the requirement and never as evidence about the aeroplane.

Out of Scope

The X-47 and the X-47A Pegasus, which are treated where the series reaches them, and which are cited here only for the competition’s dates.

The carrier suitability of unmanned aircraft in operational detail, including deck handling, the recovery bandwidth and the wave-off logic, which the survey covers and which no released X-46A figure supports.

The Joint Unmanned Combat Air System programme as an acquisition case, which spans three services and two contractors and deserves separate treatment.

Autonomous carrier landing, which was eventually demonstrated by a different aircraft and belongs to that article.

Conclusion

No programme source publishes a specification for the Boeing X-46.

The record contains a requirement instead of a vehicle, so this article sizes the requirement. A four thousand pound payload at the manufacturer’s own measured payload fraction of 0.12293 implies a gross mass of 32,539 pounds, and a mission of six hundred and fifty nautical miles out, twelve hours on station and six hundred and fifty back consumes 0.5285 of that in fuel. What is left for the airframe is an empty-weight fraction of 0.3485, and no manned carrier aeroplane examined achieves better than 0.441. The gap is the crew, and the requirement is a bet on its size.

The three numbers do not hold at once. Read as a single profile they imply an aeroplane of seventy-eight thousand pounds, which is heavier at takeoff than an F/A-18E and is not a demonstrator anybody was proposing to land on a deck. Read as separate capability points they are demanding and achievable, and at an empty-weight fraction of 0.42 the aircraft holds eleven hours at the full radius against a requirement of twelve.

The clearest surviving trace of this aeroplane is in another one. The directory’s single physical statement is that the X-46A differed from the X-45B by a new wing planform, and the X-45C took a planform similar to it. The X-45C prototype was built and later became the basis of Boeing’s Phantom Ray [Boeing X-45]. A wing of that planform was built. The aircraft it was drawn for was not.

The requirement outlived the designation more completely than that. The X-45C carried two two-thousand-pound weapons, which is the naval payload requirement exactly, and the carrier demonstration the X-46A was contracted to work toward was performed in the next decade by the competing contractor, whose X-47A had flown once in February 2003 while this aeroplane was still drawings.

Boeing’s announcement of the replacement does not mention the X-46. For an aircraft that was never built, that absence is the most precise description of what happened to it that the record contains.

Equations

This section collects the 37 display equations of the article in the order they appear, each under its number and reproduced exactly as it stands in the text. A title in bold names an established result, and a title in italics beginning with the word Bespoke names a construction made for this analysis. Of the 37, 12 are established and 25 are bespoke. Weights and masses are quoted in pounds and in kilograms and every weight fraction is a share of the gross weight at takeoff, specific fuel consumption is per hour and endurance in hours, and $R$ is the cruise range in the Breguet relation but the gas constant of air in the speed of sound.

Equation 1, Bespoke Empty-Weight Budget of a Naval Unmanned Aircraft. The article writes the empty-weight fraction as that of a manned reference aircraft plus a carrier suitability penalty less a crew saving, both taken as fractions of the same gross weight.

\[\zeta_{\text{empty}} = \zeta_{\text{ref}} + \Delta_{\text{deck}} - \Delta_{\text{crew}} \tag{1}\]

Equation 2, Bespoke Condition for the Requirement to Close. The budget is satisfiable only if the crew saving exceeds the deck penalty by at least the gap between the reference and the required empty-weight fractions.

\[\Delta_{\text{crew}} - \Delta_{\text{deck}} \ \ge \ \zeta_{\text{ref}} - \zeta_{\text{req}} \tag{2}\]

Equation 3, Payload Fractions of the X-45A and X-45C. The published internal payloads divided by the published gross masses give payload fractions that agree to four significant figures. Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles X-45

\[\frac{m_{\text{payload}}}{m_{\text{gross}}} = \frac{680}{5{,}530} = 0.12297 \qquad \frac{2{,}040}{16{,}600} = 0.12289 \tag{3}\]

Equation 4, Bespoke Inherited Payload Fraction. The mean of the two published payload fractions is taken as a design constant on the assumption that the unbuilt X-46A shares the manufacturer’s practice. Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles

\[\overline{PF} = 0.12293 \tag{4}\]

Equation 5, Bespoke Gross Weight Implied by the Requirement. The required payload of four thousand pounds divided by the inherited payload fraction gives a gross weight of 32,539 pounds.

\[m_{\text{gross}} = \frac{4{,}000}{0.12293} = 32{,}539 \ \text{lb} \tag{5}\]

Equation 6, Bespoke Implied Gross Weight Against the Built Aircraft. The implied gross weight is 0.889 of the X-45C and 2.67 times the X-45A, a comparison that inherits the assumed payload fraction.

\[\frac{32{,}539}{36{,}597} = 0.889 \qquad \frac{32{,}539}{12{,}192} = 2.67 \tag{6}\]

Equation 7, Breguet Range Relation. The cruise range at constant lift to drag ratio and specific fuel consumption gives the weight ratio across the leg as an exponential of range times consumption over speed times lift to drag ratio. Raymer, Aircraft design, a conceptual approach Torenbeek, Synthesis of subsonic airplane design Anderson, Aircraft performance and design Nicolai and Carichner, Fundamentals of aircraft and airship design

\[R = \frac{V}{c} \left( \frac{L}{D} \right) \ln \frac{W_{0}}{W_{1}} \qquad \Longrightarrow \qquad \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} = \exp \left( - \frac{R c}{V (L/D)} \right) \tag{7}\]

Equation 8, Breguet Endurance Relation. The endurance form gives the weight ratio across a loiter as an exponential of time on station times consumption over lift to drag ratio. Raymer, Aircraft design, a conceptual approach Torenbeek, Synthesis of subsonic airplane design Anderson, Aircraft performance and design Nicolai and Carichner, Fundamentals of aircraft and airship design

\[E = \frac{1}{c} \left( \frac{L}{D} \right) \ln \frac{W_{0}}{W_{1}} \qquad \Longrightarrow \qquad \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} = \exp \left( - \frac{E c}{(L/D)} \right) \tag{8}\]

Equation 9, Temperature and Speed of Sound Above the Tropopause. The standard atmosphere holds the temperature at its eleven kilometre value of 216.65 kelvin above the tropopause, which gives a speed of sound of 295.07 metres per second. U.S. Standard Atmosphere 1976 1976

\[T = 288.15 - 0.0065 \times 11{,}000 = 216.65 \ \text{K} \qquad a = \sqrt{\gamma R T} = 295.07 \ \text{m/s} \tag{9}\]

Equation 10, Bespoke Cruise Speed. The cruise speed takes a Mach number of 0.75 at forty thousand feet, a cruise condition the article assumes.

\[V = M a = 0.75 \times 295.07 = 221.30 \ \text{m/s} = 430.2 \ \text{kn} \tag{10}\]

Equation 11, Bespoke Segment Weight Ratios. The Breguet relations give the segment ratios for a radius of 650 nautical miles and twelve hours on station with an assumed cruise lift to drag ratio of 16, loiter value of 18 and specific fuel consumption of 0.80 and 0.75 per hour.

\[\frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \bigg|_{\text{out}} = 0.9272 \qquad \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \bigg|_{\text{loiter}} = 0.6065 \qquad \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \bigg|_{\text{back}} = 0.9272 \tag{11}\]

Equation 12, Bespoke Mission Fuel Fraction. The fuel fraction is one less the product of the segment ratios plus a reserve of five percent of gross weight that the article assumes, giving 0.5285.

\[\zeta_{\text{fuel}} = 1 - \prod_{i} \frac{W_{i+1}}{W_{i}} + 0.05 = 1 - 0.9272 \times 0.6065 \times 0.9272 + 0.05 = 0.5285 \tag{12}\]

Equation 13, Bespoke Fuel Fraction of the Two Cruise Legs. The fuel burned outbound and back under the assumed cruise values is 14.0 percent of the takeoff weight.

\[\zeta_{\text{cruise}} = 1 - \left( \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \right)_{\text{out}} \left( \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \right)_{\text{back}} = 0.1402 \tag{13}\]

Equation 14, Bespoke Fuel Fraction of the Loiter. The loiter is charged against the weight that remains after the outbound leg, so under the assumed loiter values it costs 33.8 percent of the takeoff weight.

\[\zeta_{\text{loiter}} = \left( \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \right)_{\text{out}} \left( \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \right)_{\text{back}} \left[ 1 - \left( \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \right)_{\text{loiter}} \right] = 0.3383 \tag{14}\]

Equation 15, Closure of the Weight Fractions. The empty, payload and fuel fractions of the gross weight sum to one.

\[\zeta_{\text{empty}} + \zeta_{\text{payload}} + \zeta_{\text{fuel}} = 1 \tag{15}\]

Equation 16, Bespoke Empty-Weight Fraction the Requirement Demands. Closing the weight fractions with the inherited payload fraction and the assumed mission fuel fraction gives a demanded empty-weight fraction of 0.3485.

\[\zeta_{\text{empty}} = 1 - 0.12293 - 0.5285 = 0.3485 \tag{16}\]

Equation 17, Bespoke Gap to the Lightest Carrier Aircraft. The empty-weight fraction is the published empty weight over the published maximum weight, and the lightest of the three carrier aircraft exceeds the demanded fraction by 0.0925. Grumman A-6 Intruder Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet Lockheed S-3 Viking

\[\zeta_{\text{empty}} = \frac{W_{\text{empty}}}{W_{\max}} \qquad 0.441 - 0.3485 = 0.0925 \tag{17}\]

Equation 18, Bespoke Payload Fraction and Gross Mass of a Separate Mission. Each mission reading assumes an empty-weight fraction of 0.42, so the payload fraction is what remains after the fuel and the gross mass follows from the four thousand pound payload.

\[\zeta_{\text{payload}} = 1 - 0.42 - \zeta_{\text{fuel}} \qquad m_{\text{gross}} = \frac{4{,}000}{\zeta_{\text{payload}}} \tag{18}\]

Equation 19, Bespoke Fuel Fraction of the Strike Reading. A radius of 650 nautical miles out and back with no loiter, under the assumed cruise values and five percent reserve, needs a fuel fraction of 0.190.

\[\zeta_{\text{fuel}}^{\text{strike}} = 1 - (0.9272)^{2} + 0.05 = 0.190 \tag{19}\]

Equation 20, Bespoke Fuel Fraction of the Station Reading. Twelve hours on station with no transit, under the assumed loiter values and five percent reserve, needs a fuel fraction of 0.443.

\[\zeta_{\text{fuel}}^{\text{station}} = 1 - 0.6065 + 0.05 = 0.443 \tag{20}\]

Equation 21, Bespoke Fuel Fraction of the Combined Reading. The full profile of transit, twelve hours on station and return, under the assumed values and five percent reserve, needs a fuel fraction of 0.529.

\[\zeta_{\text{fuel}}^{\text{both}} = 1 - (0.9272)^{2} (0.6065) + 0.05 = 0.529 \tag{21}\]

Equation 22, Bespoke Strike Payload Fraction Against the Family Constant. The payload fraction of 0.390 that the strike reading leaves at an assumed empty-weight fraction of 0.42 is 3.17 times the inherited payload fraction.

\[\frac{0.390}{0.12293} = 3.17 \tag{22}\]

Equation 23, Bespoke End-of-Mission Fraction and Required Loiter Ratio. The weight left at the end of the mission is the empty and payload fractions together, and dividing it by the two cruise ratios gives the loiter ratio the mission permits, a closure that carries no fuel reserve.

\[\zeta_{\text{end}} = \zeta_{\text{empty}} + \zeta_{\text{payload}} = 1 - \zeta_{\text{fuel}} \qquad \left( \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \right)_{\text{loiter}} = \frac{\zeta_{\text{end}}}{(W_{1}/W_{0})_{\text{out}} (W_{1}/W_{0})_{\text{back}}} \tag{23}\]

Equation 24, Bespoke Loiter Time at the Inherited Payload Fraction. Inverting the endurance relation gives the time on station at the full radius for an assumed empty-weight fraction, with the inherited payload fraction and no fuel reserve.

\[E = \frac{L/D}{c} \, \ln \frac{(W_{1}/W_{0})_{\text{out}} (W_{1}/W_{0})_{\text{back}}}{\zeta_{\text{end}}} \tag{24}\]

Equation 25, Bespoke Sensitivity of Loiter Time to Empty-Weight Fraction. Differentiating the loiter relation at an assumed loiter lift to drag ratio of 18, specific fuel consumption of 0.75 per hour and empty-weight fraction of 0.42 gives a loss of 44.2 hours per unit of empty-weight fraction.

\[\frac{\partial E}{\partial \zeta_{\text{empty}}} = - \frac{L/D}{c} \, \frac{1}{\zeta_{\text{end}}} = -44.2 \ \text{hours per unit} \tag{25}\]

Equation 26, Bespoke Empty-Weight Fraction for Twelve Hours on Station. Solving the loiter relation for twelve hours under the assumed loiter values and with no fuel reserve gives an empty-weight fraction of 0.3985.

\[\zeta_{\text{empty}} = 0.3985 \quad \text{for} \quad E = 12 \ \text{hours} \tag{26}\]

Equation 27, Bespoke Demanded Empty-Weight Fraction as a Function of the Loiter Values. The demanded empty-weight fraction is written in closed form in the loiter lift to drag ratio and specific fuel consumption, holding the inherited payload fraction, the assumed cruise ratios and the five percent reserve.

\[\zeta_{\text{empty}} (L/D, c) = 1 - \overline{PF} - \left[ 1 - \left( \frac{W_{1}}{W_{0}} \right)_{\text{out}}^{2} \exp \left( - \frac{E c}{L/D} \right) + 0.05 \right] \tag{27}\]

Equation 28, Approach Speed and Wing Loading. The lift equation at the maximum lift coefficient turns an approach speed limit into a wing loading limit.

\[V_{\text{app}} = \sqrt{\frac{2 (W/S)}{\rho \, C_{L,\max}}} \qquad \Longrightarrow \qquad \frac{W}{S} = \tfrac{1}{2} \rho V_{\text{app}}^{2} C_{L,\max} \tag{28}\]

Equation 29, Wing Area and Span from Wing Loading and Aspect Ratio. The wing loading fixes the area and the aspect ratio turns the area into a span. Raymer, Aircraft design, a conceptual approach Nicolai and Carichner, Fundamentals of aircraft and airship design

\[S = \frac{W}{(W/S)} \qquad A\!R = \frac{b^{2}}{S} \qquad \Longrightarrow \qquad b = \sqrt{A\!R \cdot S} \tag{29}\]

Equation 30, Bespoke Span Agreement with the X-45C. The span computed for an approach of 130 knots, a maximum lift coefficient of 1.2 and an aspect ratio of 5, three values the article chooses, differs from the published X-45C span by 0.43 percent. Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles

\[\frac{\left| 48.68 - 48.89 \right|}{48.89} = 0.0043 \tag{30}\]

Equation 31, Bespoke Carrier Suitability Penalty. The article defines the deck penalty as the mass of tailhook, landing gear, structural change and approach avionics as a fraction of gross mass, none of which is published. Boeing to develop new X-45C UCAV for Air Force and Navy demonstrations

\[\Delta_{\text{deck}} = \frac{m_{\text{hook}} + m_{\text{gear}} + m_{\text{structure}} + m_{\text{avionics}}}{m_{\text{gross}}} \tag{31}\]

Equation 32, Installed Thrust from Thrust to Weight Ratio. The installed thrust is the thrust to weight ratio times the gross weight. Raymer, Aircraft design, a conceptual approach Nicolai and Carichner, Fundamentals of aircraft and airship design

\[T = \left( \frac{T}{W} \right) W_{\text{gross}} \tag{32}\]

Equation 33, Fan-Out Relation. The number of vehicles one operator can hold is one plus the ratio of neglect time to interaction time. X-45

\[FO = \frac{NT + IT}{IT} = 1 + \frac{NT}{IT} \tag{33}\]

Equation 34, Bespoke Fan-Out with Link Latency. The article adds twice the link delay to every interaction, so that latency lengthens the interaction without lengthening the neglect.

\[FO = \frac{NT + IT_{0} + 2\tau}{IT_{0} + 2\tau} \tag{34}\]

Equation 35, Payload Margin of the X-45C over the Requirement. The published internal payload of 2,040 kilograms, or 4,497 pounds, exceeds the four thousand pound requirement by 12.4 percent. Parsch, Boeing X-45 and X-46, Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles Chronicle of the Salty Dogs, Center for the Study of the Drone

\[\frac{4{,}497}{4{,}000} - 1 = 0.124 \tag{35}\]

Equation 36, Fuel Flow at Constant Lift to Drag Ratio. The rate of weight loss is the specific fuel consumption times the thrust, which in level flight is the weight over the lift to drag ratio. Anderson, Aircraft performance and design Torenbeek, Synthesis of subsonic airplane design

\[\frac{dW}{dt} = - c \, T = - c \, \frac{W}{L/D} \tag{36}\]

Equation 37, Endurance as an Integral over Weight. The endurance is the integral of lift to drag ratio over specific fuel consumption times weight, which reduces to the Breguet form when both are constant. Anderson, Aircraft performance and design Torenbeek, Synthesis of subsonic airplane design

\[E = \int_{W_{1}}^{W_{0}} \frac{L/D}{c \, W} \, dW \tag{37}\]

Notation

• $\zeta_{\text{empty}}$, the empty weight as a fraction of gross weight, with $\zeta_{\text{payload}}$ and $\zeta_{\text{fuel}}$ the payload and fuel fractions
• $\zeta_{\text{ref}}$, the empty-weight fraction that manned carrier aircraft achieve
• $\zeta_{\text{req}}$, the empty-weight fraction the requirement targets
• $\Delta_{\text{deck}}$, the weight that carrier suitability adds, as a fraction of gross weight
• $\Delta_{\text{crew}}$, the weight that removing the crew saves, as a fraction of gross weight
• $\overline{PF}$, the mean payload fraction of the X-45A and X-45C
• $\zeta_{\text{end}}$, the weight remaining at the end of the mission as a fraction of gross weight
• $W_{0}$, the weight at the start of a segment, with $W_{1}$ the weight at its end
• $L/D$, the lift to drag ratio
• $c$, the specific fuel consumption, per hour
• $E$, the endurance, the time on station
• $V$, the true airspeed
• $M$, the Mach number
• $a$, the speed of sound
• $\gamma$, the ratio of specific heats, taken as 1.4 for air
• $V_{\text{app}}$, the approach speed
• $C_{L,\max}$, the maximum lift coefficient
• $\rho$, the air density
• $W/S$, the wing loading
• $A!R$, the wing aspect ratio
• $b$, the wing span
• $FO$, the fan-out, the number of vehicles one operator can supervise
• $NT$, the neglect time, how long a vehicle can be left alone before it needs attention
• $IT$, the interaction time, with $IT_{0}$ its value without link delay
• $\tau$, the link delay

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